Adverse reproductive function induced by maternal BPA exposure is associated with abnormal autophagy and activating inflamation via mTOR and TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathways in female offspring rats

BPA Exacerbates Zinc Deficiency-Induced Testicular Tissue Inflammation in Male Mice Through the TNF-α/NF-κB/Caspase8 Signaling Pathway

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical that is toxic to reproduction. Zinc (Zn) plays an important role in male reproductive health. Zn deficiency (ZD) can co-exist with BPA. In order to investigate the specific mechanism of reproductive damage caused by BPA exposure in ZD male mice, a mouse model of ZD, BPA exposure, and their combined exposure was established in this study. Forty 4-week-old SPF male ICR mice with an average body weight of 31.7 ± 4.2 g were divided into four groups including normal Zn diet group 30 mg/(kg•d), BPA exposure group 150 mg/(kg•d), zinc deficiency diet group 7.5 mg/(kg•d), and BPA + ZD combined exposure group (BPA 150 mg/(kg•d) + ZD 7.5 mg/(kg•d)). The mice were kept for 8 weeks. The results showed that the testicular tissue structure was disturbed, and semen quality, serum Zn, testicular tissue Zn, and testicular tissue free Zn ions were decreased in the BPA-exposed and ZD groups. The expression of zinc transporters (ZIP7, ZIP8, ZIP13, and ZIP14) in testicular tissue was changed. The expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-1β as well as inflammatory pathway-related proteins (IKB-α, p-IKB-α, NF-κB, p-NF-κB, Caspase8, and Caspase3) were increased, while the expressions of anti-inflammatory cytokines (TGF-β and IL-10) were decreased. The changes in the above indexes in the BPA + ZD group were more obvious. Both BPA exposure and ZD can induce testicular tissue inflammation through the TNF-α/NF-κB/Caspase8 signaling pathway, and BPA further aggravates zinc deficiency-induced testicular tissue inflammation and apoptosis damage.

Metabolic status is a key factor influencing proteomic changes in ewe granulosa cells induced by chronic BPS exposure

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol S (BPS) is the main substitute for bisphenol A (BPA), a well-known plasticiser and endocrine disruptor. BPS disrupts ovarian function in several species. Moreover, a few studies have reported that the effects of BPS might be modulated by the metabolic status, and none have characterised the granulosa cell (GC) proteome after chronic BPS exposure.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to decipher the mechanisms of action of chronic BPS exposure on the proteome of ewe GCs while considering the interaction between a deliberate contrasted metabolism and reproductive function.

METHODS

Forty ewes were split into two groups with contrasted diets: restricted (R, n = 20) and well-fed (WF, n = 20). The R and WF ewes were subdivided according to the dose of BPS administered through the diet (0-50 µg/kg/day), forming four groups: R0, R50, WF0 and WF50. After 3-month BPS daily exposure, GCs were recovered during the pre-ovulatory stage and proteins were analysed by nano-liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Chronic exposure to BPS affected the GC proteome differently according to the ewe metabolic status. Fifty-nine out of 958 quantified proteins were differentially abundant between groups and are mainly involved in carbohydrate and lipid pathways. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering of differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) identified four clusters of 34, 6, 5 and 14 proteins according to the BPS exposure and diet interaction. Pairwise comparisons between groups also revealed a strong effect of BPS exposure and diet interaction. Functional analysis of DAPs highlighted that BPS upregulated β-glucuronidase (GUSB; p = 0.002), a protein especially able to deconjugate bisphenol glucuronides (BP-g). Moreover, among unexposed ewes, GUSB was detected only in well-fed ewes.

DISCUSSION

Conjugation of glucuronides inhibits the oestrogenic activity of bisphenols. Upregulation of GUSB in ewes dosed with BPS would prolong the oestrogenic effects of BPS by deconjugating BPS-g into free BPS. In addition, literature has reported an up-regulation of GUSB in people suffering from obesity. Therefore, people suffering from obesity could be subjected to prolonged and aggravated exposure to BPS. These data highlighted the deleterious effects of BPS and its interaction with metabolic status.

MiR-204 regulates autophagy and cell viability by targeting BDNF and inhibiting the NTRK2-dependent PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in a human granulosa cell line exposed to bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widespread endocrine disruptor that mimics estrogen. The accumulation of BPA within the human body has been shown to be detrimental to ovarian function. However, few studies have focused on the specific mechanisms by which it causes harm to granulosa cells (GCs), pivotal ovarian cells that are responsible for the growth and function of oocytes. In vitro research was conducted using human GC lines (KGN cells). The cells were exposed to various concentrations of BPA (0.1, 1, 10, or 100 µM) for either 24 or 48 hours. Here, our findings indicate that 100 μM BPA inhibits KGN cell proliferation and promotes cell autophagy through inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Interestingly, these effects could be partly reversed by an NTRK2 activator (LM22b-10). NTRK2 is the receptor for BDNF. Moreover, via the use of bioinformatics tools, miR-204 was predicted to target BDNF. Additionally, our findings confirmed that miR-204 has the ability to directly target BDNF through a luciferase assay. Downregulation of miR-204 abrogated the BPA exposure-mediated effects on proliferation and autophagy. Furthermore, the inhibition of miR-204 significantly reversed the downregulation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway-related molecules. Similarly, we validated miR-204 as a novel miRNA involved in BPA-mediated damage to GC proliferation and autophagy, and our data provide the first in vitro evidence that increasing miR-204 expression and inhibiting the BDNF/NTRK2-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway are involved in the BPA-induced toxic effects in KGN cells.

Short-Half-Life Chemicals: Maternal Exposure and Offspring Health Consequences-The Case of Synthetic Phenols, Parabens, and Phthalates

Phenols, parabens, and phthalates (PPPs) are suspected or known endocrine disruptors. They are used in consumer products that pregnant women and their progeny are exposed to daily through the placenta, which could affect offspring health. This review aims to compile data from cohort studies and in vitro and in vivo models to provide a summary regarding placental transfer, fetoplacental development, and the predisposition to adult diseases resulting from maternal exposure to PPPs during the gestational period. In humans, using the concentration of pollutants in maternal urine, and taking the offspring sex into account, positive or negative associations have been observed concerning placental or newborn weight, children's BMI, blood pressure, gonadal function, or age at puberty. In animal models, without taking sex into account, alterations of placental structure and gene expression linked to hormones or DNA methylation were related to phenol exposure. At the postnatal stage, pollutants affect the bodyweight, the carbohydrate metabolism, the cardiovascular system, gonadal development, the age of puberty, sex/thyroid hormones, and gamete quality, but these effects depend on the age and sex. Future challenges will be to explore the effects of pollutants in mixtures using models and to identify the early signatures of in utero exposure capable of predicting the health trajectory of the offspring.

Integrated analysis reveals the immunotoxicity mechanism of BPs on human lymphocytes

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-documented endocrine-disrupting chemical widely used in plastic products. In addition to its endocrine-disrupting effects, BPA exhibits immunotoxicity. Many countries have banned BPA because of its adverse effects on human health. In recent years, many chemicals such as bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol E (BPE), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol fluorene (BHPF) have been used to replace BPA. Because these replacement chemicals have chemical structures similar to that of BPA, they may also harm human health. However, their immunotoxicity and the molecular mechanisms underlying their toxicity remain largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunotoxicity of BPA and its replacement chemicals, as well as the underlying mechanisms by exposing primary human lymphocytes to BPA and its replacement chemicals. Our results showed that exposure to BPA and its replacement chemicals altered the interleukin (IL) and cytokine production, such as IL-1b, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, interferon alfa-2b (IFN-a2B), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), in the lymphocytes. Among these, BPA and BHPF caused a greater inhibition. Using comparative transcriptomic analysis, we further investigated the biological processes and signaling pathways altered by BHPF exposure. Our data highlighted alterations in the immune response, T cell function, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions in human lymphocytes through the deregulation of gene clusters. In addition, the results of ingenuity pathway analysis demonstrated the inhibition of T lymphocyte function, including differentiation, movement, and infiltration. Our results, for the first time, delineate the mechanisms underlying the immunotoxicity of BHPF in human lymphocytes.

Health risks of Bisphenol-A exposure: From Wnt signaling perspective

Human beings are routinely exposed to chronic and low dose of Bisphenols (BPs) due to their widely pervasiveness in the environment. BPs hold similar chemical structures to 17β-estradiol (E2) and thyroid hormone, thus posing threats to human health by rendering the endocrine system dysfunctional. Among BPs, Bisphenol-A (BPA) is the best-known and extensively studied endocrine disrupting compound (EDC). BPA possesses multisystem toxicity, including reproductive toxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Particularly, the central nervous system (CNS), especially the developing one, is vulnerable to BPA exposure. This review describes our current knowledge of BPA toxicity and the related molecular mechanisms, with an emphasis on the role of Wnt signaling in the related processes. We also discuss the role of oxidative stress, endocrine signaling and epigenetics in the regulation of Wnt signaling by BPA exposure. In summary, dysfunction of Wnt signaling plays a key role in BPA toxicity and thus can be a potential target to alleviate EDCs induced damage to organisms.

Functional role of autophagy in testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular recycling process that maintains cellular homeostasis. Despite extensive research in endocrine contexts, the role of autophagy in ovarian and testicular steroidogenesis remains elusive. The significant role of autophagy in testosterone production suggests potential treatments for conditions like oligospermia and azoospermia. Further, influence of autophagy in folliculogenesis, ovulation, and luteal development emphasizes its importance for improved fertility and reproductive health. Thus, investigating autophagy in gonadal cells is clinically significant. Understanding these processes could transform treatments for endocrine disorders, enhancing reproductive health and longevity. Herein, we provide the functional role of autophagy in testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis to date, highlighting its modulation in testicular steroidogenesis and its impact on hormone synthesis, follicle development, and fertility therapies.

Perinatal bisphenol S exposure exacerbates the oxidative burden and apoptosis in neonatal ovaries by suppressing the mTOR/autophagy axis

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an emerging environmental endocrine disruptor capable of crossing the placental barrier, resulting in widespread exposure to pregnant women due to its extensive usage. However, the impact of perinatal maternal exposure to BPS on reproductive health in offspring and the underlying molecular mechanism remain underexplored. In this study, gestational ICR mice were provided with drinking water containing 3.33 mg/L BPS to mimic possible human exposure in some countries. Results demonstrated that BPS accelerated the breakdown of germ-cell cysts and the assembly of primordial follicles in neonates, leading to oocyte over-loss. Furthermore, the expression levels of folliculogenesis-related genes (Kit, Nobox, Gdf9, Sohlh2, Kitl, Bmp15, Lhx8, Figla, and Tgfb1) decreased, thus compromising oocyte quality and disrupting early folliculogenesis dynamics. BPS also disrupted other aspects of offspring reproduction, including advancing puberty onset, disrupting the estrus cycle, and impairing fertility. Further investigation found that BPS exposure inhibited the activities and expression levels of antioxidant-related enzymes in neonatal ovaries, leading to the substantial accumulation of MDA and ROS. The increased oxidative burden exacerbated the intracellular apoptotic signaling, manifested by increased expression levels of pro-apoptotic markers (Bax, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9) and decreased expression levels of anti-apoptotic marker (Bcl2). Concurrently, BPS inhibited autophagy by increasing p-mTOR/mTOR and decreasing p-ULK1/ULK1, subsequently down-regulating autophagy flux-related biomarkers (LC3b/LC3a and Beclin-1) and impeding the degradation of autophagy substrate p62. However, the imbalanced crosstalk between autophagy, apoptosis and oxidative stress homeostasis was restored after rapamycin treatment. Collectively, the findings demonstrated that BPS exposure induced reproductive disorders in offspring by perturbing the mTOR/autophagy axis, and such autophagic dysfunction exacerbated redox imbalance and promoted excessive apoptosis. These results provide novel mechanistic insights into the role of autophagy in mitigating BPS-induced intergenerational reproductive dysfunction.

Deciphering the molecular mechanism of NLRP3 in BPA-mediated toxicity: Implications for targeted therapies

Bisphenol-A (BPA), a pervasive industrial chemical used in polymer synthesis, is found in numerous consumer products including food packaging, medical devices, and resins. Detectable in a majority of the global population, BPA exposure occurs via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal routes. Extensive research has demonstrated the adverse health effects of BPA, particularly its disruption of immune and endocrine systems, along with genotoxic potential. This review focuses on the complex relationship between BPA exposure and the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, a multiprotein complex central to inflammatory disease processes. We examine how BPA induces oxidative stress through the generation of intracellular free radicals, subsequently activating NLRP3 signaling. The mechanistic details of this process are explored, including the involvement of signaling cascades such as PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT, AMPK/mTOR, and ERK/MAPK, which are implicated in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. A key focus of this review is the wide-ranging organ toxicities associated with BPA exposure, including hepatic, renal, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular dysfunction. We investigate the immunopathogenesis and molecular pathways driving these injuries, highlighting the interplay among BPA, oxidative stress, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. Finally, this review explores the emerging concept of targeting NLRP3 as a potential therapeutic strategy to mitigate the organ toxicities stemming from BPA exposure. This work integrates current knowledge, emphasizes complex molecular mechanisms, and promotes further research into NLRP3-targeted interventions.

The influence of maternal diet on offspring's gut microbiota in early life

BACKGROUND

The influence of maternal diet on offspring's health is an area of study that is linked to epigenetics. Maternal diet contributes to determining the health status of offspring and maternally linked mechanisms and is a global health challenge that requires attention. The impact of gut microbiota on host metabolism and offspring health is still not established.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, we intend to discuss the evidence on the impact of maternal diet and the health of offspring gut microbiota. The paper focuses on the gut microbiome of animal models. It captures the maternal diet and its influence on the offspring's gut microbiota, behavior that is supported by cell experimental results. Both inflammation and immune status of offspring induced by maternal diet are discussed. Finally, this review used predicted biological pathways involved in maternal diet and offspring health, and the influence of maternal diet on gut microbiota and offspring behavior. Obesity, diabetes, asthma and allergies, and neurodegenerative disorders and prospects for maternal diet, and microbiota and offspring health were discussed.

CONCLUSION

The review was able to gather that a high-fat diet during pregnancy created a long-lasting metabolic signature on the infant's innate immune system, altering inflammation in the offspring microbiota, which predisposed offspring to obesity and metabolic diseases in adulthood.

Advances in understanding the reproductive toxicity of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in women

Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in disorders of the female reproductive system, accompanied by a rise in adverse pregnancy outcomes. This trend is increasingly being linked to environmental pollution, particularly through the lens of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs). These external agents disrupt natural processes of hormones, including synthesis, metabolism, secretion, transport, binding, as well as elimination. These disruptions can significantly impair human reproductive functions. A wealth of animal studies and epidemiological research indicates that exposure to toxic environmental factors can interfere with the endocrine system's normal functioning, resulting in negative reproductive outcomes. However, the mechanisms of these adverse effects are largely unknown. This work reviews the reproductive toxicity of five major environmental EDCs-Bisphenol A (BPA), Phthalates (PAEs), Triclocarban Triclosan and Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)-to lay a foundational theoretical basis for further toxicological study of EDCs. Additionally, it aims to spark advancements in the prevention and treatment of female reproductive toxicity caused by these chemicals.

Environmental toxicology of bisphenol A: Mechanistic insights and clinical implications on the neuroendocrine system

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used environmental estrogen found in a variety of products, including food packaging, canned goods, baby bottle soothers, reusable cups, medical devices, tableware, dental sealants, and other consumer goods. This substance has been found to have detrimental effects on both the environment and human health, particularly on the reproductive, immune, embryonic development, nervous, endocrine, and respiratory systems. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the effects of BPA on the neuroendocrine system, with a primary focus on its impact on the brain, neurons, oligodendrocytes, neural stem cell proliferation, DNA damage, and behavioral development. Additionally, the review explores the clinical implications of BPA, specifically examining its role in the onset and progression of various diseases associated with the neuroendocrine metabolic system. By delving into the mechanistic analysis and clinical implications, this review aims to serve as a valuable resource for studying the impacts of BPA exposure on organisms.

Chronic exposure to low levels of phenanthrene induces histological damage and carcinogenic risk in the uterus of female mice

Phenanthrene (Phe), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with low molecular weight, is detected in the environment at high frequency. To study the toxic effects of Phe on the uterine structure and function, female Kunming mice were exposed to Phe (0.05, 0.5, 5 ng/mL) for 270 days by drinking water. Pathological alterations and their action pathways were analyzed using immunohistochemical and biomolecular technology. Phe significantly increased the percentage of blood vessel area, the number of endometrial neutrophils (indicating the occurrence of inflammation), collagen deposition (indicating fibrosis), and the percentage of Ki-67-positive cells (indicating carcinogenesis) in the uterus. Transcriptome sequencing identified differentially expressed genes that were mainly enriched in some signaling pathways, including inflammation and carcinogenesis, suggesting a carcinogenic risk in the Phe-exposed uterus. Elevated serum estrogen levels and decreased progesterone levels exhibited a disturbance of steroid hormone balance, which might be related to uterine damage. Upregulated protein levels of uterine androgen receptor and estrogen receptor α were linked to the pathological effects. Most of the effects exhibited a nonmonotonic dose response, which might be attributed to the corresponding change in the serum levels of Phe. The results suggest that exposure to low levels of Phe could exert adverse effects on the uterus.

Invisible Hand behind Female Reproductive Disorders: Bisphenols, Recent Evidence and Future Perspectives

Reproductive disorders are considered a global health problem influenced by physiological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. The increased exposure to bisphenols, a chemical used in large quantities for the production of polycarbonate plastics, has raised concerns regarding health risks in humans, particularly their endocrine-disrupting effects on female reproductive health. To provide a basis for future research on environmental interference and reproductive health, we reviewed relevant studies on the exposure patterns and levels of bisphenols in environmental matrices and humans (including susceptible populations such as pregnant women and children). In addition, we focused on in vivo, in vitro, and epidemiological studies evaluating the effects of bisphenols on the female reproductive system (the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and vagina). The results indicate that bisphenols cause structural and functional damage to the female reproductive system by interfering with hormones; activating receptors; inducing oxidative stress, DNA damage, and carcinogenesis; and triggering epigenetic changes, with the damaging effects being intergenerational. Epidemiological studies support the association between bisphenols and diseases such as cancer of the female reproductive system, reproductive dysfunction, and miscarriage, which may negatively affect the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. Altogether, this review provides a reference for assessing the adverse effects of bisphenols on female reproductive health.

Network Pharmacology Analysis of the Mechanisms Underlying the Therapeutic Effects of Yangjing Zhongyu Tang on Thin Endometrium

Purpose

Yangjing Zhongyu Tang (YJZYT) is a classic Chinese prescription for infertility treatment and exerts therapeutic effects via activity on the thin endometrium (TE). However, the major components and underlying mechanisms of YJZYT actions remain to be established. The main objectives of this study were to clarify the effects of YJZYT on the TE and provide insights into the related mechanisms based on network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses.

Methods

Network pharmacology was employed to explore the main bioactive components and targets of YJZYT. TE-related genes were obtained from the Genecards database and screened for intersections with YJZYT. The Cytoscape 3.8.2 was used to build a "compounds-disease-targets" network and molecular docking analysis performed on key targets. The mechanism of action of YJZYT was further validated in vivo using a rat model.

Results

A total of 98 YJZYT active ingredients, 2409 thin endometrium-associated genes, and 186 common targets were obtained. Through topological analysis, 10 core objectives were screened. Data from the PPI network suggest that AKT1, TNF, VEGFA, IL-6, TP53, INS, ESR1, MMP9, ALB, and ACTB serve as key targets in the action of YJZYT on TE. PI3K-Akt, TNF, apoptosis, IL-17 and MAPK were established as the main functional pathways. Molecular docking analysis revealed high affinity of the active ingredients of YJZYT, specifically, ursolic acid, palbinone, stigmasterol, and beta-sitosterol, for TNF, VEGFA, IL-6, AKT, and MMP9. YJZYT improved endometrial recovery, promoted endometrial angiogenesis, and upregulated protein expression of VEGF, PI3K, AKT, and p-AKT in the TE rat model.

Conclusion

Network pharmacological and animal studies facilitated the prediction and validation of the active components and key targets of YJZYT potentially contributing to TE. Preliminary evidence from in vivo experiments showed that YJZYT promotes angiogenesis and thin endometrial repair via regulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway, providing a reference for further research.

Cocktails of NSAIDs and 17α Ethinylestradiol at Environmentally Relevant Doses in Drinking Water Alter Puberty Onset in Mice Intergenerationally

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and 17α-ethinyl-estradiol (EE2) are among the most relevant endocrine-disrupting pharmaceuticals found in the environment, particularly in surface and drinking water due to their incomplete removal via wastewater treatment plants. Exposure of pregnant mice to NSAID therapeutic doses during the sex determination period has a negative impact on gonadal development and fertility in adults; however, the effects of their chronic exposure at lower doses are unknown. In this study, we investigated the impact of chronic exposure to a mixture containing ibuprofen, 2hydroxy-ibuprofen, diclofenac, and EE2 at two environmentally relevant doses (added to the drinking water from fetal life until puberty) on the reproductive tract in F1 exposed mice and their F2 offspring. In F1 animals, exposure delayed male puberty and accelerated female puberty. In post-pubertal F1 testes and ovaries, differentiation/maturation of the different gonad cell types was altered, and some of these modifications were observed also in the non-exposed F2 generation. Transcriptomic analysis of post-pubertal testes and ovaries of F1 (exposed) and F2 animals revealed significant changes in gene expression profiles and enriched pathways, particularly the inflammasome, metabolism and extracellular matrix pathways, compared with controls (non-exposed). This suggested that exposure to these drug cocktails has an intergenerational impact. The identified Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) networks for NSAIDs and EE2, at doses that are relevant to everyday human exposure, will improve the AOP network of the human reproductive system development concerning endocrine disruptor chemicals. It may serve to identify other putative endocrine disruptors for mammalian species based on the expression of biomarkers.

Role of Bisphenol A in Autophagy Modulation: Understanding the Molecular Concepts and Therapeutic Options

Abstract:

Bisphenol A (4,4′-isopropylidenediphenol) is an organic compound, commonly used in the plastic bottles, packaging containers, beverages and resin industry. The adverse effects of bisphenol A were studied in various systems of the body. Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation process meant for the regeneration of new cells. The role of bisphenol A on autophagy modulation in the pathogenesis of diseases is still debatable. Few research studies showed that bisphenol A-induced adverse effects were associated with autophagy dysregulation, while few showed the activation of autophagy by bisphenol A. Such contrasting views make the subject more interesting and debatable. In the present review, we discuss the different steps of autophagy, genes involved, and the effect of bisphenol A in autophagy modulation on different systems of the body. We also discuss the methods for monitoring autophagy and the roles of drugs such as chloroquine, verteporfin, and rapamycin in autophagy. Proper understanding of the role of bisphenol A in the modulation of autophagy may be important for future treatment and drug discovery.

Proteomic analysis of hypothalamus in prepubertal and pubertal female goat

The functions of proteins at the onset of puberty in goats remain largely unexplored. To identify the proteins regulating puberty in goats, we analysed protein abundance and pathways in the hypothalamus of female goats. We applied tandem mass tag (TMT) labelling, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) to examine hypothalamus of pubertal (cases; n = 3) and prepubertal (controls; n = 3) goats. We identified 5119 proteins, including 69 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs), of which 35 were upregulated and 34 were downregulated. Fourteen DAPs were randomly selected to verify these results using PRM, and the results were consistent with the TMT quantitative results. DAPs were enriched in MAPK signalling pathway, Ras signalling pathway, Autophagy-animal, Endocytosis, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway categories. These pathways are related to embryogenesis, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and promoting the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the hypothalamus. In particular, PDGFRβ and MAP3K7 occupied important locations in the protein-protein interaction network. The results demonstrate that DAPs and their related signalling pathways are crucial in regulating puberty in goats. However, further research is needed to explore the functions of DAPs and their pathways to provide new insights into the mechanism of puberty onset. SIGNIFICANCE: In domestic animals, reaching the age of puberty is an event that contributes significantly to lifetime reproductive potential. And the hypothalamus functions directly in the complex systemic changes that control puberty. Our study was the first TMT proteomics analysis on hypothalamus tissues of pubertal goats, which revealed the changes of protein and pathways that are related to the onset of puberty. We identified 69 DAPs, which were enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway, the Ras signaling pathway, and the IGF-1/PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, suggesting that these processes were probably involved in the onset of puberty.

Maternal resveratrol supplementation ameliorates bisphenol A-induced atherosclerotic lesions formation in adult offspring ApoE-/- mice

Current evidence suggests that intrauterine bisphenol A (BPA) exposure increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases in later stages of life. The beneficial effect of resveratrol (Rsv) on developmental programming of atherosclerosis lesions formation in offspring is seldom reported. Hence, we sought to study the effect of maternal Rsv in ameliorating perinatal BPA exposure-induced atherosclerosis lesions formation in adult offspring using the apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE^-/-) mice model. The pregnant ApoE^-/- mice were allocated into three groups: control, BPA, BPA + resveratrol (BPA + Rsv). The BPA group mice received BPA in their drinking water (1 μg/ml). BPA + Rsv group mice received BPA in their drinking water (1 μg/ml) and were treated orally with Rsv (20 mg kg^-1 day^-1). All the treatments were continued throughout the gestation and lactation period. Quantitative analysis of Sudan IV-stained aorta revealed a significantly increased area of atherosclerotic lesions in both female (p < 0.01) and male adult offspring mice (p < 0.01) in the BPA group. Supplementation with Rsv significantly reduced the BPA-induced atherosclerotic lesion development in the female offspring mice (p < 0.05). Transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence of a significantly high incidence of autophagic endothelial, smooth muscle, and macrophage cells in the aorta of BPA-exposed mice. Rsv treatment reduced the incidence of autophagic cells in BPA-exposed mice. In conclusion, maternal Rsv supplementation significantly prevents the BPA-induced atherosclerotic lesions formation in a sex-dependent manner potentially by acting as an autophagy modulator.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-03078-y.

Naringenin protects swine testis cells from bisphenol A-induced apoptosis via Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway

Bisphenol A (BPA) has caused serious pathologies in varying organs of humans and animals, especially reproductive organs. Naringenin (NRG) is a flavanone compound that has shown protective effects against several environmental chemicals through suppression of oxidative stress and activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Herein, we described the discovery path of NRG inhibition on apoptosis in BPA exposed swine testis (ST) cells through targeting Kelch-like ech-associated protein (Keap1). We found that NRG could specifically bound to the active residues of DGR domain in Keap1, thereby activating Nrf2 signaling pathway, and then increasing the levels of SOD, GPx and CAT, and finally inhibiting oxidative stress and mitochondrial apoptosis induced by BPA in ST cells. Altogether, our results showed that NRG inhibits oxidative stress and mitochondrial apoptosis induced by BPA in ST cells by targeting Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway, indicating that NRG could serve as an antagonistic therapy against BPA.

Single-cell transcriptome analysis of Bisphenol A exposure reveals the key roles of the testicular microenvironment in male reproduction

Testicular development during juvenile is crucial for subsequent male reproductive function. However, it remains poorly understood about the contribution of the testis microenvironment to human germ cell maturation. Therefore, we systematically analyzed scRNA-seq transcriptome and found the dramatic changes in cell-type composition in human testis during puberty. Then we constructed cell-cell communication networks between germ cells and somatic cells in the juvenile testis, which may be achieved via immune-related pathways. Our results showed that maturation-promoting factors are the switches of the Sertoli cells that drive sperm maturation. Furthermore, we found that Bisphenol A(BPA) enhanced the maturation and growth of germ cells through the Sertoli cell's secretory protein. Finally, our results indicate Bisphenol A would lead to the dysregulation of secreted protein expression in Sertoli cells during spermatogenesis, which in turn has direct cytotoxicity to Sertoli cells. Bisphenol A is one of the underlying causes of non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA). In summary, our results reveal the reproductive toxicity and molecular mechanism of Bisphenol A in Sertoli cells and male reproduction. Provide a reference for the toxicity of Bisphenol A to human reproduction.

Molecular mechanisms of mammary gland remodeling: A review of the homeostatic versus bisphenol a disrupted microenvironment

Mammary gland (MG) undergoes critical points of structural changes throughout a woman's life. During the perinatal and pubertal stages, MG develops through growth and differentiation to establish a pre-mature feature. If pregnancy and lactation occur, the epithelial compartment branches and differentiates to create a specialized structure for milk secretion and nurturing of the newborn. However, the ultimate MG modification consists of a regression process aiming to reestablish the smaller and less energy demanding structure until another production cycle happens. The unraveling of these fascinating physiologic cycles has helped the scientific community elucidate aspects of molecular regulation of proliferative and apoptotic events and remodeling of the stromal compartment. However, greater understanding of the hormonal pathways involved in MG developmental stages led to concern that endocrine disruptors such as bisphenol A (BPA), may influence these specific development/involution stages, called "windows of susceptibility". Since it is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, BPA is a ubiquitous chemical present in human everyday life, exerting an estrogenic effect. Thus, descriptions of its deleterious effects on the MG, especially in terms of serum hormone concentrations, hormonal receptor expression, molecular pathways, and epigenetic alterations, have been widely published. Therefore, allied to a didactic description of the main physiological mechanisms involved in different critical points of MG development, the current review provides a summary of key mechanisms by which the endocrine disruptor BPA impacts MG homeostasis at different windows of susceptibility, causing short- and long-term effects.

Inflammatory cytokines as key players of apoptosis induced by environmental estrogens in the ovary

Natural and synthetic environmental estrogens (EEs), interfering with the physiological functions of the body's estrogens, are widespread and are rising much concern for their possible deleterious effects on human and animal health, in particular on reproduction. In fact, increasing evidence indicate that EEs can be responsible for a variety of disfunctions of the reproductive system especially in females such as premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). Because of their great structural diversity, the modes of action of EEs are controversial. One important way through which EEs exert their effects on reproduction is the induction of apoptosis in the ovary. In general, EEs can exert pro-and anti-apoptotic effects by agonizing or antagonizing numerous estrogen-dependent signaling pathways. In the present work, results concerning apoptotic pathways and diseases induced by representative EEs (such as zearalenone, bisphenol A and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), in ovaries throughout development are presented into an integrated network. By reviewing and elaborating these studies, we propose inflammatory factors, centered on the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), as a major cause of the induction of apoptosis by EEs in the mammalian ovary. As a consequence, potential strategies to prevent such EE effect are suggested.

Bisphenol A: A potential Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation factor 2 complex agonist

In addition to endocrine disruption, bisphenol A (BPA) is known to induce inflammation through the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). However, detailed studies on the mechanism of NF-κB activation by BPA have not been sufficiently conducted. In the present study, we observed that low concentrations of BPA (≤1 μM) upregulated the release of proinflammatory mediators, including nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), as well as proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12, and IL-6. Molecular modeling predicted that BPA docked with the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) complex activates downstream molecules including myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK-4) and results in the upregulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Additionally, BPA increased morphological abnormalities and mortality in zebrafish larvae and enhanced the dispersal of macrophages and neutrophils in the whole body, thereby causing an endotoxemia-like disorder. However, a specific TLR4 inhibitor, TLR4-IN-C34, mitigated BPA-induced mortality and morphological abnormalities, which indicates that the TLR4/MD2 complex is a molecular target of BPA-induced immunotoxicity. Collectively, our results indicate that low concentrations of BPA, which is a potential agonist of the TLR4/MD2 complex, can intensify the immune response and eventually cause an endotoxemia-like disorder.

Bisphenol F induces nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-like changes: Involvement of lysosome disorder in lipid droplet deposition

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that the general population's exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) substitutes is ubiquitous. Bisphenol F (BPF), one of the main BPA substitutes, is increasingly replacing BPA in plastics for food and beverage applications. Accumulating evidence suggests that BPA exposure is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)-like changes. However, the potential effects of BPF on lipid homeostasis remain poorly understood. In the present study, an epidemiological analysis with LC-MS-MS revealed that the BPF concentrations in the serum of NAFLD patients were significantly higher than those in a control group. Supporting this result, using Oil Red O, BODIPY 493/503, LipidTox Deep Red staining and gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) assays, we found that BPF exposure induced NAFLD-like changes, with obvious lipid droplet deposition, triglyceride (TG) and fatty acids increase in mouse livers. Meanwhile, lipid droplet deposition and TG increase induced by BPF were also observed in HepG2 cells, accompanied by autophagic flux blockade, including autophagosome accumulation and the decreased degradation of SQSTM1/p62. Using adenoviruses dual-reporter plasmid RFP-GFP-LC3, RFP-GFP-PLIN2 transfection, AO staining, and EGFR degradation assays, we demonstrated that BPF treatment impaired lysosomal degradative capacity, since BPF treatment obviously impaired lysosomal acidification, manifested as decreased lysosomal hydrolase cathepsin L (CTSL) and mature cathepsin D (CTSD) in HepG2 and mouse liver issues. Additionally, v-ATPase D, a multi-subunit enzyme that mediates acidification of eukaryotic intracellular organelles, significantly decreased after BPF exposure in both the vitro and in vivo studies. This study ascertained a novel mechanism involving dysfunctional of lysosomal degradative capacity induced by BPF, which contributes to lipophagic disorders and causes lipid droplet deposition. This work provides evidence that lysosomes may be a target organelle where BPF exerts its potential toxicity; therefore, novel intervention strategies targeting lysosome are promising for BPF-induced NAFLD-like changes.