The age related prevalence of aggression and self-injury in persons with an intellectual disability: a review

Transitions-Related Support for Ageing Family Carers of Older People With Intellectual Disabilities Who Convey Behaviours That Challenge Others: A Systematic Rapid Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

There are increasing numbers of ageing family carers of older (40+) adults with intellectual disabilities who convey behaviours that challenge others in the UK. It is important to understand the needs and experiences of these carers as they support their older family member to transition to different care contexts.

METHOD

A rapid scoping review of published and unpublished literature, using systematic methods of data searching, extraction and analysis.

RESULTS

Exhaustion, reluctance to burden others, distrust of alternative living arrangements and deep interpersonal ties with their family member with intellectual disabilities mean ageing carers can avoid planning ahead. There is a lack of appropriate information, support and professional advice available. Developing trust in services is critical, as is a 'whole family' approach to planning.

CONCLUSIONS

More research is vital to understand the support ageing carers receive to make choices, and how it meets their needs.

Behaviours that Challenge in SATB2-associated Syndrome: Correlates of Self-injury, Aggression and Property Destruction

SATB2-associated syndrome (SAS) is a genetic syndrome characterised by intellectual disability, severe speech delay, and palatal and dental problems. Behaviours that challenge (BtC) are reported frequently; however, there is limited research on specific forms of BtC and the correlates of these behaviours. The current study explores correlates of well-defined BtC, self-injury, aggression, and property destruction, in SAS. Eighty-one parents/caregivers of individuals with SAS (53.1% male, Mage 10.12 years) completed questionnaire measures of health, behavioural, emotional, and autism characteristics. Individuals with SAS were grouped based on caregiver responses to the presence or absence of self-injury, aggression, and property destruction on the Challenging Behaviour Questionnaire. Rates of self-injury, aggression and property destruction were 42%, 77% and 49%, respectively. Between-group comparisons were conducted to compare characteristics between behaviour groups. Significantly differing characteristics were entered into separate hierarchical logistic regressions for each form of BtC. Behavioural comparisons indicated variation in the characteristics associated with each behaviour. All hierarchical logistic regression models were significant (p < .001): self-injury (χ2(5) = 38.46, R2 = 0.571), aggression (χ2(4) = 25.12, R2 = 0.414), property destruction (χ2(4) = 23.70, R2 = 0.346), explaining between 34.6% and 57.1% of the variance in behaviour presence. This is the first study to identify correlates of self-injury, aggression, and property destruction in SAS. Variability in the characteristics associated with each behaviour highlights the importance of specificity when examining BtC. Understanding correlates of specific forms of BtC has important implications for informing SAS-associated pathways to behavioural outcomes and the implementation of tailored behavioural interventions.

Process evaluation of a parenting intervention for pre-schoolers with intellectual disabilities who display behaviours that challenge in the UK

BACKGROUND

Stepping Stones Triple P (SSTP) is a complex parent-mediated intervention aimed to reduce behaviours that challenge in children with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities, aged 30-59 months.

METHODS

To formulate a comprehensive understanding of SSTP implementation in the UK, we conducted a process evaluation collecting stakeholder views and considering intervention fidelity, dose, reach, delivery adaptations, and acceptability.

RESULTS

Fidelity and quality of delivery ratings were high. Parents perceived SSTP as valuable, reporting increased parental confidence and understanding of the child's behaviours. However, only 30% of families received an adequate dose of the intervention. Parents who only received treatment as usual described feeling abandoned by current services. Service managers emphasised the importance of availability of resources and therapist training for successful intervention delivery.

CONCLUSIONS

SSTP supports effective management of early-onset behaviours that challenge. Further work is needed to ensure equitable access to the intervention across health and social care services.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT03086876 - https://www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov/ct2/show/NCT03086876?term=Hassiotis+Angela&draw=1&rank=1.

Forensic psychiatric issues in intellectual disability

Forensic psychiatrists and neuropsychiatrists are likely to encounter individuals with intellectual disability as they are over-represented in the judicial system. These individuals may have the full range of mental illnesses and comorbid conditions, including physical infirmity, sensory deficits, language impairment, and maladaptive behaviors. They are frequently disadvantaged in the judicial system due to lack of comprehension, lack of accommodations, and stigmatization. Decision making capacity may need to be assessed for health care, sexual autonomy, marriage, financial management, making a will, and need for guardianship. The usual approach to conducting an evaluation needs adaptation to fit the unique characteristics and circumstances of the individual with intellectual disability. The forensic consultant can assist attorneys, defendants, and victims in recommending accommodations and the expert witness can provide education to juries.

Clinical and cost-effectiveness of an adapted intervention for preschoolers with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities displaying behaviours that challenge: the EPICC-ID RCT

Background

Stepping Stones Triple P is an adapted intervention for parents of young children with developmental disabilities who display behaviours that challenge, aiming at teaching positive parenting techniques and promoting a positive parent-child relationship.

Objective

To evaluate the clinical and cost-effectiveness of level 4 Stepping Stones Triple P in reducing behaviours that challenge in children with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities.

Design, setting, participants

A parallel two-arm pragmatic multisite single-blind randomised controlled trial recruited a total of 261 dyads (parent and child). The children were aged 30-59 months and had moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. Participants were randomised, using a 3 : 2 allocation ratio, into the intervention arm (Stepping Stones Triple P; n = 155) or treatment as usual arm (n = 106). Participants were recruited from four study sites in Blackpool, North and South London and Newcastle.

Intervention

Level 4 Stepping Stones Triple P consists of six group sessions and three individual phone or face-to-face contacts over 9 weeks. These were changed to remote sessions after 16 March 2020 due to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.

Main outcome measure

The primary outcome measure was the parent-reported Child Behaviour Checklist, which assesses the severity of behaviours that challenge.

Results

We found a small non-significant difference in the mean Child Behaviour Checklist scores (-4.23, 95% CI -9.98 to 1.52, p = 0.146) in the intervention arm compared to treatment as usual at 12 months. Per protocol and complier average causal effect sensitivity analyses, which took into consideration the number of sessions attended, showed the Child Behaviour Checklist mean score difference at 12 months was lower in the intervention arm by -10.77 (95% CI -19.12 to -2.42, p = 0.014) and -11.53 (95% CI -26.97 to 3.91, p = 0.143), respectively. The Child Behaviour Checklist mean score difference between participants who were recruited before and after the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic was estimated as -7.12 (95% CI -13.44 to -0.81) and 7.61 (95% CI -5.43 to 20.64), respectively (p = 0.046), suggesting that any effect pre-pandemic may have reversed during the pandemic. There were no differences in all secondary measures. Stepping Stones Triple P is probably value for money to deliver (-£1057.88; 95% CI -£3218.6 to -£46.67), but decisions to roll this out as an alternative to existing parenting interventions or treatment as usual may be dependent on policymaker willingness to invest in early interventions to reduce behaviours that challenge. Parents reported the intervention boosted their confidence and skills, and the group format enabled them to learn from others and benefit from peer support. There were 20 serious adverse events reported during the study, but none were associated with the intervention.

Limitations

There were low attendance rates in the Stepping Stones Triple P arm, as well as the coronavirus disease 2019-related challenges with recruitment and delivery of the intervention.

Conclusions

Level 4 Stepping Stones Triple P did not reduce early onset behaviours that challenge in very young children with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. However, there was an effect on child behaviours for those who received a sufficient dose of the intervention. There is a high probability of Stepping Stones Triple P being at least cost neutral and therefore worth considering as an early therapeutic option given the long-term consequences of behaviours that challenge on people and their social networks.

Future work

Further research should investigate the implementation of parenting groups for behaviours that challenge in this population, as well as the optimal mode of delivery to maximise engagement and subsequent outcomes.

Study registration

This study is registered as NCT03086876 (https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03086876?term=Hassiotis±Angela&draw=1&rank=1).

Funding

This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme (NIHR award ref: HTA 15/162/02) and is published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 28, No. 6. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.

A review of the use of psychotropic medication to address challenging behaviour in neurodevelopmental disorders

Engagement in challenging behaviour (e.g., aggression, self-injury) is reported to occur in neurodevelopmental disorders such as intellectual disabilities (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and fragile X syndrome (FXS). Common interventions to address these behaviours include both behavioural and pharmacological approaches. Although psychotropic medications are commonly used to address challenging behaviour in ID, ASD, and FXS, demonstration of the effectiveness of treatment is limited. Furthermore, research examining interaction effects between psychotropic medication, challenging behaviour, and environmental events within specific neurodevelopmental disorders such as ID, ASD, and FXS is scarce. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of challenging behaviour within ID, ASD, and FXS and of the effectiveness of psychotropic medication as an intervention for challenging behaviour within these neurodevelopmental disorders. Finally, research examining how psychotropic medication may impact the relationship between challenging behaviour and environmental events is reviewed.

Predicting self-injurious behavior at age three among infant siblings of children with autism

Existing research suggests that self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a relatively common interfering behavior that can occur across the lifespan of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We previously reported that SIB or proto-injurious SIB at 12 months was related to increased risk of SIB at 24 months among a preschool sample of children with a high familial likelihood for ASD (Dimian et al., 2017). In the present study, we extend these findings, examine SIB occurrence, and associated potential risk factors at 36 months. The present sample included 149 infants with an older sibling with ASD (65.8% male) who completed assessments at ages 12, 24, and 36 months. Descriptive analyses and binary logistic regression models were utilized. SIB was more prevalent among those children who received a diagnosis of ASD. Logistic regression indicated that presence of SIB, stereotypy, hyper- and hypo- sensory responsivity, and lower intellectual functioning at age 12 months significantly predicted the occurrence of SIB at 36 months. These findings have implications for understanding developmental processes culminating in persistent SIB and may inform prevention programming.

Longitudinal studies of challenging behaviours in autistic children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Autistic children and adults are at increased risk of showing behaviours that may be described as challenging, however, little is known about whether or how these behaviours may change over time. Given the profound impact that challenging behaviour can have on both the autistic individual and their support network, it is critical that the trajectory of challenging behaviours be better understood. This systematic review and meta-analysis identified and synthesised observational longitudinal studies of challenging behaviour in autistic individuals. Fifty-six studies were included in the systematic review, and the effect sizes of 37 independent samples arising from 34 of these reports were examined through meta-analysis. Crucially, across the 37 samples, scores on the measures of challenging behaviour reduced by a small, yet significant, extent over time. Although age of the sample at baseline assessment did not moderate the effect, the time between the baseline assessment and final follow-up and age at final follow-up both moderated the magnitude of the effect, with challenging behaviour scores reducing to a larger extent in (a) studies with longer intervals between baseline and final follow-up and (b) studies with older samples at follow-up. The results from the current systematic review and meta-analysis have both theoretical and practical implications for understanding challenging behaviour over time in autistic individuals. Avenues for future research are also highlighted that may allow better understanding, and therefore support of, challenging behaviour in autistic individuals.

Difficulties in Addressing Diagnostic, Treatment and Support Needs in Individuals with Intellectual Disability and Persistent Challenging Behaviours: A Descriptive File Study of Referrals to an Expertise Centre

Service providers may experience difficulties in providing appropriate care to optimize the functioning of individuals with intellectual disability and challenging behaviour. External consultation to identify and address the unmet support needs underlying the behaviour may be beneficial. Applying the multidimensional American Association Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) model may facilitate this approach. We aimed to describe the content and outcomes of consultation for individuals with intellectual disability and challenging behaviour referred to the Dutch Centre for Consultation and Expertise in relation to the AAIDD model. Interventions were based on the clients' diagnostic, treatment, and support needs and were categorized according to the five dimensions of the AAIDD model. Outcomes of the consultations were assessed based on reports in the file and rated as 'clear improvement', 'improvement' or 'no improvement or deterioration'. In two-thirds of the 104 studied files, consultees were satisfied with the improvement in functioning. Interventions targeted the difficulties of the service providers in supporting their clients and were most often applied within the Health and Context dimensions of the AAIDD model. We may conclude that consultation of an expert team may be valuable to support the care providers, and the use of the AAIDD model may be helpful to address the unmet needs to improve the functioning of individuals with challenging behaviour.

The 10-year trajectory of aggressive behaviours in autistic individuals

BACKGROUND

Aggressive behaviours are common in people with neurodevelopmental conditions, contributing to poorer quality of life and placement breakdown. However, there is limited empirical research documenting the prevalence and persistence of aggressive behaviours in autism. In this longitudinal study, aggressive behaviours were investigated in a sample of autistic individuals over 10 years.

METHODS

Caregivers of autistic individuals, both with and without intellectual disability, completed questionnaires relating to the presence of aggressive behaviours at T1 [N = 229, mean age in years 11.8, standard deviation (SD) 5.9], T2 (T1 + 3 years, N = 81, mean age in years 15.1, SD 5.9) and T3 (T1 + 10 years, N = 54, mean age in years 24.5, SD 8.1). Analyses examined the presence and persistence of aggressive behaviours and the predictive value of established correlates of aggression.

RESULTS

Aggressive behaviours were common at baseline (61.6%) but only persistent in 30% of the sample over 10 years. Higher composite scores of overactivity and impulsivity at T1 were significantly associated with the persistence of aggressive behaviours at T2 (P = 0.027) and T3 (P = 0.012) with medium effect size.

CONCLUSIONS

Aggressive behaviours are common in autism, but reduce with age. Behavioural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predict the presence and persistence of aggressive behaviour and as such may be useful clinical indicators to direct proactive intervention resources to ameliorate aggressive behaviours.

Transitions for older people with intellectual disabilities and behaviours that challenge others: A rapid scoping review

BACKGROUND

People with intellectual disabilities and behaviours that challenge others are living longer. This review aimed to explore what is known about the health and social care needs, experiences, service interventions and resources of and for this population as they transition to different care contexts in the UK.

METHOD

A rapid scoping review of published and unpublished literature was conducted based on collaborative working with key stakeholders and using systematic methods of data searching, extraction and analysis.

RESULTS

Consistent social work support, skilled staff, suitable accommodation, creative engagement with individuals and families to plan ahead, and timely access to quality healthcare are all required to promote successful transitions as people age, and to avoid unwanted/inappropriate transitions at points of crisis.

CONCLUSIONS

More research is needed to assess the types of services that this population can and do access as they age, the quality of those services, and the extent to which local commissioners are planning ahead for people with intellectual disabilities and behaviours that challenge others.

The Association between Physical Environment and Externalising Problems in Typically Developing and Neurodiverse Children and Young People: A Narrative Review

The physical environment is of critical importance to child development. Understanding how exposure to physical environmental domains such as greenspace, urbanicity, air pollution or noise affects aggressive behaviours in typical and neurodiverse children is of particular importance given the significant long-term impact of those problems. In this narrative review, we investigated the evidence for domains of the physical environment that may ameliorate or contribute to the display of aggressive behaviours. We have considered a broad range of study designs that include typically developing and neurodiverse children and young people aged 0-18 years. We used the GRADE system to appraise the evidence. Searches were performed in eight databases in July 2020 and updated in June 2022. Additional articles were further identified by hand-searching reference lists of included papers. The protocol for the review was preregistered with PROSPERO. Results: We retrieved 7174 studies of which 67 are included in this review. The studies reported on green space, environmental noise and music, air pollution, meteorological effects, spatial density, urban or rural setting, and interior home elements (e.g., damp/sensory aspects/colour). They all used well validated parent and child reported measures of aggressive behaviour. Most of the studies were rated as having low or unclear risk of bias. As expected, noise, air pollution, urbanicity, spatial density, colour and humidity appeared to increase the display of aggressive behaviours. There was a dearth of studies on the role of the physical environment in neurodiverse children. The studies were heterogeneous and measured a range of aggressive behaviours from symptoms to full syndromes. Greenspace exposure was the most common domain studied but certainty of evidence for the association between environmental exposures and aggression problems in the child or young person was low across all domains. We found a large knowledge gap in the literature concerning neurodiverse children, which suggests that future studies should focus on these children, who are also more likely to experience adverse early life experiences including living in more deprived environments as well as being highly vulnerable to the onset of mental ill health. Such research should also aim to dis-aggregate the underlying aetiological mechanisms for environmental influences on aggression, the results of which may point to pathways for public health interventions and policy development to address inequities that can be relevant to ill health in neurodiverse young people.

Withdrawing Antipsychotics for Challenging Behaviours in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: Experiences and Views of Prescribers

International current best practice recommends the discontinuation of antipsychotics for challenging behaviours in people with intellectual disabilities (ID), due to lack of evidence of efficacy and risks of harmful side-effects. In clinical practice, discontinuation may be difficult. The aim of this study was to gain insight into prescribers' practice by investigating their experiences with the discontinuation of long-term antipsychotics for challenging behaviour. From professionals' associations thirty-four registered ID physicians, psychiatrists and specialist mental healthcare nurses were recruited who completed an online questionnaire in this survey-study. Almost all participants had attempted to deprescribe antipsychotics for their patients with ID. Sixty-five percent of participants achieved complete discontinuation in 0-25% of their patients, but none in over 50%. Barriers were a lack of non-pharmaceutical treatments for challenging behaviours and caregivers' and/or family concern. Seventy percent of participants indicated that their institutions had encouraged implementing their discontinuation policies in line with the new Dutch Act on Involuntary care and a new Dutch multidisciplinary guideline on problem behaviour in adults with ID. Support and facilitation of clinicians from institutions' managers and political and professional bodies may be helpful in further implementation of best practice in the treatment of challenging behaviour in people with ID.

Pharmacotherapy of Disruptive Behaviors in Children with Intellectual Disabilities

Disruptive behaviors are a class of predominantly externalizing behaviors that include physical aggression, property destruction, temper outbursts, verbal aggression, and some forms of self-injurious behaviors. Externalizing behaviors are also major components of disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, trauma-related and stressor-related disorders, intermittent explosive disorder, personality disorders, and other neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Disruptive behaviors and associated disorders are among the most frequent reasons for child behavioral health referrals and are the most common reason for referrals among children with intellectual disabilities. The focus of this paper is on the adjunctive role of integrated psychopharmacological treatment in the management of children with disruptive behaviors and co-occurring intellectual disabilities. The decision-making process for adding pharmacotherapy to a comprehensive treatment plan incorporates not only a working knowledge of basic behavioral neurobiology of disruptive behaviors but also an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of various pharmacotherapies. Importantly, there is little evidence to support the use of psychopharmacologic agents in managing difficult behaviors in children with intellectual disabilities, but with that said, risperidone has the strongest evidence base for its use.

Behavioural phenomena in persons with an intellectual developmental disorder according to the level of emotional development

BACKGROUND

Challenging behaviours in people with an intellectual developmental disorder (IDD) are complex and often difficult to understand. The developmental perspective may provide additional insights into the specific behavioural patterns and underlying motives in different emotional reference ages.

METHODS

The behaviours of 185 adults with IDD who were admitted to psychiatry were systematically assessed with the Aberrant Behaviour Checklist (ABC) and the Modified Overt Aggression Scale (MOAS). The association of the different behaviours with various emotional reference age groups as assessed with the Scale of Emotional Development - Short (SED-S) was analysed to deduce behavioural patterns typical for a certain level of functioning.

RESULTS

Overall, the severity of challenging behaviours decreases in higher emotional reference age groups. Physical aggression was most prevalent in persons in the second phase of emotional development (7-18 months reference age). In SED-S-1 (reference age 0-6 months), the persons appeared to be searching for physical comfort and showed high scores in social withdrawal, stereotypies and aggression towards the self. Persons functioning in SED-S-2 (reference age 7-18 months) scored highest in irritability and physical aggression (searching for security), while those in SED-S-3 (19-36 months) exhibited the searching for autonomy type characterised by defiant and socially inappropriate behaviours. Persons with an emotional reference age of 4-7 years (SED-S-4) showed inappropriate speech, verbal self-regulation and depressive-like behavioural aspects (searching for identity).

CONCLUSIONS

The behavioural phenomena exhibited in a certain emotional reference age may support the clinician to differentiate behavioural problems from psychopathological symptoms to yield the proper diagnosis.

Psychiatric Presentations and Medication Use in Older Adults With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

OBJECTIVE

Adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are living longer, yet research about the medical and psychiatric needs of older adults still lags behind that of younger individuals with IDD. The aim of this study was to assess age-related differences in the mental health presentations of adults with IDD.

METHODS

Fully deidentified data for adults 30 years and older were extracted from the START (Systemic, Therapeutic, Assessment, Resources, and Treatment) Information Reporting System, a deidentified database housed at the Center for START Services. Caregivers and START team documents reported psychiatric diagnoses, service use, recent stressors, and challenging behaviors. t Tests, Mann Whitney U tests, χ² tests, and multinominal logistic regression models were used to compare the two age groups, 30-49 years (n = 1,188) versus 50 years and older (n = 464).

RESULTS

Older adults had more medical conditions, fewer reported psychiatric conditions, and were more likely to be taking more psychiatric medications compared to younger adults, after adjusting for demographic variables, disability level, and number of recent stressors.

CONCLUSION

Although older individuals reported fewer psychiatric diagnoses, they were more likely to take higher numbers of psychiatric medications and have more medical conditions. Clinicians and researchers ought to devote more attention to the healthcare needs of older adults with IDD, a vulnerable group exposed to polypharmacy and at risk of adverse events.

Comparison of Autistic Individuals Who Engage in Self-Injurious Behavior, Aggression, and Both Behaviors

BACKGROUND

Two of the most challenging behaviors exhibited by individuals on the autism spectrum are self-injurious behavior (SIB) and aggression. The aim of this study was to identify co-occurring symptoms, behaviors, and medical comorbidities that may provide insight into understanding and treating these behaviors.

METHOD

A large-scale online survey was used to collect data on symptoms, behaviors, and medically related comorbidities commonly reported in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Based on responses from 2327 participants, individuals with ASD were divided into four categories: individuals who engaged in SIB only, individuals who engaged in aggression only, individuals who engaged in both behaviors, and individuals who engaged in neither behavior.

RESULTS

There were several characteristics and comorbidities associated with those who engaged in SIB only and in aggression only, in addition to those who engaged in both behaviors.

CONCLUSION

The findings in this study provide evidence to support at least two underlying causes of these behaviors (insensitivity to pain and reactions to food) as well as implications for treating them. Furthermore, several behaviors often observed during early childhood may be considered early predictors of these challenging behaviors.

Dialectical behavior therapy-skills system for cognitively challenged individuals with self-harm: a Swedish pilot study

Background: Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an evidence-based treatment for self-harm and emotion regulation difficulties. A modified version, DBT-Skills System (DBT-SS), has been developed in the USA for individuals with cognitive difficulties. The present study is a pilot study, testing the DBT-SS in a Swedish context. Methods: Six participants were treated with individual therapy and group skills training for 48 sessions each. A case series design was used to follow individual development over time. The primary outcome measure was reduction in challenging behaviors. Secondary outcomes were level of functioning in daily life, hospital admissions, and resilience and vulnerabilities in different risk domains. Data was analyzed using time-series diagrams. Effect sizes of changes were calculated using Cohen's d. Results: Challenging behaviors decreased over time and participants' global level of functioning increased. There was a reduction in number of hospital admissions over time. As for resilience and vulnerabilities, participants' overall level of risk in various areas remained unchanged or decreased after treatment. Conclusions: The results indicate that DBT-SS might be a promising treatment for cognitively challenged individuals with emotion regulation difficulties and challenging behaviors in a Swedish context. The study provides suggestions for a future randomized controlled trial. Supplemental data for this article is available online at here.

Posterior hypothalamus as a target in the treatment of aggression: From lesioning to deep brain stimulation

Intermittent explosive disorder can be described as a severe "affective aggression" condition, for which drugs and other supportive therapies are not fully effective. In the first half of the 19th century, experimental studies progressively increased knowledge of aggressive disorders. A neurobiologic approach revealed the posterior hypothalamic region as a key structure for the modulation of aggression. In the 1960s, patients with severe aggressive disorder, frequently associated with intellectual disability, were treated by bilateral stereotactic lesioning of the posterior hypothalamic area, with efficacy. This therapy was later abandoned because of issues related to the misuse of psychosurgery. In the last 2 decades, however, the same diencephalic target has been selected for the reversible treatment by deep brain stimulation, with success. This chapter presents a comprehensive approach to posterior hypothalamic surgery for the treatment of severely aggressive patients and discusses the experimental steps that allowed this surgical target to be selected. Surgical experiences are reported, together with considerations on target features and related encephalic circuits.

The Prevalence of Self-injurious Behaviour in Autism: A Meta-analytic Study

Self-injurious behaviour is purportedly common in autism, but prevalence rates have not yet been synthesised meta-analytically. In the present study, data from 14,379 participants in thirty-seven papers were analysed to generate a pooled prevalence estimate of self-injury in autism of 42% (confidence intervals 0.38-0.47). Hand-hitting topography was the most common form of self-injury (23%), self-cutting topography the least common (3%). Sub-group analyses revealed no association between study quality, participant intellectual disability or age and overall prevalence rate of self-injury. However, females obtained higher prevalence rates than males (p = .013) and hair pulling and self-scratching were associated with intellectual disability (p = .008 and p = .002, respectively). The results confirm very high rates of self-injury in autism and highlight within group risk-markers.

Factors affecting the relationship between adaptive behavior and challenging behaviors in individuals with intellectual disability and co-occurring disorders

Previous studies have reported an inverse relationship between adaptive behavior and challenging behaviors in individuals with ID. However, it is unclear which characteristics might influence this relationship in individuals with ID and co-occurring conditions. We found a positive correlation between adaptive behavior (Vineland-II) and challenging behaviors (Nisonger Child Behavior Rating Form) in a study of 105 individuals who presented with mostly severe to profound ID and comorbid physical and mental health conditions. These results might be the consequence of the individual participant characteristics. Therefore, participants were separated out into two groups representing the top (n = 24) and bottom quartiles (n = 28) for presence of challenging behaviors. The participants with the highest levels of challenging behaviors had higher levels of adaptive behavior, higher frequency of intermittent explosive/conduct disorder, but lower frequency of epilepsy and cerebral palsy. All participants with the highest levels of challenging behaviors lived in an institutional setting; whereas, those with the lowest level of challenging behaviors lived in either an institutional setting or with their family. In participants with severe/profound ID and multiple co-occurring disorders, a minimum level of adaptive behavior seems to be necessary for the expression of challenging behaviors.

The Persistence of Self-injurious and Aggressive Behavior in Males with Fragile X Syndrome Over 8 Years: A Longitudinal Study of Prevalence and Predictive Risk Markers

Self-injurious and aggressive behaviors are common in fragile X syndrome (FXS). However, little is known about the persistence of these behaviors and associated risk markers. We established the prevalence and persistence of self-injurious and aggressive behaviors over eight years in males with FXS, and associations with risk markers. Results showed 77% and 69% persistence rates for self-injurious and aggressive behavior, respectively. Baseline levels of repetitive behavior predicted persistent self-injurious behavior. Chronological age, impulsivity and overactivity were associated with persistent aggressive behavior but only impulsivity predicted persistence. This is the first study to document the persistence of self-injurious and aggressive behavior in FXS over the medium to long term and to identify behavioral risk markers that might facilitate targeted early intervention.

Frequency and origin (reactive/proactive) of aggressive behavior in young people with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

The aim was to investigate the aggressive behavior of young people in specialized institutions with intellectual disability (ID) with or without autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

METHOD

Data on 305 institutionalized young people were collected using two aggression scales, the 'Children's Scale of Hostility and Aggression: Reactive/Proactive', and the 'Behavior Problems Inventory - Short Form'.

FINDINGS

Our results show that the behavioral manifestations differ between the clinical groups (ID/ID with ASD). In addition, they reveal a decrease in all aggressive and stereotyped behaviors at 16 years in participants with ID but not in those with the dual diagnosis (ID and ASD). There would be an increase in self-injury with age in people with ID and ASD. Finally, the aggressive behaviors (verbal, relational, bullying) of people with only ID are significantly more proactive than reactive.

Assessments and Interventions to Address Challenging Behavior in Individuals with Intellectual Disability and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Japan: A Consolidated Review

Intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder are neurodevelopmental disorders that emerge during the developmental period. A significant barrier that impedes the social adaptation of individuals with these disorders is the exhibition of problem behaviors, such as self-injurious, stereotyped, and aggressive/destructive behaviors. In recent years, these problem behaviors have been collectively referred to as "challenging behavior," in accordance with the contention that they result from an interaction between the individual and his or her social environment. Evidence-based psychosocial interventions that adopt the functional approach to treating challenging behavior are increasing. However, in order to effectively implement such interventions in educational settings and welfare facilities, it is essential to develop staff training programs and usable psychometric assessments. Accordingly, a brief overview of research studies on challenging behavior that have been conducted in Japan, as well as the various support systems that are available to individuals who exhibit challenging behavior, are presented in this article. The discussion makes it apparent that, in order to improve treatment systems in Japan that are aimed at addressing challenging behavior, it is necessary to establish not only better staff training programs, but also reliable and valid assessments measuring challenging behavior that can be readily used by teachers and parents. On the basis of this discussion, it is proposed that technological advancements must be applied to psychosocial approaches in the study of problem behaviors, in order to develop assessment system using software applications and automatic measurement system of target behaviors using sensing technology.

Risk factors and topographies for self-injurious behaviour in a sample of adults with intellectual developmental disorders

BACKGROUND

Self-injurious behaviour (SIB) is a prevalent form of challenging behaviour in people with intellectual developmental disorders (IDD). Existing research has yielded conflicting findings concerning the major risk factors involved, and in addition, SIB shows multiple topographies and presentations. Although presence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and severity of intellectual disability (ID) are known risk factors for SIB, there are no studies comparing SIB topographies by severity degrees of ID and ASD. The purpose of the present paper has been to identify risk factors and topographies for SIB in a representative, stratified and randomised sample of adults with IDD.

METHOD

This study was conducted on the basis of data collected by the POMONA-ESP project, in a sample of 833 adults with IDD. Data concerning demographic and health information, ASD symptoms, psychopathology and ID, have been analysed to determine the presence of risk factors for SIB among participants and to explore the occurrence and topographies of SIB across different severity levels of ID and ASD symptoms.

RESULTS

Self-injurious behaviour prevalence in the sample was 16.2%. Younger age, oral pain, greater severity of ID, presence of dual diagnosis, psychiatric medication intake and higher scores on Childhood Autism Rating Scale were risk factors for SIB among participants, whereas number of areas with functioning limitations, place of residence, diagnosis of epilepsy and sex were not. SIB was more frequent in participants with ASD symptoms regardless of its severity level, and they displayed a higher number of different topographies of SIB. People with profound ID without co-morbid ASD symptoms showed similar results concerning SIB prevalence and topographies.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge on risk factors and topographies of SIB might play a vital role in the development of prevention strategies and management of SIB in people with IDD. The mere presence of ASD symptoms, regardless of its severity level, can be a crucial factor to be taken into account in assessing SIB. Accordingly, the presence of SIB in people with ID, especially when presented with a varied number of topographies, might provide guidance on ASD differential diagnosis.

Suicide amongst people with intellectual disability: An Australian online study of disability support staff experiences and perceptions

BACKGROUND

Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) have a higher likelihood of exposure to identified risk factors for suicide when compared with the general community and have been recognised as being both capable of forming intent for suicide and acting on this intent. However, in spite of research outlining these concerns from the 1970s, there remains a dearth of studies that examine suicide amongst the population of people with ID.

METHOD

An online cross-sectional survey was purposively developed, with questions aimed at identifying both the experiences and current practices of support staff who assist people with ID in relation to suicide, suicidal behaviour and suicide assessment. It was undertaken across both rural and metropolitan areas in Australia. The survey was open for a period of 12 months. A total of 139 respondents (109 female/30 male), with a mean age of 41 and an average 12 years of experience in supporting people with ID, completed the tool.

RESULTS

A total of nine suicides by people with ID were reported. Seventy-seven per cent of the respondents reported that they had individuals with ID display suicidal behaviours, and 76% noted that a person had specifically talked about wishing to end their life. Only four participants (3%) noted that they did not support individuals with a dual diagnosis of ID and mental health concern. Sixty per cent of participants reported that no one in their organisation had ever completed a suicide risk assessment, and only 28% reported that they would do a suicide risk assessment if an individual that they supported was diagnosed with a mental health issue.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings indicate that support staff recognise the capacity of people with ID to conceptualise suicide, note the existence of suicidal discussions and behaviours and report on actual suicides. This represents one of the few Australian studies that has specifically considered suicide amongst this cohort of people and reinforces the fact that suicide is not unknown in this population. The data indicate a possible divide between the reports of people with ID actively talking about and acting on suicidal thoughts and the lack of any proactive use of any tools to assess for this risk.

Exploring the brain through posterior hypothalamus surgery for aggressive behavior

Neurological surgery offers an opportunity to study brain functions, through either resection or implanted neuromodulation devices. Pathological aggressive behavior in patients with intellectual disability is a frequent condition that is difficult to treat using either supportive care or pharmacological therapy. The bulk of the laboratory studies performed throughout the 19th century enabled the formulation of hypotheses on brain circuits involved in the generation of emotions. Aggressive behavior was also studied extensively. Lesional radiofrequency surgery of the posterior hypothalamus, which peaked in the 1970s, was shown to be an effective therapy in many reported series. As with other surgical procedures for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, however, this therapy was abandoned for many reasons, including the risk of its misuse. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) offers the possibility of treating neurological and psychoaffective disorders through relatively reversible and adaptable therapy. Deep brain stimulation of the posterior hypothalamus was proposed and performed successfully in 2005 as a treatment for aggressive behavior. Other groups reported positive outcomes using target and parameter settings similar to those of the original study. Both the lesional and DBS approaches enabled researchers to explore the role of the posterior hypothalamus (or posterior hypothalamic area) in the autonomic and emotional systems.

Age and gender-related differences in emotional and behavioural problems and autistic features in children and adolescents with Down syndrome: a survey-based study of 674 individuals

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have indicated an increased risk of autism, behavioural and emotional problems and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals with Down syndrome.

METHOD

In a large-scale survey-based study, we examined the rates of these problems and their relationship to age and gender, in a sample of 674 individuals (4-18 years) with Down syndrome. The relationship with IQ level was also explored in a subsample (n = 175). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Social Communication Questionnaire were used to assess behavioural and emotional problems and autism traits.

RESULTS

On the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, peer problems were the most frequently reported difficulty (48% > cut-off), followed by hyperactivity/inattention (34% > cut-off). On the Social Communication Questionnaire, 37% scored at or above cut-off (≥15) for autism spectrum disorder; 17% were at or above the suggested cut-off (≥22) for autism. Little association between age and behavioural or emotional problems or with severity of autistic symptomatology was found. However, peer problems were more common in adolescents than in junior school children (P < 0.001); Hyperactivity/inattention was less prevalent among adolescents (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

High rates of autistic features, emotional and behavioural problems are documented. These problems are related to age, gender and degree of intellectual disability.

Measures of readiness for cognitive behavioural therapy in people with intellectual disability: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a promising treatment for mental health problems in people with intellectual disabilities but some may not be suited or ready. This review critically evaluates the quality and utility of measures of CBT readiness in people with intellectual disabilities.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Twelve studies of six measures based on three aspects of CBT readiness were identified through systematic review.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Across measures, measurement quality was largely poor or un-assessed. Only one study evaluated measurement change over the course of CBT. Not all participants with intellectual disabilities could 'pass' readiness measures and performance may be affected by levels of language and cognitive functioning. There was some evidence that CBT readiness is trainable with brief interventions.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Before using readiness measures in a clinical context, further work is needed to extend initial evidence on recognising cognitive mediation as a CBT readiness ability. Given the lack of consensus as to the definition of CBT readiness and the heterogeneity of CBT interventions, future research could also focus on developing readiness measures using a bottom up approach, developing measures within the context of CBT interventions themselves, before further refining and establishing their psychometric properties.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

This paper is the first to systematically review measures of skills thought necessary to be ready for cognitive behavioural therapy in intellectual disabilities. The findings suggest that while readiness skills may be trainable with brief interventions, the available measures of these skills have not been fully evaluated for quality. Levels of functioning on these measures have yet to be established relative to those without intellectual disabilities and critically, there is very little evidence as to whether these skills are important in cognitive behavioural therapy process and outcome. We suggest that future research could focus on those constructs where there is preliminary evidence for utility such as recognising cognitive mediation and also on developing the concept of readiness perhaps by developing measures within the context of specific CBT interventions. Until this is done, clinicians should exercise caution in using these measures to assess readiness for cognitive behavioural therapy in people with intellectual disabilities.

Identification and Analysis of Factors Contributing to the Reduction in Seclusion and Restraint for a Population with Intellectual Disability

BACKGROUND

A cohort of 11 patients with an intellectual disability and a psychiatric diagnosis present severe behavioural disorders in psychiatric hospital of Quebec in 2009. Control-measure use for this clientele has now been reduced. How do management personnel, families and care teams explain the changes? What clinical interventions did management and care providers implement that contributed to the reduction?

METHOD

A retrospective case study was conducted. Five focus groups were held with people involved in their care, and the patient files were examined.

RESULTS

The factors contributing to this change were the cohesion of the care providers, the involvement of the families and the efforts to determine the function of the behaviour.

IMPLICATIONS

This study may inspire other care teams to try new approaches in dealing with patients with severe behavioural disorders. Also, the model of factors and interventions supporting a reduction in seclusion and restraint measures may inspire future studies.

Factors associated with reported challenging behavior in young people with epilepsy and neurodevelopmental problems: Data from a specialist epilepsy center

Reported incidents of challenging behavior over a 6‐month period (December 2011–May 2012) were systematically recorded in young people (8–23 years) with epilepsy (n = 125), and a comparison group of young people without epilepsy (n = 64) at a specialist epilepsy center in the United Kingdom. Factors associated with such incidents were analyzed via regression analysis. The presence of epilepsy was not a significant predictor of recorded challenging behavior. Factors associated with increases in recorded challenging behavior on multivariable analysis in the epilepsy sample were the use of medication for behavioral/psychiatric conditions (p < 0.05) and attending the center on a residential basis (p < 0.001). In the total sample, use of medication for behavioral/psychiatric conditions (p < 0.05), younger age (p < 0.01), IQ < 50 (p < 0.01), and residential status (p < 0.001) were associated with increases in recorded challenging behavior. The presence of depression was associated with reduced challenging behavior in the total sample (p < 0.05).The association between the use of psychopharmacology and increased challenging behavior in those with epilepsy and nonepilepsy could indicate a difficult to treat behavioral/psychiatric burden, lack of treatment efficacy, and/or an increased side effect profile and needs further examination.

Persistence of self-injurious behaviour in autism spectrum disorder over 3 years: a prospective cohort study of risk markers

Background

There are few studies documenting the persistence of self-injury in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and consequently limited data on behavioural and demographic characteristics associated with persistence. In this longitudinal study, we investigated self-injury in a cohort of individuals with ASD over 3 years to identify behavioural and demographic characteristics associated with persistence.

Methods

Carers of 67 individuals with ASD (Median age of individuals with ASD in years = 13.5, Interquartile Range = 10.00–17.00), completed questionnaires relating to the presence and topography of self-injury at T₁ and three years later at T₂. Analyses were conducted to evaluate the persistence of self-injury and to evaluate the behavioural and demographic characteristics associated with persistence of self-injury.

Results

At T₂ self-injurious behaviour had persisted in 77.8 % of individuals. Behavioural correlates of being non-verbal, having lower ability and higher levels of overactivity, impulsivity and repetitive behaviour, were associated with self-injury at both time points. Risk markers of impulsivity (p = 0.021) and deficits in social interaction (p = 0.026) at T₁ were associated with the persistence of self-injury over 3 years.

Conclusions

Impulsivity and deficits in social interaction are associated with persistent self-injury in ASD and thus may act as behavioural risk markers. The identification of these risk markers evidences a role for behaviour dysregulation in the development and maintenance of self-injury. The findings have clinical implications for proactive intervention; these behavioural characteristics may be utilised to identify ‘at risk’ individuals for whom self-injury is likely to be persistent and therefore those individuals for whom early intervention may be most warranted.

Self-injury, aggression and destruction in children with severe intellectual disability: Incidence, persistence and novel, predictive behavioural risk markers

BACKGROUND

A risk informed, early intervention strategy for self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviours in children with severe intellectual disability is gaining support. The aims of this study were to establish the cumulative incidence and persistence of self-injury, aggression and destruction and the relationship between these behaviours and two potentially predictive behavioural risk markers (repetitive behaviour, and impulsivity and overactivity) in children at high risk.

METHODS

In a longitudinal design self-injury, aggression and destruction were assessed by teachers of 417 children with severe intellectual disability on two occasions separated by 15-18 months.

RESULTS

Aggression, destruction and self-injury were persistent (69%, 57% and 58% respectively). Repetitive and restricted behaviours and interests (RRBI) and overactivity/impulsivity (O/I) were significantly associated with aggression (O/I OR=1.291, p<.001), destruction (RRBI OR 1.201, p=.013; O/I OR 1.278, p<.001) and/or self-injury (RRBI, OR 1.25, p=.004; O/I OR=1.117, p<.001). The relative risk of the cumulative incidence of self-injury, aggression and destruction was significantly increased by repetitive and restricted behaviours and interests (self-injury 2.66, destruction 2.16) and/or overactivity/impulsivity (aggression 2.42, destruction 2.07).

CONCLUSIONS

The results provide evidence that repetitive and restricted behaviours and interests, and overactivity/impulsivity, are risk markers for the onset of self-injury, aggression and destruction within the already high risk group of children with severe intellectual disability.

Self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour in children with severe intellectual disability: Prevalence, service need and service receipt in the UK

Children with severe intellectual disabilities are at increased risk of presenting with self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour. Severity of these behaviours is an important predictor of psychological and behavioural service use by people with intellectual disabilities. However, studies suggest that the needs of children with intellectual disabilities and their families are not being met. The aims of the present study were to: (1) describe the self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviours and subsequent support needs of children with severe intellectual disabilities attending special schools in one major city within the UK, (2) compare teacher and primary carer ratings of behaviour and service need and (3) explore the extent to which the needs of children with intellectual disabilities are being met in terms of contact with relevant specialist services. Questionnaires were completed by teachers and primary family carers of children with a severe intellectual disability. Results indicated that at least 5.3% and 4.1% of children showed at least one behaviour at a clinically significant frequency and management difficulty respectively. Primary carers identified more children with significant behaviour difficulties and support needs than teachers. The odds for children presenting with high levels of the behaviours of interest for having a service need for behavioural intervention were at least 13 times those for children not showing the behaviours, yet only doubled for contact with a specialist relevant health-care professional. These results quantify the magnitude of the substantial gap between level of need and relevant support received.

Practitioner Review: Self-injurious behaviour in children with developmental delay

BACKGROUND

Self-injurious behaviour is shown by a significant minority of children with developmental delay and has a substantial impact on child and carer wellbeing. Characteristics such as a greater degree of intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, some genetic syndromes and repetitive and impulsive behaviours are positively associated with self-injury. Prevalence generally increases with age into midadulthood and the behaviour is notably persistent.

SCOPE

In this review, we discuss the dominant causal theory of self-injury which draws on the principles of operant learning. We evaluate the utility of this theory to account for all empirical observations of self-injury.

FINDINGS

A model of self-injury is presented that extends a previous model described by Guess and Carr. The new model integrates child characteristics and operant learning principles in a phenotype × environment paradigm to explain the variance in developmental trajectory of the severity of self-injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Behaviour dysregulation, as evidenced by the associations between self-injury, self-restraint, repetitive and impulsive behaviours, is identified as potentially influencing the severity and persistence of self-injury. Risk markers for self-injury are identified and the extended model indicates points of intervention and highlights the possibility of risk-related, targeted early intervention. The need for increased training of practitioners in the delivery of demonstrably effective interventions for self-injury is identified.

Mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic drug prescribing in people with intellectual disability: UK population based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To describe the incidence of recorded mental illness and challenging behaviour in people with intellectual disability in UK primary care and to explore the prescription of psychotropic drugs in this group.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

571 general practices contributing data to The Health Improvement Network clinical database.

PARTICIPANTS

33,016 adults (58% male) with intellectual disability who contributed 211,793 person years' data.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Existing and new records of mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic drug prescription.

RESULTS

21% (7065) of the cohort had a record of mental illness at study entry, 25% (8300) had a record of challenging behaviour, and 49% (16,242) had a record of prescription of psychotropic drugs. During follow-up, the rate of new cases of mental illness in people without a history at cohort entry was 262 (95% confidence interval 254 to 271) per 10,000 person years and the rate of challenging behaviour was 239 (231 to 247) per 10,000 person years. The rate of new psychotropic drug prescription in those without a previous history of psychotropic drug treatment was 518 (503 to 533) per 10,000 person years. Rates of new recording of severe mental illness declined by 5% (95% confidence interval 3% to 7%) per year (P<0.001), and new prescriptions of antipsychotics declined by 4% (3% to 5%) per year P<0.001) between 1999 and 2013. New prescriptions of mood stabilisers also decreased significantly. The rate of new antipsychotic prescribing was significantly higher in people with challenging behaviour (incidence rate ratio 2.08, 95% confidence interval 1.90 to 2.27; P<0.001), autism (1.79, 1.56 to 2.04; P<0.001), and dementia (1.42, 1.12 to 1.81; P<0.003) and in those of older age, after control for other sociodemographic factors and comorbidity.

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of people with intellectual disability who have been treated with psychotropic drugs far exceeds the proportion with recorded mental illness. Antipsychotics are often prescribed to people without recorded severe mental illness but who have a record of challenging behaviour. The findings suggest that changes are needed in the prescribing of psychotropics for people with intellectual disability. More evidence is needed of the efficacy and safety of psychotropic drugs in this group, particularly when they are used for challenging behaviour.

The developmental trajectory of disruptive behavior in Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome and Williams syndrome

The aim of this study was to investigate the developmental trajectories of verbal aggression, physical aggression, and temper tantrums in four genetic syndrome groups. Participants were part of the Australian Child to Adult Development Study (ACAD), which collected information from a cohort of individuals with an intellectual disability at five time points over 18 years. Data were examined from a total of 248 people with one of the four following syndromes: Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, or Williams syndrome. Changes in behaviors were measured using validated items from the Developmental Behavior Checklist (DBC). The results indicate that, while verbal aggression shows no evidence of diminishing with age, physical aggression, and temper tantrums decline with age before 19 years for people with Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and William syndrome; and after 19 years for people with Prader-Willi syndrome. These findings offer a somewhat more optimistic outlook for people with an intellectual disability than has previously been suggested. Research is needed to investigate the mechanisms predisposing people with PWS to persistence of temper tantrums and physical aggression into adulthood.

Effects of parent management training programs on disruptive behavior for children with a developmental disability: a meta-analysis

This meta-analysis determined the effects of parent management training (PMT) on disruptive behaviors in children with a developmental disability. Parent management training programs, based on behavioral theories of psychology, are commonly used in addressing disruptive behavior in children. Eleven studies met inclusion criteria with a total of 540 participants, with 275 in experimental groups and 265 in control groups. The effect of PMT on the disruptive behavior in children with a developmental disability was significant (g=0.39). The moderator effects of type of PMT, delivery type and setting, and administrator level of education were also significant. The moderator effects of child age, and session number and duration were not significant in this meta-analysis.

The prevalence of aggression in genetic syndromes: a review

Research into behavioural phenotypes identifies both environmental and organic factors as influencing aggression in children and adults with genetic disorders associated with intellectual disability. However, in contrast to self-injury there is a paucity of research that compares aggression across relevant syndromes. The primary aim of this review is to examine the association between aggression and genetic syndromes by analysis of prevalence studies. The review also examines the literature on the form of the behaviour and influence of environmental factors. Results imply that certain syndrome groups (Cri du Chat, Smith-Magenis, Prader-Willi, Angelman, Cornelia de Lange, and Fragile X syndromes; estimates over 70%) evidence a stronger association with aggression than others (e.g. Williams and Down syndromes; estimates below 15%). However, the strength of association is difficult to quantify due to methodological differences between studies. The results from examining form and environmental influences highlight the importance of phenotype-environment interactions. Research employing group comparison designs is warranted and future work on the assessment and intervention of aggression in genetic syndromes should consider the importance of phenotype-environment interactions.

Correlates of self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour in children under five who are at risk of developmental delay

AIM

Several behavioural correlates of self-injury, aggression and destructive behaviour have been identified in children and young adults with intellectual disabilities. This cross-sectional study aimed to further explore these correlates in very young children with developmental delay.

METHODS

Parents of 56 children (40 male) under the age of five years (mean age 2 years 10 months) completed a questionnaire about their child's behaviour and the presence of behavioural correlates, including repetitive, over-active or impulsive behaviour and more severe developmental delay.

RESULTS

Parents reported very high prevalence of self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour: 51%, 64% and 51%, respectively. A binary logistic regression revealed that a higher score on a measure of overactive and impulsive behaviour significantly predicted the presence of destructive behaviour. A multiple linear regression revealed that both repetitive behaviour and number of health problems approached significance as independent predictors of severe self-injurious behaviour.

INTERPRETATION

Despite the very small sample, several factors emerged as potential predictors of self-injurious, aggressive and destructive behaviour. These findings support the need for further investigation in a larger sample. Confirmation in this age group could help guide the development of targeted early intervention for these behaviours by identifying behavioural risk markers.