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Lagunas N, Fernández-García JM, Blanco N, Ballesta A, Carrillo B, Arevalo MA, Collado P, Pinos H, Grassi D. Organizational Effects of Estrogens and Androgens on Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Expression in Pituitary and Adrenal Glands in Adult Male and Female Rats. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:902218. [PMID: 35815333 PMCID: PMC9261283 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.902218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, are known to exert organizational action at perinatal periods and activational effects during adulthood on the brain and peripheral tissues. These organizational effects are essential for the establishment of biological axes responsible for regulating behaviors, such as reproduction, stress, and emotional responses. Estradiol (E2), testosterone, and their metabolites exert their biological action through genomic and non-genomic mechanisms, bounding to canonical receptors, such as estrogen receptor (ER)α, ERβ, and androgen receptor (AR) or membrane receptors, such as the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), respectively. Expression of ERs and AR was found to be different between males and females both in the brain and peripheral tissues, suggesting a sex-dependent regulation of their expression and function. Therefore, studying the ERs and AR distribution and expression levels is key to understand the central and peripheral role of sex steroids in the establishment of sex-specific behaviors in males and females. We investigated the organizational effects of estrogens and androgens in the pituitary and adrenal glands of adult male and female rats. For this, selective blockade of AR with flutamide or 5α-reductase with finasteride or aromatase with letrozole during the first 5 days of life has been performed in male and female pups and then quantification of ERs and AR expression in both glands has been carried out in adulthood. Data show that inhibition of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and E2 production during the first five postnatal days mainly decreases the ER expression in male to female values and AR expression in female to male levels in the pituitary gland and increases AR expression in female to male levels in the adrenal gland. In contrast, blocking the action of androgens differentially modulates the ERs in males and females and decreases AR in both males and females in both glands. Altogether, the results suggest that neonatal modifications of the androgen and estrogen pathways can potentially lead to permanent modifications of the neuroendocrine functions of the pituitary and adrenal glands in the adulthood of both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Lagunas
- Department of Legal Medicine, Psychiatry and Pathology, School of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Manuel Fernández-García
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Psychology, Universidad Villanueva, Madrid, Spain
| | - Noemí Blanco
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Ballesta
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Biomedical Science and Health, European University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Carrillo
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- University Institute of Research-UNED-Institute of Health Carlos III (IMIENS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria-Angeles Arevalo
- Neuroactive Steroids Lab, Cajal Institute, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Paloma Collado
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- University Institute of Research-UNED-Institute of Health Carlos III (IMIENS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Helena Pinos
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- University Institute of Research-UNED-Institute of Health Carlos III (IMIENS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniela Grassi
- Department of Psychobiology, National University of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain
- Neuroactive Steroids Lab, Cajal Institute, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Neuroscience, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: Daniela Grassi
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Romeo RD, Sciortino RK. Age-dependent changes in hormonal stress reactivity following repeated restraint stress throughout adolescence in male rats. Stress 2021; 24:496-503. [PMID: 33587012 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2021.1873945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress-related psychological dysfunctions show a marked increase during adolescence, yet the mechanisms that mediate these vulnerabilities are unknown. Notably, however, adolescence is associated with changes in hormonal stress reactivity mediated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which might contribute to these dysfunctions. Specifically, pre-adolescent animals display prolonged stress-induced HPA responses compared to adults. Previous experience with stressors further modify these changes in stress reactivity, such that repeated exposure to the same stressor results in an augmented HPA response prior to adolescence, but a habituated response in adulthood. It is unclear when during adolescence the habituated, adult-like response develops to a repeated stressor. Using male rats at various ages that span adolescence (30-70 days of age), we show that by mid-adolescence (i.e. 42 days of age), animals show neither a facilitated nor a habituated HPA hormonal response following four days of repeated restraint stress (4RS) compared to a single restraint session (1RS). We also show that the habituated HPA response to 4RS develops between late-adolescence and young adulthood (i.e. between 56 and 70 days of age, respectively). Further, we find age- and experience-dependent changes in progesterone and testosterone secretion, indicating that the interaction between development and experience affects stress-induced hormonal responses outside of canonical HPA-related hormones. Despite these hormonal differences mediated by age and experience, repeated restraint stress resulted in decreased fecal boli production at all four ages, suggesting dissociation between hormonal and autonomic reactivity during adolescence. These data indicate that HPA plasticity is significantly affected by adolescence and that a habituated hormonal response to homotypic stress does not occur until young adulthood. A greater appreciation of these changes in stress reactivity will contribute to our understanding of the psychological vulnerabilities often associated with stressful adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell D Romeo
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rose K Sciortino
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Rolon S, Huynh C, Guenther M, Gardezi M, Phillips J, Gehrand AL, Raff H. The effects of flutamide on the neonatal rat hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and gonadal axes in response to hypoxia. Physiol Rep 2019; 7:e14318. [PMID: 31876126 PMCID: PMC6930936 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia is common with preterm birth and may lead to long-term effects on the adult hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that are sexually dimorphic due to neonatal androgens. Although the adult rat adrenal does not express appreciable CYP17 activity, the neonatal rat adrenal may synthesize androgens that could be a critical local factor in the development of adrenal function. We evaluated these phenomena by pretreating the neonatal rats on postnatal days (PD) 1, 6, 13, 20 with flutamide (a nonsteroidal androgen receptor antagonist) at a standard or a high dose (10 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg) compared to vehicle control. One day later, neonatal rats were exposed to acute hypoxia and blood was sampled. We found that (a) in PD2 pups, flutamide augmented corticosterone responses in a sexually dimorphic pattern and without an increase in ACTH, (b) PD7 and PD14 pups had the smallest corticosterone response to hypoxia (c) PD21 pups had an adult-like corticosterone response to hypoxia that was sexually dimorphic, (d) flutamide attenuated ACTH responses in PD7 hypoxic pups, and (e) high-dose flutamide suppressed the HPA axis, FSH, and estradiol. Flutamide demonstrated mixed antagonist and agonist effects that changed during the first three weeks of neonatal life. We conclude that the use of flutamide in neonatal rats to evaluate androgen-induced programming of subsequent adult behavior is not optimal. However, our studies suggest neonatal androgens play a role in regulation of adrenal function that is sexually dimorphic and changes during early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Rolon
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
- Department of MedicineMedical College of WisconsinMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Christine Huynh
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Maya Guenther
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Minhal Gardezi
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Jonathan Phillips
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Ashley L. Gehrand
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
| | - Hershel Raff
- Endocrine Research LaboratoryAurora St. Luke’s Medical CenterAurora Research InstituteMilwaukeeWisconsin
- Department of MedicineMedical College of WisconsinMilwaukeeWisconsin
- Department of SurgeryMedical College of WisconsinMilwaukeeWisconsin
- Department of PhysiologyMedical College of WisconsinMilwaukeeWisconsin
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Walther A, Breidenstein J, Bösch M, Sefidan S, Ehlert U, Annen H, Wyss T, La Marca R. Associations between digit ratio (2D4D), mood, and autonomic stress response in healthy men. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13328. [PMID: 30623451 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The ratio between the length of the second (index) and the fourth (ring) finger (2D4D) is a putative biomarker of prenatal testosterone (T) exposure, with higher exposure leading to a smaller ratio. 2D4D has further been linked to mental and somatic disorders. Healthy male Swiss recruits (N = 245; Mage = 20.30 years) underwent a psychosocial stress test. Mood and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) were assessed before and after the stress test, while heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) were measured continuously. Additionally, 2D4D (right: R2D4D; left: L2D4D) was determined and divided into quartile groups. Correlation analysis showed no associations between R/L2D4D and outcome measures. Comparing calculated quartiles for R2D4D, subjects in the lowest R2D4D quartile expressed trendwise (p < 0.10) lower positive and higher negative affect, significantly elevated sAA activity (p < 0.05), but no HR and HRV differences at baseline as compared to subjects in the upper three quartiles. With regard to acute stress, subjects in the lowest as compared to subjects in the upper three R2D4D quartiles showed a higher increase of negative affect and a stronger cardiac response (p < 0.05), but no alterations in positive affect and sAA activity. Young healthy men in the lowest R2D4D quartile revealed a more negative affect and increased physiological activity at baseline and in response to acute stress. An exposure to high levels of prenatal T might constitute a risk factor potentially increasing vulnerability to stress-related disorders in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Walther
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Biopsychology, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - J Breidenstein
- Department of Biopsychology, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - M Bösch
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Military Academy, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - S Sefidan
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Military Academy, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - U Ehlert
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - H Annen
- Military Academy, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - T Wyss
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen (SFISM), Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - R La Marca
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Heck AL, Handa RJ. Sex differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis' response to stress: an important role for gonadal hormones. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:45-58. [PMID: 30111811 PMCID: PMC6235871 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-018-0167-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a neuroendocrine network that controls hormonal responses to internal and external challenges in an organism's environment, exhibits strikingly sex-biased activity. In adult female rodents, acute HPA function following a stressor is markedly greater than it is in males, and this difference has largely been attributed to modulation by the gonadal hormones testosterone and estradiol. These gonadal hormones are produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and have been shown to determine sex differences in adult HPA function after acute stress via their activational and organizational effects. Although these actions of gonadal hormones are well supported, the possibility that sex chromosomes similarly influence HPA activity is unexplored. Moreover, questions remain regarding sex differences in the activity of the HPA axis following chronic stress and the underlying contributions of gonadal hormones and sex chromosomes. The present review examines what is currently known about sex differences in the neuroendocrine response to stress, as well as outstanding questions regarding this sex bias. Although it primarily focuses on the rodent literature, a brief discussion of sex differences in the human HPA axis is also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L. Heck
- 0000 0004 1936 8083grid.47894.36Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Robert J. Handa
- 0000 0004 1936 8083grid.47894.36Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
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Mhaouty-Kodja S. Role of the androgen receptor in the central nervous system. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 465:103-112. [PMID: 28826929 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The involvement of gonadal androgens in functions of the central nervous system was suggested for the first time about half a century ago. Since then, the number of functions attributed to androgens has steadily increased, ranging from regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and reproductive behaviors to modulation of cognition, anxiety and other non-reproductive functions. This review focuses on the implication of the neural androgen receptor in these androgen-sensitive functions and behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakina Mhaouty-Kodja
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Neuroscience Paris Seine - Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, 7 Quai St Bernard, 75005 Paris, France.
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Fedotova J, Hritcu L. Testosterone promotes anxiolytic-like behavior in gonadectomized male rats via blockade of the 5-HT 1A receptors. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 254:14-21. [PMID: 28919453 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to examine an anxiety-like behavior in the adult gonadectomized (GDX) male rats subjected to testosterone propionate (TP) treatment alone or in combination with 8-OH-DPAT, a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, or with NAN-190, 5-HT1A receptor antagonist. Two weeks after gonadectomy, GDX rats were subjected by treatments with the solvent, TP (0.5mg/kg, s.c.), 8-OH-DPAT (0.05mg/kg, s.c.), NAN-190 (0.1mg/kg, i.p.), TP in combination with 8-OH-DPAT or NAN-190 during 14days. Anxiety behavior was assessed in the elevated plus maze (EPM) and the open field test (OFT). 8-OH-DPAT treatment failed to modify the anxiety-like behavior of GDX rats in the EPM as compared to the GDX rats given with oil solvent. NAN-190 injected alone or in combination with TP to GDX rats resulted in a significant anxiolytic-like effect as compared to the GDX given with oil solvent or TP application. Our data indicate that the combination of NAN-190 and TP is more effective than TP alone in GDX rats inducing a more profound anxiolytic-like effect in the EPM. Thus, the results of this study suggest that effects of 5-HT1A receptor agonist/antagonist can modify anxiety level in opposite direction in male rats after gonadectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Fedotova
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, I.P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 6 Emb. Makarova, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia; Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, ITMO University, 49 Kronverksky pr., St. Petersburg 197101, Russia
| | - Lucian Hritcu
- Department of Biology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Bd. Carol I, No. 11, 700506, Romania.
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Wu JL, He Y, Hrubý R, Balesar R, Qi YJ, Guo L, Ren Z, Zhu QB, Huang ML, Swaab DF, Bao AM. Aromatase changes in depression: A postmortem and animal experimental study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 77:56-62. [PMID: 28024269 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A hyperactive hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a prominent feature in depression. It has been shown that androgens inhibit HPA activity and that estrogens stimulate it. We have therefore investigated, in human postmortem hypothalamus, whether depression features an increase in aromatase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme for the conversion of androgens to estrogens. In addition, we have tested the effect of an aromatase inhibitor on depression-like symptoms in a frequently used animal model for depression. At first, aromatase immunoreactivity (ir) was quantified in the central part of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of 10 major depressive disorder (MDD) patients and 10 well-matched control subjects. Subsequently an animal experimental study was performed using the chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) rats as depression model. The effect of administration of 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD), an aromatase inhibitor, was investigated by silastic capsule implantation. In the postmortem study, the amount of PVN aromatase-ir decreased significantly in the MDD group compared to the controls (P=0.029). In the animal study, ATD was found to cause significantly increased testosterone (T) levels, both in plasma and in the hypothalamus. However, ATD administration did not show significant effects on the depression-like behaviors or plasma corticosterone levels in CUMS rats. Based on our observations in human postmortem material and the animal experiment, we have to conclude that alterations in aromatase in adulthood do not seem to play a major role in the pathogenesis of the symptoms of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Li Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yang He
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Radovan Hrubý
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rawien Balesar
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yang-Jian Qi
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lei Guo
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhong Ren
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiong-Bin Zhu
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Man-Li Huang
- Department of Mental Health, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Health Disorders, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Dick F Swaab
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China; Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ai-Min Bao
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Ministry of Health of China, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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Schore AN. ALL OUR SONS: THE DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROBIOLOGY AND NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY OF BOYS AT RISK. Infant Ment Health J 2017; 38:15-52. [PMID: 28042663 DOI: 10.1002/imhj.21616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Why are boys at risk? To address this question, I use the perspective of regulation theory to offer a model of the deeper psychoneurobiological mechanisms that underlie the vulnerability of the developing male. The central thesis of this work dictates that significant gender differences are seen between male and female social and emotional functions in the earliest stages of development, and that these result from not only differences in sex hormones and social experiences but also in rates of male and female brain maturation, specifically in the early developing right brain. I present interdisciplinary research which indicates that the stress-regulating circuits of the male brain mature more slowly than those of the female in the prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal critical periods, and that this differential structural maturation is reflected in normal gender differences in right-brain attachment functions. Due to this maturational delay, developing males also are more vulnerable over a longer period of time to stressors in the social environment (attachment trauma) and toxins in the physical environment (endocrine disruptors) that negatively impact right-brain development. In terms of differences in gender-related psychopathology, I describe the early developmental neuroendocrinological and neurobiological mechanisms that are involved in the increased vulnerability of males to autism, early onset schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorders as well as the epigenetic mechanisms that can account for the recent widespread increase of these disorders in U.S. culture. I also offer a clinical formulation of early assessments of boys at risk, discuss the impact of early childcare on male psychopathogenesis, and end with a neurobiological model of optimal adult male socioemotional functions.
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Abstract
In this review, nonassociative learning is advanced as an organizing principle to draw together findings from both sympathetic-adrenal medullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis responses to chronic intermittent exposure to a variety of stressors. Studies of habituation, facilitation and sensitization of stress effector systems are reviewed and linked to an animal's prior experience with a given stressor, the intensity of the stressor and the appraisal by the animal of its ability to mobilize physiological systems to adapt to the stressor. Brain pathways that regulate physiological and behavioral responses to stress are discussed, especially in light of their regulation of nonassociative processes in chronic intermittent stress. These findings may have special relevance to various psychiatric diseases, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard McCarty
- a Department of Psychology , Vanderbilt University , Nashville , TN , USA
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Goel N, Workman JL, Lee TT, Innala L, Viau V. Sex differences in the HPA axis. Compr Physiol 2015; 4:1121-55. [PMID: 24944032 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c130054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a major component of the systems that respond to stress, by coordinating the neuroendocrine and autonomic responses. Tightly controlled regulation of HPA responses is critical for maintaining mental and physical health, as hyper- and hypo-activity have been linked to disease states. A long history of research has revealed sex differences in numerous components of the HPA stress system and its responses, which may partially form the basis for sex disparities in disease development. Despite this, many studies use male subjects exclusively, while fewer reports involve females or provide direct sex comparisons. The purpose of this article is to present sex comparisons in the functional and molecular aspects of the HPA axis, through various phases of activity, including basal, acute stress, and chronic stress conditions. The HPA axis in females initiates more rapidly and produces a greater output of stress hormones. This review focuses on the interactions between the gonadal hormone system and the HPA axis as the key mediators of these sex differences, whereby androgens increase and estrogens decrease HPA activity in adulthood. In addition to the effects of gonadal hormones on the adult response, morphological impacts of hormone exposure during development are also involved in mediating sex differences. Additional systems impinging on the HPA axis that contribute to sex differences include the monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin. Diverse signals originating from the brain and periphery are integrated to determine the level of HPA axis activity, and these signals are, in many cases, sex-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirupa Goel
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Kelly B, Maguire-Herring V, Rose CM, Gore HE, Ferrigno S, Novak MA, Lacreuse A. Short-term testosterone manipulations do not affect cognition or motor function but differentially modulate emotions in young and older male rhesus monkeys. Horm Behav 2014; 66:731-42. [PMID: 25308086 PMCID: PMC4262694 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human aging is characterized by declines in cognition and fine motor function as well as improved emotional regulation. In men, declining levels of testosterone (T) with age have been implicated in the development of these age-related changes. However, studies examining the effects of T replacement on cognition, emotion and fine motor function in older men have not provided consistent results. Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) are excellent models for human cognitive aging and may provide novel insights on this issue. We tested 10 aged intact male rhesus monkeys (mean age=19, range 15-25) on a battery of cognitive, motor and emotional tasks at baseline and under low or high T experimental conditions. Their performance was compared to that of 6 young males previously tested in the same paradigm (Lacreuse et al., 2009; Lacreuse et al., 2010). Following a 4-week baseline testing period, monkeys were treated with a gonadotropin releasing hormone agonist (Depot Lupron, 200 μg/kg) to suppress endogenous T and were tested on the task battery under a 4-week high T condition (injection of Lupron+T enanthate, 20 mg/kg, n=8) or 4-week low T condition (injection of Lupron+oil vehicle, n=8) before crossing over to the opposite treatment. The cognitive tasks consisted of the Delayed Non-Matching-to-Sample (DNMS), the Delayed Response (DR), and the Delayed Recognition Span Test (spatial-DRST). The emotional tasks included an object Approach-Avoidance task and a task in which monkeys were played videos of unfamiliar conspecifics in different emotional context (Social Playbacks). The fine motor task was the Lifesaver task that required monkeys to remove a Lifesaver candy from rods of different complexity. T manipulations did not significantly affect visual recognition memory, working memory, reference memory or fine motor function at any age. In the Approach-Avoidance task, older monkeys, but not younger monkeys, spent more time in proximity of novel objects in the high T condition relative to the low T condition. In both age groups, high T increased watching time of threatening social stimuli in the Social Playbacks. These results suggest that T affects some aspects of emotional processing but has no effect on fine motor function or cognition in young or older male macaques. It is possible that the duration of T treatment was not long enough to affect cognition or fine motor function or that T levels were too high to improve these outcomes. An alternative explanation for the discrepancies of our findings with some of the cognitive and emotional effects of T reported in rodents and humans may be the use of a chemical castration, which reduced circulating gonadotropins in addition to T. Further studies will investigate whether the luteinizing hormone LH mediates the effects of T on brain function in male primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Kelly
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA 01772, USA; Behavioral Sciences, Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg MA 01420, USA
| | | | - Christian M Rose
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Heather E Gore
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Stephen Ferrigno
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; Harvard Medical School, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, MA 01772, USA
| | - Agnès Lacreuse
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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13
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Hildebrandt T, Shope S, Varangis E, Klein D, Pfaff DW, Yehuda R. Exercise reinforcement, stress, and β-endorphins: an initial examination of exercise in anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139:86-92. [PMID: 24690349 PMCID: PMC4039319 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are abused primarily in the context of intense exercise and for the purposes of increasing muscle mass as opposed to drug-induced euphoria. AASs also modulate the HPA axis and may increase the reinforcing value of exercise through changes to stress hormone and endorphin release. To test this hypothesis, 26 adult males drawn from a larger study on AAS use completed a progressive ratio task designed to examine the reinforcing value of exercise relative to financial reinforcer. METHOD Sixteen experienced and current users (8 on-cycle, 8 off-cycle) and 10 controls matched on quantity×frequency of exercise, age, and education abstained from exercise for 24 h prior to testing and provided 24-h cortisol, plasma cortisol, ACTH, β-endorphin samples, and measures of mood, compulsive exercise, and body image. RESULTS Between group differences indicated that on-cycle AAS users had the highest β-endorphin levels, lowest cortisol levels, higher ACTH levels than controls. Conversely, off-cycle AAS users had the highest cortisol and ACTH levels, but the lowest β-endorphin levels. Exercise value was positively correlated with β-endorphin and symptoms of AAS dependence. CONCLUSION The HPA response to AASs may explain why AASs are reinforcing in humans and exercise may play a key role in the development of AAS dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Hildebrandt
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Sydney Shope
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Eleanna Varangis
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Diane Klein
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University, New York, NY
| | | | - Rachel Yehuda
- Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY,James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, New York
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MacKay JC, James JS, Cayer C, Kent P, Anisman H, Merali Z. Protracted effects of juvenile stressor exposure are mitigated by access to palatable food. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96573. [PMID: 24801635 PMCID: PMC4011852 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Stressor experiences during the juvenile period may increase vulnerability to anxiety and depressive-like symptoms in adulthood. Stressors may also promote palatable feeding, possibly reflecting a form of self-medication. The current study investigated the short- and long-term consequences of a stressor applied during the juvenile period on anxiety- and depressive-like behavior measured by the elevated plus maze (EPM), social interaction and forced swim test (FST). Furthermore, the effects of stress on caloric intake, preference for a palatable food and indices of metabolic syndrome and obesity were assessed. Male Wistar rats exposed to 3 consecutive days of variable stressors on postnatal days (PD) 27–29, displayed elevated anxiety-like behaviors as adults, which could be attenuated by consumption of a palatable high-fat diet. However, consumption of a palatable food in response to a stressor appeared to contribute to increased adiposity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Christine MacKay
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathan Stewart James
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christian Cayer
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Pamela Kent
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hymie Anisman
- Institute of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zul Merali
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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15
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Suarez-Jimenez B, Gore HE, Hachey J, King HM, Lacreuse A. Testosterone modulation of anxiety in gonadally-suppressed male rhesus monkeys: a role for gonadotropins? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 104:97-104. [PMID: 23333155 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Revised: 01/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone (T) has repeatedly been shown to have anxiolytic properties in rodents, but findings in primates are more mixed. To examine the effects of exogenous T on anxiety, we tested pharmacologically-castrated adult male rhesus monkeys in a modified version of the Human Intruder Paradigm, which measured defensive responses to an unfamiliar human staring directly at them for 2 min. Monkeys were tested at 2 week intervals during 4 experimental conditions lasting 4 weeks each: at baseline, during treatment with the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist leuprolide acetate (200 μg/kg; Lupron phase), during treatment with Lupron+T enanthate (TE, 5 mg/kg; TE phase) and during treatment with Lupron+oil vehicle (oil phase). We found that the number of anxious behaviors was lower during periods of low T (Lupron only and Lupron+oil phases) than during the Lupron+TE phase. No change in pacing or watching behavior was observed. Thus, in contrast to rodent data, we found no evidence for anxiolytic properties of T in male rhesus monkeys. Rather, T supplementation restored baseline levels of anxiety in Lupron-treated monkeys. These discrepant findings may be best explained by the low levels of gonadotropins achieved by the GnRH agonist. We suggest that Lupron-induced luteinizing hormone (LH) suppression reduced anxiety and that this effect was abolished by T administration. This interpretation is consistent with the view that T increases emotional reactivity to a potential threat and facilitates adaptive arousal response in face of immediate social challenge.
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Bingham B, Wang NXR, Innala L, Viau V. Postnatal aromatase blockade increases c-fos mRNA responses to acute restraint stress in adult male rats. Endocrinology 2012; 153:1603-8. [PMID: 22315450 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that the aromatization of testosterone to estrogen is important for the organizing effects of neonatal testosterone on neuroendocrine responses to acute challenges. However, the extent to which neonatal inhibition of aromatase alters the stress-induced activation of neural pathways has not been examined. Here we assessed central patterns of c-fos mRNA induced by 30 min of restraint in 65-d-old adult male rats that were implanted with sc capsules of the aromatase inhibitor 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD), introduced within 12 h of birth and removed on d 21 of weaning. Neonatal ATD decreased the expression of arginine vasopressin within extrahypothalamic regions in adults, confirming reduced estrogen exposure during development. As adults, ATD-treated animals showed higher corticosterone responses at 30 min of restraint exposure compared with control animals as well as higher c-fos expression levels in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. ATD treatment also increased stress-induced c-fos within several limbic regions of the forebrain, in addition to areas involved in somatosensory processing. Based on these results, we propose that the conversion of testosterone to estrogen during the neonatal period exerts marked, system-wide effects to organize adult neuroendocrine responses to homeostatic threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Bingham
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Life Sciences Centre, The University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
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17β-Estradiol is required for the sexually dimorphic effects of repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure on the HPA axis during adolescence. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32263. [PMID: 22384198 PMCID: PMC3284554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol consumption during adolescence has long-term sexually dimorphic effects on anxiety behavior and mood disorders. We have previously shown that repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure increased the expression of two critical central regulators of stress and anxiety, corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), in adolescent male rats. By contrast, there was no effect of alcohol on these same genes in adolescent females. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that 17β-estradiol (E2), the predominant sex steroid hormone in females, prevents alcohol-induced changes in CRH and AVP gene expression in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. To test this hypothesis, postnatal day (PND) 26 females were ovariectomized and given E2 replacement or cholesterol as a control. Next, they were given an alcohol exposure paradigm of 1) saline alone, 2) acute (single dose) or 3) a repeated binge-pattern. Our results showed that acute and repeated binge-pattern alcohol treatment increased plasma ACTH and CORT levels in both E2- and Ch-treated groups, however habituation to repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure was evident only in E2-treated animals. Further, repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure significantly decreased CRH and AVP mRNA in Ch-, but not E2-treated animals, which was consistent with our previous observations in gonad intact females. We further tested the effects of E2 and alcohol treatment on the activity of the wild type CRH promoter in a PVN-derived neuronal cell line. Alcohol increased CRH promoter activity in these cells and concomitant treatment with E2 completely abolished the effect. Together our data suggest that E2 regulates the reactivity of the HPA axis to a repeated stressor through modulation of the habituation response and further serves to maintain normal steady state mRNA levels of CRH and AVP in the PVN in response to a repeated alcohol stressor.
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Cunningham RL, Lumia AR, McGinnis MY. Androgen receptors, sex behavior, and aggression. Neuroendocrinology 2012; 96:131-40. [PMID: 22414851 PMCID: PMC3474193 DOI: 10.1159/000337663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are intricately involved in reproductive and aggressive behaviors, but the role of the androgen receptor in mediating these behaviors is less defined. Further, activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis can influence each other at the level of the androgen receptor. Knowledge of the mechanisms for androgens' effects on behaviors through the androgen receptor will guide future studies in elucidating male reproductive and aggressive behavior repertoires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Cunningham
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Centre at Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA.
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Kapoor A, Matthews SG. Testosterone is involved in mediating the effects of prenatal stress in male guinea pig offspring. J Physiol 2010; 589:755-66. [PMID: 21173081 PMCID: PMC3052442 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.200543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A link exists between stress during pregnancy and altered hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) activity and behaviour in children. In the guinea pig, male offspring born to mothers that were exposed to stress during pregnancy demonstrated increased anxiety, basal cortisol levels and decreased testosterone concentrations. Testosterone is known to inhibit HPA function and anxiety behaviours. Therefore, we hypothesized that restoring plasma testosterone would ameliorate the differences observed in HPA function and behaviour. Pregnant guinea pigs were exposed to a stressor during the period of rapid fetal brain growth (prenatal stress, PS) or left undisturbed (control, C). Behaviour in an open-field and prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reflex (ASR) was assessed in juvenile offspring. In adulthood, male offspring were divided into four groups: Control + sham gonadectomy (GDX), control + GDX + testosterone replacement, PS + sham GDX and PS + GDX + testosterone. Male offspring were retested in the open-field and PPI. Basal HPA activity was also assessed. As juveniles, PS males exhibited significantly lower ASR (P < 0.05) and elevated PPI. In adulthood, PS male offspring exhibited significantly decreased PPI (P < 0.02) and this was reversed by administration of testosterone. We also found that adult PS offspring exhibited significantly less activity in the open-field (P < 0.05) and administration of testosterone increased ambulatory activity in PS animals. Basal plasma adrenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH) levels were significantly greater in PS animals and there was a trend towards reversal by administration of testosterone in PS males. In conclusion, prenatal stress results in male guinea pig offspring that exhibit age-dependent differences in ambulatory activity, sensorimotor gating and HPA activity. In adulthood, the behavioural changes are reversed by replacement of plasma testosterone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amita Kapoor
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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