1
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Stelloo S, Alejo-Vinogradova MT, van Gelder CAGH, Zijlmans DW, van Oostrom MJ, Valverde JM, Lamers LA, Rus T, Sobrevals Alcaraz P, Schäfers T, Furlan C, Jansen PWTC, Baltissen MPA, Sonnen KF, Burgering B, Altelaar MAFM, Vos HR, Vermeulen M. Deciphering lineage specification during early embryogenesis in mouse gastruloids using multilayered proteomics. Cell Stem Cell 2024; 31:1072-1090.e8. [PMID: 38754429 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2024.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Gastrulation is a critical stage in embryonic development during which the germ layers are established. Advances in sequencing technologies led to the identification of gene regulatory programs that control the emergence of the germ layers and their derivatives. However, proteome-based studies of early mammalian development are scarce. To overcome this, we utilized gastruloids and a multilayered mass spectrometry-based proteomics approach to investigate the global dynamics of (phospho) protein expression during gastruloid differentiation. Our findings revealed many proteins with temporal expression and unique expression profiles for each germ layer, which we also validated using single-cell proteomics technology. Additionally, we profiled enhancer interaction landscapes using P300 proximity labeling, which revealed numerous gastruloid-specific transcription factors and chromatin remodelers. Subsequent degron-based perturbations combined with single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) identified a critical role for ZEB2 in mouse and human somitogenesis. Overall, this study provides a rich resource for developmental and synthetic biology communities endeavoring to understand mammalian embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzan Stelloo
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - Maria Teresa Alejo-Vinogradova
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Charlotte A G H van Gelder
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, Oncode Institute, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Dick W Zijlmans
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Marek J van Oostrom
- Hubrecht Institute, KNAW (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences), University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Juan Manuel Valverde
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CA Utrecht, the Netherlands; Netherlands Proteomics Center, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lieke A Lamers
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Teja Rus
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Paula Sobrevals Alcaraz
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, Oncode Institute, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Tilman Schäfers
- Department of Molecular Developmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Cristina Furlan
- Laboratory of Systems and Synthetic Biology, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Pascal W T C Jansen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Marijke P A Baltissen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Katharina F Sonnen
- Hubrecht Institute, KNAW (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences), University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Boudewijn Burgering
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, Oncode Institute, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Maarten A F M Altelaar
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CA Utrecht, the Netherlands; Netherlands Proteomics Center, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Harmjan R Vos
- Molecular Cancer Research, Center for Molecular Medicine, Oncode Institute, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Michiel Vermeulen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Oncode Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Division of Molecular Genetics, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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2
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Piraino F, Costa M, Meyer M, Cornish G, Ceroni C, Garnier V, Hoehnel-Ka S, Brandenberg N. Organoid models: the future companions of personalized drug development. Biofabrication 2024; 16:032009. [PMID: 38608454 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ad3e30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
High failure rates of the current drug development process are driving exemplary changes toward methodologies centered on human diseasein-vitromodeling. Organoids are self-organized tissue sub-units resembling their organ of origin and are widely acknowledged for their unique potential in recapitulating human physio-pathological mechanisms. They are transformative for human health by becoming the platform of choice to probe disease mechanisms and advance new therapies. Furthermore, the compounds' validation as therapeutics represents another point of the drug development pipeline where organoids may provide key understandings and help pharma organizations replace or reduce animal research. In this review, we focus on gastrointestinal organoid models, which are currently the most advanced organoid models in drug development. We focus on experimental validations of their value, and we propose avenues to enhance their use in drug discovery and development, as well as precision medicine and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariana Costa
- Doppl SA, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marine Meyer
- Doppl SA, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland
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3
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Abady MM, Jeong JS, Kwon HJ, Assiri AM, Cho J, Saadeldin IM. The reprotoxic adverse side effects of neurogenic and neuroprotective drugs: current use of human organoid modeling as a potential alternative to preclinical models. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1412188. [PMID: 38948466 PMCID: PMC11211546 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1412188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The management of neurological disorders heavily relies on neurotherapeutic drugs, but notable concerns exist regarding their possible negative effects on reproductive health. Traditional preclinical models often fail to accurately predict reprotoxicity, highlighting the need for more physiologically relevant systems. Organoid models represent a promising approach for concurrently studying neurotoxicity and reprotoxicity, providing insights into the complex interplay between neurotherapeutic drugs and reproductive systems. Herein, we have examined the molecular mechanisms underlying neurotherapeutic drug-induced reprotoxicity and discussed experimental findings from case studies. Additionally, we explore the utility of organoid models in elucidating the reproductive complications of neurodrug exposure. Have discussed the principles of organoid models, highlighting their ability to recapitulate neurodevelopmental processes and simulate drug-induced toxicity in a controlled environment. Challenges and future perspectives in the field have been addressed with a focus on advancing organoid technologies to improve reprotoxicity assessment and enhance drug safety screening. This review underscores the importance of organoid models in unraveling the complex relationship between neurotherapeutic drugs and reproductive health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam M. Abady
- Organic Metrology Group, Division of Chemical and Material Metrology, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bio-Analytical Science, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ji-Seon Jeong
- Organic Metrology Group, Division of Chemical and Material Metrology, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bio-Analytical Science, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha-Jeong Kwon
- Organic Metrology Group, Division of Chemical and Material Metrology, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Abdullah M. Assiri
- Deperament of Comparative Medicine, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jongki Cho
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Islam M. Saadeldin
- Deperament of Comparative Medicine, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Huntsman MC, Kurashima CK, Marikawa Y. Validation of a mouse 3D gastruloid-based embryotoxicity assay in reference to the ICH S5(R3) guideline chemical exposure list. Reprod Toxicol 2024; 125:108558. [PMID: 38367697 PMCID: PMC11016378 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2024.108558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
There is growing interest in establishing alternative methods in place of conventional animal tests to assess the developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) of chemicals. Gastruloids are 3D aggregates of pluripotent stem cells that spontaneously exhibit axial elongation morphogenesis similar to gastrulation. They have been explored as in vitro embryogenesis models for developmental and toxicological studies. Here, a mouse gastruloid-based assay was validated for DART assessment in accordance with the ICH S5(R3) guideline, which provides the plasma concentration data of various reference drugs in rodents, specifically Cmax and AUC for NOAEL and LOAEL. First, adverse effect concentrations of the reference drugs and their known metabolites on gastruloid development were determined based on morphological impact, namely reduced growth or aberrant elongation. Then, the NOAEL to LOAEL concentration range obtained from the gastruloid assay was compared with that in rodents to examine similarities in sensitivity between the in vitro and in vivo assays for each chemical. For 18 out of the 24 reference drugs that have both NOAEL and LOAEL information in rodents, the sensitivity of the gastruloid assay was comparable to the in vivo assay within an 8-fold concentration margin. For 7 out of the 8 additional reference drugs that have only NOAEL or LOAEL information in rodents, the gastruloid assay was in line with the in vivo data. Altogether, these results support the effectiveness of the gastruloid assay, which may be exploited as a non-animal alternative method for DART assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Carrell Huntsman
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology, University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Courtney Kehaulani Kurashima
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology, University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
| | - Yusuke Marikawa
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and Physiology, University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA.
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5
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Martins-Costa C, Wilson V, Binagui-Casas A. Neuromesodermal specification during head-to-tail body axis formation. Curr Top Dev Biol 2024; 159:232-271. [PMID: 38729677 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The anterior-to-posterior (head-to-tail) body axis is extraordinarily diverse among vertebrates but conserved within species. Body axis development requires a population of axial progenitors that resides at the posterior of the embryo to sustain elongation and is then eliminated once axis extension is complete. These progenitors occupy distinct domains in the posterior (tail-end) of the embryo and contribute to various lineages along the body axis. The subset of axial progenitors with neuromesodermal competency will generate both the neural tube (the precursor of the spinal cord), and the trunk and tail somites (producing the musculoskeleton) during embryo development. These axial progenitors are called Neuromesodermal Competent cells (NMCs) and Neuromesodermal Progenitors (NMPs). NMCs/NMPs have recently attracted interest beyond the field of developmental biology due to their clinical potential. In the mouse, the maintenance of neuromesodermal competency relies on a fine balance between a trio of known signals: Wnt/β-catenin, FGF signalling activity and suppression of retinoic acid signalling. These signals regulate the relative expression levels of the mesodermal transcription factor Brachyury and the neural transcription factor Sox2, permitting the maintenance of progenitor identity when co-expressed, and either mesoderm or neural lineage commitment when the balance is tilted towards either Brachyury or Sox2, respectively. Despite important advances in understanding key genes and cellular behaviours involved in these fate decisions, how the balance between mesodermal and neural fates is achieved remains largely unknown. In this chapter, we provide an overview of signalling and gene regulatory networks in NMCs/NMPs. We discuss mutant phenotypes associated with axial defects, hinting at the potential significant role of lesser studied proteins in the maintenance and differentiation of the progenitors that fuel axial elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Martins-Costa
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna BioCenter, Vienna, Austria
| | - V Wilson
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - A Binagui-Casas
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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6
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de Jong MA, Adegeest E, Bérenger-Currias NMLP, Mircea M, Merks RMH, Semrau S. The shapes of elongating gastruloids are consistent with convergent extension driven by a combination of active cell crawling and differential adhesion. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011825. [PMID: 38306399 PMCID: PMC10866519 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Gastruloids have emerged as highly useful in vitro models of mammalian gastrulation. One of the most striking features of 3D gastruloids is their elongation, which mimics the extension of the embryonic anterior-posterior axis. Although axis extension is crucial for development, the underlying mechanism has not been fully elucidated in mammalian species. Gastruloids provide an opportunity to study this morphogenic process in vitro. Here, we measure and quantify the shapes of elongating gastruloids and show, by Cellular Potts model simulations based on a novel, optimized algorithm, that convergent extension, driven by a combination of active cell crawling and differential adhesion can explain the observed shapes. We reveal that differential adhesion alone is insufficient and also directly observe hallmarks of convergent extension by time-lapse imaging of gastruloids. Finally, we show that gastruloid elongation can be abrogated by inhibition of the Rho kinase pathway, which is involved in convergent extension in vivo. All in all, our study demonstrates, how gastruloids can be used to elucidate morphogenic processes in embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Esmée Adegeest
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Maria Mircea
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roeland M. H. Merks
- Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Semrau
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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7
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Esfahani SN, Zheng Y, Arabpour A, Irizarry AMR, Kobayashi N, Xue X, Shao Y, Zhao C, Agranonik NL, Sparrow M, Hunt TJ, Faith J, Lara MJ, Wu QY, Silber S, Petropoulos S, Yang R, Chien KR, Clark AT, Fu J. Derivation of human primordial germ cell-like cells in an embryonic-like culture. Nat Commun 2024; 15:167. [PMID: 38167821 PMCID: PMC10762101 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43871-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the embryonic precursors of sperm and eggs. They transmit genetic and epigenetic information across generations. Given the prominent role of germline defects in diseases such as infertility, detailed understanding of human PGC (hPGC) development has important implications in reproductive medicine and studying human evolution. Yet, hPGC specification remains an elusive process. Here, we report the induction of hPGC-like cells (hPGCLCs) in a bioengineered human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) culture that mimics peri-implantation human development. In this culture, amniotic ectoderm-like cells (AMLCs), derived from hPSCs, induce hPGCLC specification from hPSCs through paracrine signaling downstream of ISL1. Our data further show functional roles of NODAL, WNT, and BMP signaling in hPGCLC induction. hPGCLCs are successfully derived from eight non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA) participant-derived hPSC lines using this biomimetic platform, demonstrating its promise for screening applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajedeh Nasr Esfahani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Yi Zheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244, USA
| | - Auriana Arabpour
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | | | - Norio Kobayashi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Xufeng Xue
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Yue Shao
- Institute of Biomechanics and Medical Engineering, Department of Engineering Mechanics, School of Aerospace Engineering, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Cheng Zhao
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Karolinska Instituet, 14186, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nicole L Agranonik
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Megan Sparrow
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Timothy J Hunt
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jared Faith
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Mary Jasmine Lara
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Qiu Ya Wu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Sherman Silber
- Infertility Center of St. Louis, St. Luke's Hospital, St. Louis, MO, 63017, USA
| | - Sophie Petropoulos
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Karolinska Instituet, 14186, Stockholm, Sweden
- Département de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Axe Immunopathologie, Montreal, QC, H2X 19A, Canada
- Département de Médecine, Molecular Biology Programme, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Ran Yang
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kenneth R Chien
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amander T Clark
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Jianping Fu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
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8
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Aydin M, Guven Ezer B, Rencuzogullari E. The Future of the Teratogenicity Testing. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2753:143-150. [PMID: 38285336 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3625-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to examine the importance, possible advantages and disadvantages of teratogenicity tests, and their future. For this purpose, numerous sources have been scanned in the field of teratogenicity. Although there are many methods related to teratogenic studies and very important studies have been made in this field, there are still serious deficiencies. There are advantages and disadvantages of in vitro and in vivo classical tests that have been used so far. The current status of in vivo tests is a matter of debate, especially due to the use of experimental animals. However, in vitro tests that do not perform the distribution and metabolism of chemicals also raise doubts in determination of teratogenicity. Despite the modern approaches of molecular biology and genetics and the best diagnostic techniques, the real cause of more than half of congenital diseases is still not understood. In this sense, the importance and necessity of teratogenic tests are understood once again. It is necessary to develop faster, reliable, and inexpensive techniques to replace traditional in vivo tests. It is important to disseminate harmless and reliable imaging techniques such as micro-CT. The use of European Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) scientifically validated and approved in vitro tests such as embryonic stem cell test (EST), micro mass test (MM), and whole embryo culture (WEC) tests in routine screening can provide a solution in a shorter time than the classical tests. Improving these tests and developing new tests can help to solve the problem permanently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhsin Aydin
- Department of Biology, Science and Letters Faculty, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, Turkey
| | - Banu Guven Ezer
- Department of Biology, Institute of Graduate Education, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, Turkey
| | - Eyyup Rencuzogullari
- Department of Biology, Science and Letters Faculty, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, Turkey.
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9
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Shankar V, van Blitterswijk C, Vrij E, Giselbrecht S. Automated, High-Throughput Phenotypic Screening and Analysis Platform to Study Pre- and Post-Implantation Morphogenesis in Stem Cell-Derived Embryo-Like Structures. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2304987. [PMID: 37991133 PMCID: PMC10811479 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202304987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Combining high-throughput generation and high-content imaging of embryo models will enable large-scale screening assays in the fields of (embryo) toxicity, drug development, embryogenesis, and reproductive medicine. This study shows the continuous culture and in situ (i.e., in microwell) imaging-based readout of a 3D stem cell-based model of peri-implantation epiblast (Epi)/extraembryonic endoderm (XEn) development with an expanded pro-amniotic cavity (PAC) (E3.5 E5.5), namely XEn/EPiCs. Automated image analysis and supervised machine learning permit the identification of embryonic morphogenesis, tissue compartmentalization, cell differentiation, and consecutive classification. Screens with signaling pathway modulators at different time windows provide spatiotemporal information on their phenotypic effect on developmental processes leading to the formation of XEn/EPiCs. Exposure of the biological model in the microwell platform to pathway modulators at two time windows, namely 0-72 h and 48-120 h, show that Wnt and Fgf/MAPK pathway modulators affect Epi differentiation and its polarization, while modulation of BMP and Tgfβ/Nodal pathway affects XEn specification and epithelialization. Further, their collective role is identified in the timing of the formation and expansion of PAC. The newly developed, scalable culture and analysis platform, thereby, provides a unique opportunity to quantitatively and systematically study effects of pathway modulators on early embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinidhra Shankar
- MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative MedicineDepartment for Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE)Maastricht UniversityMaastricht6229ETThe Netherlands
| | - Clemens van Blitterswijk
- MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative MedicineDepartment for Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE)Maastricht UniversityMaastricht6229ETThe Netherlands
| | - Erik Vrij
- MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative MedicineDepartment for Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE)Maastricht UniversityMaastricht6229ETThe Netherlands
| | - Stefan Giselbrecht
- MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative MedicineDepartment for Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE)Maastricht UniversityMaastricht6229ETThe Netherlands
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10
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Banerjee M, Das A, Chatterjee P, Banerjee S. Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Assays to Predict Developmental Toxicity. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2753:181-199. [PMID: 38285339 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3625-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Human beings are continuously exposed to various toxic substances throughout their lives, which affect their reproductive health and eventually the offspring they give birth to. Mainly, these toxins damage the heart and neurological development of the newborn, but most recently, they have begun to affect the musculoskeletal system as well. These toxins are usually present in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, or even the polluted air that people breathe; as a result, the prevalence of birth defects is steadily rising. For this reason, it becomes a necessity to deploy a new set of assays to test for such toxins in industries to decrease the occurrence of developmental toxicity. These assays are exceedingly expensive when carried out conventionally using animal models or cells from such sources and have a lower predictive value due to the vast variation between animals and humans. To overcome such major problems, human pluripotent stem cells are now frequently used for these assays. These cells are easily available, are quickly generated from somatic cells (induce pluripotent stem cells), can be of human origin without harming people, and eliminate animal harm, which makes them the top choice of scientists for carrying out any in vitro developmental toxicity assays.This chapter, therefore, provides an overview of several steps that can be used to predict a compound's developmental toxicity by utilizing human pluripotent stem cells. Here, the easiest and most effective procedure has been outlined that can screen many compounds simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhura Banerjee
- School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Aritrika Das
- School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Prarthana Chatterjee
- School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
| | - Satarupa Banerjee
- School of BioSciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India.
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11
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Dingare C, Steventon B. Gastruloids - a minimalistic model to study complex developmental metabolism. Emerg Top Life Sci 2023; 7:455-464. [PMID: 38108463 PMCID: PMC10754324 DOI: 10.1042/etls20230082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic networks are well placed to orchestrate the coordination of multiple cellular processes associated with embryonic development such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation and cell movement. Here, we discuss the advantages that gastruloids, aggregates of mammalian embryonic stem cells that self-assemble a rudimentary body plan, have for uncovering the instructive role of metabolic pathways play in directing developmental processes. We emphasise the importance of using such reductionist systems to link specific pathways to defined events of early mammalian development and their utility for obtaining enough material for metabolomic studies. Finally, we review the ways in which the basic gastruloid protocol can be adapted to obtain specific models of embryonic cell types, tissues and regions. Together, we propose that gastruloids are an ideal system to rapidly uncover new mechanistic links between developmental signalling pathways and metabolic networks, which can then inform precise in vivo studies to confirm their function in the embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaitanya Dingare
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 3EH, U.K
| | - Ben Steventon
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 3EH, U.K
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12
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Avni L, Farag N, Ghosh B, Nachman I. Gastruloid optimization. Emerg Top Life Sci 2023; 7:409-415. [PMID: 37815089 PMCID: PMC10754328 DOI: 10.1042/etls20230096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
The young field of gastruloids brings promise to modeling and understanding early embryonic development. However, being a complex model, gastruloids are prone to variability at different levels. In this perspective, we define the different levels of gastruloid variability, and parameters over which it can be measured. We discuss potential sources for variability, and then propose methods to better control and reduce it. We provide an example from definitive endoderm progression in gastruloids, where we harness gastruloid-to-gastruloid variation in early parameters to identify key driving factors for endoderm morphology. We then devise interventions that steer morphological outcome. A better control over the developmental progression of gastruloids will enhance their utility in both basic research and biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Avni
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Naama Farag
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Binita Ghosh
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Iftach Nachman
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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13
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Schmidt C, Deyett A, Ilmer T, Haendeler S, Torres Caballero A, Novatchkova M, Netzer MA, Ceci Ginistrelli L, Mancheno Juncosa E, Bhattacharya T, Mujadzic A, Pimpale L, Jahnel SM, Cirigliano M, Reumann D, Tavernini K, Papai N, Hering S, Hofbauer P, Mendjan S. Multi-chamber cardioids unravel human heart development and cardiac defects. Cell 2023; 186:5587-5605.e27. [PMID: 38029745 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
The number one cause of human fetal death are defects in heart development. Because the human embryonic heart is inaccessible and the impacts of mutations, drugs, and environmental factors on the specialized functions of different heart compartments are not captured by in vitro models, determining the underlying causes is difficult. Here, we established a human cardioid platform that recapitulates the development of all major embryonic heart compartments, including right and left ventricles, atria, outflow tract, and atrioventricular canal. By leveraging 2D and 3D differentiation, we efficiently generated progenitor subsets with distinct first, anterior, and posterior second heart field identities. This advance enabled the reproducible generation of cardioids with compartment-specific in vivo-like gene expression profiles, morphologies, and functions. We used this platform to unravel the ontogeny of signal and contraction propagation between interacting heart chambers and dissect how mutations, teratogens, and drugs cause compartment-specific defects in the developing human heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Schmidt
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Alison Deyett
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tobias Ilmer
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; FH Campus Wien, Favoritenstraße 226, 1100 Vienna, Austria
| | - Simon Haendeler
- Center for Integrative Bioinformatics Vienna, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Aranxa Torres Caballero
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Novatchkova
- Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Campus-Vienna-Biocenter, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael A Netzer
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Josef-Holaubek-Platz 2, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lavinia Ceci Ginistrelli
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Estela Mancheno Juncosa
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tanishta Bhattacharya
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Amra Mujadzic
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lokesh Pimpale
- HeartBeat.bio AG, Dr. Bohr Gasse 7, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefan M Jahnel
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Cirigliano
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniel Reumann
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Katherina Tavernini
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nora Papai
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria; Vienna BioCenter PhD Program, Doctoral School of the University of Vienna, and Medical University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Steffen Hering
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Josef-Holaubek-Platz 2, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Pablo Hofbauer
- HeartBeat.bio AG, Dr. Bohr Gasse 7, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sasha Mendjan
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria.
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14
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Declercq S, Chuva de Sousa Lopes SM, Heindryckx B. A new advanced stem cell-based embryonic model: The ultimate model? Mol Ther 2023; 31:3109-3110. [PMID: 37866361 PMCID: PMC10638027 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2023.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- S Declercq
- Ghent-Fertility and Stem cell Team (G-FaST), Department for Reproductive Medicine, Ghent, Belgium
| | - S M Chuva de Sousa Lopes
- Ghent-Fertility and Stem cell Team (G-FaST), Department for Reproductive Medicine, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Anatomy and Embryology from Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - B Heindryckx
- Ghent-Fertility and Stem cell Team (G-FaST), Department for Reproductive Medicine, Ghent, Belgium
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15
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Sullivan AE, Santos SD. The ever-growing world of gastruloids: autogenous models of mammalian embryogenesis. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2023; 82:102102. [PMID: 37604096 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2023.102102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
During early development, extrinsic cues prompt a collection of pluripotent cells to begin the extensive process of cellular differentiation that gives rise to all tissues in the mammalian embryo, a process known as gastrulation. Advances in stem cell biology have resulted in the generation of stem cell-based in vitro models of mammalian gastrulation called gastruloids. Gastruloids and subsequent gastruloid-based models are tractable, scalable and more accessible than mammalian embryos. As such, they have opened an unprecedented avenue for modelling in vitro self-organisation, patterning and fate specification. This review focuses on discussing the recent advances of this rapidly moving research area, clarifying what structures they model and the underlying signal hierarchy. We highlight the exciting potential of these models and where the field might be heading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne E Sullivan
- Quantitative Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1-Midland Road, NW1 1AT London, UK.
| | - Silvia Dm Santos
- Quantitative Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1-Midland Road, NW1 1AT London, UK.
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16
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Kim Y, Kim I, Shin K. A new era of stem cell and developmental biology: from blastoids to synthetic embryos and beyond. Exp Mol Med 2023; 55:2127-2137. [PMID: 37779144 PMCID: PMC10618288 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-023-01097-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent discoveries in stem cell and developmental biology have introduced a new era marked by the generation of in vitro models that recapitulate early mammalian development, providing unprecedented opportunities for extensive research in embryogenesis. Here, we present an overview of current techniques that model early mammalian embryogenesis, specifically noting models created from stem cells derived from two significant species: Homo sapiens, for its high relevance, and Mus musculus, a historically common and technically advanced model organism. We aim to provide a holistic understanding of these in vitro models by tracing the historical background of the progress made in stem cell biology and discussing the fundamental underlying principles. At each developmental stage, we present corresponding in vitro models that recapitulate the in vivo embryo and further discuss how these models may be used to model diseases. Through a discussion of these models as well as their potential applications and future challenges, we hope to demonstrate how these innovative advances in stem cell research may be further developed to actualize a model to be used in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhee Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Inha Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Kunyoo Shin
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
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17
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Burbank M, Gautier F, Hewitt N, Detroyer A, Guillet-Revol L, Carron L, Wildemann T, Bringel T, Riu A, Noel-Voisin A, De Croze N, Léonard M, Ouédraogo G. Advancing the use of new approach methodologies for assessing teratogenicity: Building a tiered approach. Reprod Toxicol 2023; 120:108454. [PMID: 37543254 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Many New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) have been developed for the safety assessment of new ingredients. Research into reproductive toxicity and teratogenicity is a particularly high priority, especially given their mechanistic complexity. Forty-six non-teratogenic and 39 teratogenic chemicals were screened for teratogenic potential using the in silico DART model from the OECD QSAR Toolbox; the devTox quickPredict™ (devTox assay) test and the Zebrafish Embryotoxicity Test (ZET). The sensitivity and specificity were 94.7% and 84.1%, respectively, for the DART tree (83 chemicals), 86.1% and 35.6% for the devTox (81 chemicals) and 77.8% and 76.7% for the ZET (57 chemicals). Fifty-three chemicals were tested in all three assays and when results were combined and based on a "2 out of 3 rule", the sensitivity and specificity were 96.0% and 71.4%, respectively. The specificity of the devTox assay for a sub-set of 43 chemicals was increased from 26.1% to 82.6% by incorporating human plasma concentrations into the assay interpretation. When all 85 chemicals were assessed in a decision tree approach, there was an excellent predictivity and assay robustness of 90%. In conclusion, all three models exhibited a good sensitivity and specificity, especially when outcomes from all three were combined or used in "2 out of 3" or a tiered decision tree approach. The latter is an interesting predictive approach for evaluating the teratogenic potential of new chemicals. Future investigations will extend the number of chemicals tested, as well as explore ways to refine the results and obtain a robust Integrated Testing Strategy to evaluate teratogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Burbank
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France.
| | - F Gautier
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France
| | | | | | | | - L Carron
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France
| | | | - T Bringel
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France
| | - A Riu
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France
| | | | | | - M Léonard
- L'Oréal Research & Innovation, France
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18
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Moris N, Sturmey R. In preprints: opportunities to unravel the earliest stages of human development using stem cell-based embryo models. Development 2023; 150:dev202295. [PMID: 37702103 DOI: 10.1242/dev.202295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Moris
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Way, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Roger Sturmey
- Biomedical Institute for Multimorbidity, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK
- Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, University of Manchester,Manchester M13 9WL, UK
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19
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Iltis AS, Koster G, Reeves E, Matthews KRW. Ethical, legal, regulatory, and policy issues concerning embryoids: a systematic review of the literature. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:209. [PMID: 37605210 PMCID: PMC10441753 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03448-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in methods to culture pluripotent stem cells to model human development have resulted in entities that increasingly have recapitulated advanced stages of early embryo development. These entities, referred to by numerous terms such as embryoids, are becoming more sophisticated and could resemble human embryos ever more closely as research progresses. This paper reports a systematic review of the ethical, legal, regulatory, and policy questions and concerns found in the literature concerning human embryoid research published from 2016 to 2022. We identified 56 papers that use 53 distinct names or terms to refer to embryoids and four broad categories of ethical, legal, regulatory, or policy considerations in the literature: research justifications/benefits, ethical significance or moral status, permissible use, and regulatory and oversight challenges. Analyzing the full range of issues is a critical step toward fostering more robust ethical, legal, and social implications research in this emerging area and toward developing appropriate oversight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana S Iltis
- Center for Bioethics, Health and Society and Department of Philosophy, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
| | - Grace Koster
- Center for Bioethics, Health and Society and Department of Philosophy, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
| | - Emily Reeves
- Center for Bioethics, Health and Society and Department of Philosophy, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
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20
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Ávila-González D, Gidi-Grenat MÁ, García-López G, Martínez-Juárez A, Molina-Hernández A, Portillo W, Díaz-Martínez NE, Díaz NF. Pluripotent Stem Cells as a Model for Human Embryogenesis. Cells 2023; 12:1192. [PMID: 37190101 PMCID: PMC10136597 DOI: 10.3390/cells12081192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs; embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells) can recapitulate critical aspects of the early stages of embryonic development; therefore, they became a powerful tool for the in vitro study of molecular mechanisms that underlie blastocyst formation, implantation, the spectrum of pluripotency and the beginning of gastrulation, among other processes. Traditionally, PSCs were studied in 2D cultures or monolayers, without considering the spatial organization of a developing embryo. However, recent research demonstrated that PSCs can form 3D structures that simulate the blastocyst and gastrula stages and other events, such as amniotic cavity formation or somitogenesis. This breakthrough provides an unparalleled opportunity to study human embryogenesis by examining the interactions, cytoarchitecture and spatial organization among multiple cell lineages, which have long remained a mystery due to the limitations of studying in utero human embryos. In this review, we will provide an overview of how experimental embryology currently utilizes models such as blastoids, gastruloids and other 3D aggregates derived from PSCs to advance our understanding of the intricate processes involved in human embryo development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ávila-González
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara 44270, Mexico
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
| | - Mikel Ángel Gidi-Grenat
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe García-López
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Martínez-Juárez
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
| | - Anayansi Molina-Hernández
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
| | - Wendy Portillo
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro 76230, Mexico
| | - Néstor Emmanuel Díaz-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara 44270, Mexico
| | - Néstor Fabián Díaz
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México 11000, Mexico
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21
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Branco MA, Nunes TC, Cabral JMS, Diogo MM. Developmental Toxicity Studies: The Path towards Humanized 3D Stem Cell-Based Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054857. [PMID: 36902285 PMCID: PMC10002991 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Today, it is recognized that medicines will eventually be needed during pregnancy to help prevent to, ameliorate or treat an illness, either due to gestation-related medical conditions or pre-existing diseases. Adding to that, the rate of drug prescription to pregnant women has increased over the past few years, in accordance with the increasing trend to postpone childbirth to a later age. However, in spite of these trends, information regarding teratogenic risk in humans is often missing for most of the purchased drugs. So far, animal models have been the gold standard to obtain teratogenic data, but inter-species differences have limited the suitability of those models to predict human-specific outcomes, contributing to misidentified human teratogenicity. Therefore, the development of physiologically relevant in vitro humanized models can be the key to surpassing this limitation. In this context, this review describes the pathway towards the introduction of human pluripotent stem cell-derived models in developmental toxicity studies. Moreover, as an illustration of their relevance, a particular emphasis will be placed on those models that recapitulate two very important early developmental stages, namely gastrulation and cardiac specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana A. Branco
- Collaborative Laboratory to Foster Translation and Drug Discovery, Accelbio, 3030-197 Cantanhede, Portugal
- IBB—Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago C. Nunes
- IBB—Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joaquim M. S. Cabral
- IBB—Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Margarida Diogo
- IBB—Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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22
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Kirkwood‐Johnson L, Marikawa Y. Developmental toxicity of remdesivir, an anti-COVID-19 drug, is implicated by in vitro assays using morphogenetic embryoid bodies of mouse and human pluripotent stem cells. Birth Defects Res 2023; 115:224-239. [PMID: 36349436 PMCID: PMC9877128 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.2111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Remdesivir is an antiviral drug approved for the treatment of COVID-19, whose developmental toxicity remains unclear. More information about the safety of remdesivir is urgently needed for people of childbearing potential, who are affected by the ongoing pandemic. Morphogenetic embryoid bodies (MEBs) are three-dimensional (3D) aggregates of pluripotent stem cells that recapitulate embryonic body patterning in vitro, and have been used as effective embryo models to detect the developmental toxicity of chemical exposures specifically and sensitively. METHODS MEBs were generated from mouse P19C5 and human H9 pluripotent stem cells, and used to examine the effects of remdesivir. The morphological effects were assessed by analyzing the morphometric parameters of MEBs after exposure to varying concentrations of remdesivir. The molecular impact of remdesivir was evaluated by measuring the transcript levels of developmental regulator genes. RESULTS The mouse MEB morphogenesis was impaired by remdesivir at 1-8 μM. Remdesivir affected MEBs in a manner dependent on metabolic conversion, and its potency was higher than GS-441524 and GS-621763, presumptive anti-COVID-19 drugs that act similarly to remdesivir. The expressions of developmental regulator genes, particularly those involved in axial and somite patterning, were dysregulated by remdesivir. The early stage of MEB development was more vulnerable to remdesivir exposure than the later stage. The morphogenesis and gene expression profiles of human MEBs were also impaired by remdesivir at 1-8 μM. CONCLUSIONS Remdesivir impaired mouse and human MEBs at concentrations that are comparable to the therapeutic plasma levels in humans, urging further investigation into the potential impact of remdesivir on developing embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Kirkwood‐Johnson
- Developmental and Reproductive Biology Graduate Program, Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and PhysiologyJohn A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at ManoaHonoluluHawaiiUSA
| | - Yusuke Marikawa
- Developmental and Reproductive Biology Graduate Program, Institute for Biogenesis Research, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and PhysiologyJohn A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at ManoaHonoluluHawaiiUSA
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23
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Amel A, Rossouw S, Goolam M. Gastruloids: A Novel System for Disease Modelling and Drug Testing. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2023; 19:104-113. [PMID: 36308705 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10462-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
By virtue of its inaccessible nature, mammalian implantation stage development has remained one of the most enigmatic and hard to investigate periods of embryogenesis. Derived from pluripotent stem cells, gastruloids recapitulate key aspects of gastrula-stage embryos and have emerged as a powerful in vitro tool to study the architectural features of early post-implantation embryos. While the majority of the work in this emerging field has focused on the use of gastruloids to model embryogenesis, their tractable nature and suitability for high-throughput scaling, has presented an unprecedented opportunity to investigate both developmental and environmental aberrations to the embryo as they occur in vitro. This review summarises the recent developments in the use of gastruloids to model congenital anomalies, their usage in teratogenicity testing, and the current limitations of this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atoosa Amel
- Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Simoné Rossouw
- Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Mubeen Goolam
- Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, 7925, Cape Town, South Africa. .,UCT Neuroscience Institute, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Human Maternal-Fetal Interface Cellular Models to Assess Antiviral Drug Toxicity during Pregnancy. REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/reprodmed3040024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnancy is a period of elevated risk for viral disease severity, resulting in serious health consequences for both the mother and the fetus; yet antiviral drugs lack comprehensive safety and efficacy data for use among pregnant women. In fact, pregnant women are systematically excluded from therapeutic clinical trials to prevent potential fetal harm. Current FDA-recommended reproductive toxicity assessments are studied using small animals which often do not accurately predict the human toxicological profiles of drug candidates. Here, we review the potential of human maternal-fetal interface cellular models in reproductive toxicity assessment of antiviral drugs. We specifically focus on the 2- and 3-dimensional maternal placental models of different gestational stages and those of fetal embryogenesis and organ development. Screening of drug candidates in physiologically relevant human maternal-fetal cellular models will be beneficial to prioritize selection of safe antiviral therapeutics for clinical trials in pregnant women.
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Niethammer M, Burgdorf T, Wistorf E, Schönfelder G, Kleinsorge M. In vitro models of human development and their potential application in developmental toxicity testing. Development 2022; 149:276688. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.200933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Recent publications describe the development of in vitro models of human development, for which applications in developmental toxicity testing can be envisaged. To date, these regulatory assessments have exclusively been performed in animal studies, the relevance of which to adverse reactions in humans may be questioned. Recently developed cell culture-based models of embryo-fetal development, however, do not yet exhibit sufficient levels of standardisation and reproducibility. Here, the advantages and shortcomings of both in vivo and in vitro developmental toxicity testing are addressed, as well as the possibility of integrated testing strategies as a viable option in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam Niethammer
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) 1 , 10589 Berlin , Germany
| | - Tanja Burgdorf
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) 1 , 10589 Berlin , Germany
| | - Elisa Wistorf
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) 1 , 10589 Berlin , Germany
| | - Gilbert Schönfelder
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) 1 , 10589 Berlin , Germany
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health 2 , 10117 Berlin , Germany
| | - Mandy Kleinsorge
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) 1 , 10589 Berlin , Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin 3 , 10178 Berlin , Germany
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Marikawa Y. Toward better assessments of developmental toxicity using stem cell-based in vitro embryogenesis models. Birth Defects Res 2022; 114:972-982. [PMID: 35102709 PMCID: PMC9339025 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In the past few decades, pluripotent stem cells have been explored as nonanimal alternatives to assess the developmental toxicity of chemicals. To date, numerous versions of stem cell-based assays have been reported that are allegedly effective. Nonetheless, none of the assays has become the gold standard in developmental toxicity assessment. Why? This article discusses several issues in the hope of facilitating the refinement of stem cell assays and their acceptance as the cornerstone in predictive developmental toxicology. Each stem cell assay is built on a limited representation of embryogenesis, so that multiple assays are needed to detect the diverse effects of various chemicals. To validate and compare the strengths and weaknesses of individual assays, standardized lists of reference chemicals should be established. Reference lists should consist of exposures defined by toxicokinetic data, namely maternal plasma concentrations that cause embryonic death or malformations, and also by the effects on the molecular machineries that control embryogenesis. Although not entirely replacing human or animal tests, carefully selected stem cell assays should serve as practical and ethical alternatives to proactively identify chemical exposures that disturb embryogenesis. To achieve this goal, unprecedented levels of coordination and conviction are required among research and regulatory communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Marikawa
- Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry and PhysiologyInstitute for Biogenesis Research, University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of MedicineHonoluluHawaiiUSA
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Cermola F, Amoroso F, Saracino F, Ibello E, De Cesare D, Fico A, Cobellis G, Scalera E, Casiraghi C, D’Aniello C, Patriarca EJ, Minchiotti G. Stabilization of cell-cell adhesions prevents symmetry breaking and locks in pluripotency in 3D gastruloids. Stem Cell Reports 2022; 17:2548-2564. [DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2022.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Arias AM, Marikawa Y, Moris N. Gastruloids: Pluripotent stem cell models of mammalian gastrulation and embryo engineering. Dev Biol 2022; 488:35-46. [PMID: 35537519 PMCID: PMC9477185 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gastrulation is a fundamental and critical process of animal development whereby the mass of cells that results from the proliferation of the zygote transforms itself into a recognizable outline of an organism. The last few years have seen the emergence of a number of experimental models of early mammalian embryogenesis based on Embryonic Stem (ES) cells. One of this is the Gastruloid model. Gastruloids are aggregates of defined numbers of ES cells that, under defined culture conditions, undergo controlled proliferation, symmetry breaking, and the specification of all three germ layers characteristic of vertebrate embryos, and their derivatives. However, they lack brain structures and, surprisingly, reveal a disconnect between cell type specific gene expression and tissue morphogenesis, for example during somitogenesis. Gastruloids have been derived from mouse and human ES cells and several variations of the original model have emerged that reveal a hereto unknown modularity of mammalian embryos. We discuss the organization and development of gastruloids in the context of the embryonic stages that they represent, pointing out similarities and differences between the two. We also point out their potential as a reproducible, scalable and searchable experimental system and highlight some questions posed by the current menagerie of gastruloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Martinez Arias
- Systems Bioengineering, MELIS, Universidad Pompeu Fabra, Doctor Aiguader, 88, ICREA, Pag Lluis Companys 23, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Yusuke Marikawa
- Institute for Biogenesis Research, University of Hawaii John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Naomi Moris
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
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The DevTox Germ Layer Reporter Platform: An Assay Adaptation of the Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Test. TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10070392. [PMID: 35878297 PMCID: PMC9321663 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10070392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Environmental chemical exposures are a contributing factor to birth defects affecting infant morbidity and mortality. The USA EPA is committed to developing new approach methods (NAMs) to detect chemical risks to susceptible populations, including pregnant women. NAM-based coverage for cellular mechanisms associated with early human development could enhance identification of potential developmental toxicants (DevTox) for new and existing data-poor chemicals. The human pluripotent stem cell test (hPST) is an in vitro test method for rapidly identifying potential human developmental toxicants that employs directed differentiation of embryonic stem cells to measure reductions in SOX17 biomarker expression and nuclear localization. The objective of this study was to expand on the hPST principles to develop a model platform (DevTox GLR) that utilizes the transgenic RUES2-GLR cell line expressing fluorescent reporter fusion protein biomarkers for SOX17 (endoderm marker), BRA (mesoderm marker), and SOX2 (ectoderm and pluripotency marker). Initial assay adaption to definitive endoderm (DevTox GLR-Endo) was performed to emulate the hPST SOX17 endpoint and enable comparative evaluation of concordant chemical effects. Assay duration was reduced to two days and screening throughput scaled to 384-well format for enhanced speed and efficiency. Assay performance for 66 chemicals derived from reference and training set data resulted in a balanced accuracy of 72% (79% sensitivity and 65% specificity). The DevTox GLR-Endo assay demonstrates successful adaptation of the hPST concept with increased throughput, shorter assay duration, and minimal endpoint processing. The DevTox GLR model platform expands the in vitro NAM toolbox to rapidly identify potential developmental hazards and mechanistically characterize toxicant effects on pathways and processes associated with early human development.
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Li M, Gong J, Gao L, Zou T, Kang J, Xu H. Advanced human developmental toxicity and teratogenicity assessment using human organoid models. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 235:113429. [PMID: 35325609 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Tremendous progress has been made in the field of toxicology leading to the advance of developmental toxicity assessment. Conventional animal models and in vitro two-dimensional models cannot accurately describe toxic effects and predict actual in vivo responses due to obvious inter-species differences between humans and animals, as well as the lack of a physiologically relevant tissue microenvironment. Human embryonic stem cell (hESC)- and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived three-dimensional organoids are ideal complex and multicellular organotypic models, which are indispensable in recapitulating morphogenesis, cellular interactions, and molecular processes of early human organ development. Recently, human organoids have been used for drug discovery, chemical toxicity and safety in vitro assessment. This review discusses the recent advances in the use of human organoid models, (i.e., brain, retinal, cardiac, liver, kidney, lung, and intestinal organoid models) for developmental toxicity and teratogenicity assessment of distinct tissues/organs following exposure to pharmaceutical compounds, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, nanomaterials, and ambient air pollutants. Combining next-generation organoid models with innovative engineering technologies generates novel and powerful tools for developmental toxicity and teratogenicity assessment, and the rapid progress in this field is expected to continue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Li
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jing Gong
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Lixiong Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Third Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Ting Zou
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jiahui Kang
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China; Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing 400038, China.
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