Temporal processing in schizophrenia: effects of task-difficulty on behavioral discrimination and neuronal responses

Comparison of cognitive performance in first-episode drug-naïve schizophrenia, bipolar II disorder, and major depressive disorder patients after treatment

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment is a recognized fundamental deficit in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia (SZ), bipolar II disorder (BD II), and major depressive disorder (MDD), among other psychiatric disorders. However, limited research has compared cognitive function among first-episode drug-naïve individuals with SZ, BD II, or MDD.

METHODS

This study aimed to address this gap by assessing the cognitive performance of 235 participants (40 healthy controls, 58 SZ patients, 72 BD II patients, and 65 MDD patients) using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) before and after 12 weeks of treatment in SZ, BD II, and MDD patients. To clarify, the healthy controls only underwent RBANS testing at baseline, whereas the patient groups were assessed before and after treatment. The severity of symptoms in SZ patients was measured using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), and depression in BD II and MDD patients was assessed using the Hamilton Depression Scale-24 items (HAMD-24 items).

RESULTS

Two hundred participants completed the 12-week treatment period, with 35 participants dropping out due to various reasons. This group included 49 SZ patients, 58 BD II patients, and 53 MDD patients. Among SZ patients, significant improvements in immediate and delayed memory were observed after 12 weeks of treatment compared to their initial scores. Similarly, BD II patients showed significant improvement in immediate and delayed memory following treatment. However, there were no significant differences in RBANS scores for MDD patients after 12 weeks of treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that individuals with BD II and SZ may share similar deficits in cognitive domains. It is important to note that standardized clinical treatment may have varying degrees of effectiveness in improving cognitive function in patients with BD II and SZ, which could potentially alleviate cognitive dysfunction.

Resting-state perfusion in motor and fronto-limbic areas is linked to diminished expression of emotion and speech in schizophrenia

Negative symptoms (NS) are a core component of schizophrenia affecting community functioning and quality of life. We tested neural correlates of NS considering NS factors and consensus subdomains. We assessed NS using the Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms and the Scale for Assessment of Negative Symptoms. Arterial spin labeling was applied to measure resting-state cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in 47 schizophrenia patients and 44 healthy controls. Multiple regression analyses calculated the relationship between rCBF and NS severity. We found an association between diminished expression (DE) and brain perfusion within the cerebellar anterior lobe and vermis, and the pre-, and supplementary motor area. Blunted affect was linked to fusiform gyrus and alogia to fronto-striatal rCBF. In contrast, motivation and pleasure was not associated with rCBF. These results highlight the key role of motor areas for DE. Considering NS factors and consensus subdomains may help identifying specific pathophysiological pathways of NS.

Time discrimination and change detection could share a common brain network: findings of a task-based fMRI study

Introduction

Over the past few years, several studies have described the brain activation pattern related to both time discrimination (TD) and change detection processes. We hypothesize that both processes share a common brain network which may play a significant role in more complex cognitive processes. The main goal of this proof-of-concept study is to describe the pattern of brain activity involved in TD and oddball detection (OD) paradigms, and in processes requiring higher cognitive effort.

Methods

We designed an experimental task, including an auditory test tool to assess TD and OD paradigms, which was conducted under functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 14 healthy participants. We added a cognitive control component into both paradigms in our test tool. We used the general linear model (GLM) to analyze the individual fMRI data images and the random effects model for group inference.

Results

We defined the areas of brain activation related to TD and OD paradigms. We performed a conjunction analysis of contrast TD (task > control) and OD (task > control) patterns, finding both similarities and significant differences between them.

Discussion

We conclude that change detection and other cognitive processes requiring an increase in cognitive effort require participation of overlapping functional and neuroanatomical components, suggesting the presence of a common time and change detection network. This is of particular relevance for future research on normal cognitive functioning in the healthy population, as well as for the study of cognitive impairment and clinical manifestations associated with various neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia.

Dysconnection and cognition in schizophrenia: A spectral dynamic causal modeling study

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a severe mental disorder characterized by failure of functional integration (aka dysconnection) across the brain. Recent functional connectivity (FC) studies have adopted functional parcellations to define subnetworks of large-scale networks, and to characterize the (dys)connection between them, in normal and clinical populations. While FC examines statistical dependencies between observations, model-based effective connectivity (EC) can disclose the causal influences that underwrite the observed dependencies. In this study, we investigated resting state EC within seven large-scale networks, in 66 SZ and 74 healthy subjects from a public dataset. The results showed that a remarkable 33% of the effective connections (among subnetworks) of the cognitive control network had been pathologically modulated in SZ. Further dysconnection was identified within the visual, default mode and sensorimotor networks of SZ subjects, with 24%, 20%, and 11% aberrant couplings. Overall, the proportion of discriminative connections was remarkably larger in EC (24%) than FC (1%) analysis. Subsequently, to study the neural correlates of impaired cognition in SZ, we conducted a canonical correlation analysis between the EC parameters and the cognitive scores of the patients. As such, the self-inhibitions of supplementary motor area and paracentral lobule (in the sensorimotor network) and the excitatory connection from parahippocampal gyrus to inferior temporal gyrus (in the cognitive control network) were significantly correlated with the social cognition, reasoning/problem solving and working memory capabilities of the patients. Future research can investigate the potential of whole-brain EC as a biomarker for diagnosis of brain disorders and for neuroimaging-based cognitive assessment.

Basic auditory processing and its relationship with symptoms in patients with schizophrenia: A systematic review

Processing of basic auditory features, one of the earliest stages of auditory perception, has been the focus of considerable investigations in schizophrenia. Although numerous studies have shown abnormalities in pitch perception in schizophrenia, other basic auditory features such as intensity, duration, and sound localization have been less explored. Additionally, the relationship between basic auditory features and symptom severity shows inconsistent results, preventing concrete conclusions. Our aim was to present a comprehensive overview of basic auditory processing in schizophrenia and its relationship with symptoms. We conducted a systematic review according to the PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Embase, and PsycINFO databases were searched for studies exploring auditory perception in schizophrenia compared to controls, with at least one behavioral task investigating basic auditory processing using pure tones. Forty-one studies were included. The majority investigated pitch processing while the others investigated intensity, duration and sound localization. The results revealed that patients have a significant deficit in the processing of all basic auditory features. Although the search for a relationship with symptoms was limited, auditory hallucinations experience appears to have an impact on basic auditory processing. Further research may examine correlations with clinical symptoms to explore the performance of patient subgroups and possibly implement remediation strategies.

Timing dysfunction and cerebellar resting state functional connectivity abnormalities in youth at clinical high-risk for psychosis

BACKGROUND

Consistent with pathophysiological models of psychosis, temporal disturbances in schizophrenia spectrum populations may reflect abnormal cortical (e.g. prefrontal cortex) and subcortical (e.g. striatum) cerebellar connectivity. However, few studies have examined associations between cerebellar connectivity and timing dysfunction in psychosis populations, and none have been conducted in youth at clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis. Thus, it is currently unknown if impairments in temporal processes are present in CHR youth or how they may be associated with cerebellar connectivity and worsening of symptoms.

METHODS

A total of 108 (56 CHR/52 controls) youth were administered an auditory temporal bisection task along with a resting state imaging scan to examine cerebellar resting state connectivity. Positive and negative symptoms at baseline and 12 months later were also quantified.

RESULTS

Controlling for alcohol and cannabis use, CHR youth exhibited poorer temporal accuracy compared to controls, and temporal accuracy deficits were associated with abnormal connectivity between the bilateral anterior cerebellum and a right caudate/nucleus accumbens striatal cluster. Poor temporal accuracy accounted for 11% of the variance in worsening of negative symptoms over 12 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Behavioral findings suggest CHR youth perceive durations of auditory tones as shortened compared to objective time, which may indicate a slower internal clock. Poorer temporal accuracy in CHR youth was associated with abnormalities in brain regions involved in an important cerebellar network implicated in prominent pathophysiological models of psychosis. Lastly, temporal accuracy was associated with worsening of negative symptoms across 12 months, suggesting temporal dysfunction may be sensitive to illness progression.

Time Processing, Interoception, and Insula Activation: A Mini-Review on Clinical Disorders

Time processing is a multifaceted skill crucial for managing different aspects of life. In the current work, we explored the relationship between interoception and time processing by examining research on clinical models. We investigated whether time processing deficits are associated with dysfunction of the interoceptive system and/or insular cortex activity, which is crucial in decoding internal body signaling. Furthermore, we explored whether insular activation predicts the subjective experience of time (i.e., the subjective duration of a target stimulus to be timed). Overall, our work suggests that alteration of the interoceptive system could be a common psychophysiological hallmark of mental disorders affected by time processing deficits.

Aberrant timing and oddball detection in Schizophrenia: findings from a signed differential mapping meta-analysis

Schizophrenia (SZ) is associated with deficits in both temporal and salience processing. The underlying neurological dysfunctions in both processes, which are interrelated and share neuroanatomical bases, remain poorly understood. The principal objective of this study was to elucidate whether there are any brain regions that show abnormal response during timing and oddball tasks in patients with SZ. To this end, we conducted a signed differential mapping (SDM) meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies assessing abnormal responses elicited by tasks based on the oddball paradigm in patients with SZ. We conducted a similar SDM meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of timing tasks in SZ. Finally, we undertook a multimodal meta-analysis to detect the common findings of the two previous meta-analyses. We found that SZ patients showed hypoactivation in cortical and subcortical areas related to timing. The dysfunction observed during timing tasks partially coincided with deficiencies in change-detection functions (particularly in the case of preattentional processing in the mismatch negativity response). We hypothesize that a dysfunctional timing/change detection network underlies the cognitive impairment observed in SZ.

Effect of neonatal hyperoxia followed by concentrated ambient ultrafine particle exposure on cumulative learning in C57Bl/6J mice

Hyperoxia during treatment for prematurity may enhance susceptibility to other risk factors for adverse brain development, such as air pollution exposure, as both of these risk factors have been linked to a variety of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. This study investigated the combined effects of neonatal hyperoxia followed by inhalation of concentrated ambient ultrafine particles (CAPS, <100 nm in aerodynamic diameter) on learning. C57BL/6 J mice were birthed into 60% oxygen until postnatal day (PND) 4 and subsequently exposed to filtered air or to CAPS using the Harvard University Concentrated Ambient Particle System (HUCAPS) from PND 4-7 and 10-13. Behavior was assessed on a fixed interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement in which reward is available only after a fixed interval of time elapses, as well as expected reductions in behavior during an extinction procedure when reward was withheld. Both produce highly comparable behavioral performance across species. Performance measures included rate of responding, response accuracy, and temporal control (quarter life). Exposure to hyperoxia or CAPS resulted in lower mean quarter life values, an effect that was further enhanced in males by combined exposure, findings consistent with delayed learning of the FI schedule. Females also initially exhibited greater reductions in quarter life values following the combined exposure to hyperoxia and CAPS and delayed reductions in response rates during extinction. Combined hyperoxia and CAPS produced greater learning deficits than either risk factor alone, consistent with enhanced neurodevelopmental toxicity, findings that could reflect a convergence of both insults on common neurobiological systems. The basis for sex differences in outcome warrants further research. This study highlights the potential for heightened risk of adverse neurodevelopment outcomes in individuals born preterm in regions with higher levels of ultrafine particle (UFP) air pollution, in accord with the multiplicity of risk factors extant in the human environment.

Predictive timing disturbance is a precise marker of schizophrenia

Timing disturbances have being proposed as a key component of schizophrenia pathogenesis. However, the contribution of cognitive impairment to such disorders has not been clarified. Here, we investigated duration estimation and predictive timing in 30 patients with DSM-5 diagnosis of schizophrenia (SZ) compared to 30 healthy controls (HC). Duration estimation was examined in a temporal and colour discrimination task, fully controlled for working memory (WM) and attention requirements, and by more traditional temporal production and temporal bisection tasks. Predictive timing was measured in a temporal and spatial orienting of attention task. Expectations about stimulus onset (temporal condition) or location (spatial condition) were induced by valid and invalid symbolic cues. Results showed that discrimination of temporal and colour stimulus attributes was equally impaired in SZ. This, taken with the positive correlation between temporal bisection performance and neuropsychological measures of WM, indicates that duration estimation impairments in SZ are underpinned by WM dysfunction. Conversely, we found dissociation in temporal and spatial predictive ability in SZ. Unlike controls, patients were selectively unperturbed by events appearing at an unexpected moment in time, though were perturbed by targets appearing at an unexpected location. Moreover, patients were able to generate temporal expectations more implicitly, as their performance was influenced by the predictive nature of the flow of time itself. Our findings shed new light on the debate over the specificity of timing distortions in SZ, providing evidence that predictive timing is a precise marker of SZ, more sensitive than duration estimation, serving as a valid heuristic for studying the pathophysiology of the disorder.

The dopaminergic system dynamic in the time perception: a review of the evidence

Dopaminergic system plays a key role in perception, which is an important executive function of the brain. Modulation in dopaminergic system forms an important biochemical underpinning of neural mechanisms of time perception in a very wide range, from milliseconds to seconds to longer daily rhythms. Distinct types of temporal experience are poorly understood, and the relationship between processing of different intervals by the brain has received little attention. A comprehensive understanding of interval timing functions should be sought within a wider context of temporal processing, involving genetic aspects, pharmacological models, cognitive aspects, motor control and the neurological diseases with impaired dopaminergic system. Particularly, an unexplored question is whether the role of dopamine in interval timing can be integrated with the role of dopamine in non-interval timing temporal components. In this review, we explore a wider perspective of dopaminergic system, involving genetic polymorphisms, pharmacological models, executive functions and neurological diseases on the time perception. We conclude that the dopaminergic system has great participation in impact on time perception and neurobiological basis of the executive functions and neurological diseases.

Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of timing and cognitive control in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Evidence of a primary time deficit

Schizophrenia (SZ) and Bipolar Disorder (BD) are associated with deficits in both timing and cognitive control functions. However, the underlying neurological dysfunctions remain poorly understood. The main goal of this study was to identify brain structures activated both by increases in cognitive activity and during timing tasks in patients with SZ and BD relative to controls. We conducted two signed differential mapping (SDM) meta-analyses of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies assessing the brain response to increasing levels of cognitive difficulty: one concerned SZ, and the other BD patients. We conducted a similar SDM meta-analysis on neuroimaging of timing in SZ (no studies in BD could be included). Finally, we carried out a multimodal meta-analysis to identify common brain regions in the findings of the two previous meta-analyses. We found that SZ patients showed hypoactivation in timing-related cortical-subcortical areas. The dysfunction observed during timing partially coincided with deficits for cognitive control functions. We hypothesize that a dysfunctional temporal/cognitive control network underlies the persistent cognitive impairment observed in SZ.

Effect of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors on temporal discrimination by mice

Timing deficits are observed in patients with schizophrenia. Serotonergic hallucinogens can also alter the subjective experience of time. Characterizing the mechanism through which the serotonergic system regulates timing will increase our understanding of the linkage between serotonin (5-HT) and schizophrenia, and will provide insight into the mechanism of action of hallucinogens. We investigated whether interval timing in mice is altered by hallucinogens and other 5-HT2 receptor ligands. C57BL/6J mice were trained to perform a discrete-trials temporal discrimination task. In the discrete-trials task, mice were presented with two levers after a variable interval. Responding on lever A was reinforced if the interval was <6.5 s, and responding on lever B was reinforced if the interval was >6.5 s. A 2-parameter logistic function was fitted to the proportional choice for lever B (%B responding), yielding estimates of the indifference point (T50) and the Weber fraction (a measure of timing precision). The 5-HT2A antagonist M100907 increased T50, whereas the 5-HT2C antagonist SB-242,084 reduced T50. The results indicate that 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors have countervailing effects on the speed of the internal pacemaker. The hallucinogen 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine (DOI; 3 mg/kg IP), a 5-HT2 agonist, flattened the response curve at long stimulus intervals and shifted it to the right, causing both T50 and the Weber fraction to increase. The effect of DOI was antagonized by M100907 (0.03 mg/kg SC) but was unaffected by SB-242,084 (0.1 mg/kg SC). Similar to DOI, the selective 5-HT2A agonist 25CN-NBOH (6 mg/kg SC) reduced %B responding at long stimulus intervals, and increased T50 and the Weber fraction. These results demonstrate that hallucinogens alter temporal perception in mice, effects that are mediated by the 5-HT2A receptor. It appears that 5-HT regulates temporal perception, suggesting that altered serotonergic signaling may contribute to the timing deficits observed in schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders.

Explicit Time Deficit in Schizophrenia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Indicate It Is Primary and Not Domain Specific

Although timing deficits are a robust finding in schizophrenia (SZ), the notion of a genuine time perception disorder in SZ is still being debated because distortions in timing might depend on neuropsychological deficits that are characteristics of the illness. Here we used meta-analytic methods to summarize the evidence of timing deficits in SZ and moderator analyses to determine whether defective timing in SZ arises from nontemporal sources or from defective time perception. PubMed Services, PsycNET, and Scopus were searched through March 2015, and all references in articles were investigated to find other relevant studies. Studies were selected if they included subjects with a primary diagnosis of SZ compared to a healthy control (HC) group and if they reported behavioral measures of duration estimation (perceptual and motor explicit timing). Data from 24 studies published from 1956 to 2015, which comprised 747 SZ individuals and 808 HC, were included. Results indicate that SZ individuals are less accurate than HC in estimating time duration across a wide range of tasks. Subgroup analyses showed that the fundamental timing deficit in SZ is independent from the length of the to-be-timed duration (automatic and cognitively controlled timing) and from methods of stimuli estimation (perceptual and motor timing). Thus, time perception per se is disturbed in SZ (not just task-specific timing processes) and this perturbation is independent from more generalized cognitive impairments. Behavioral evidence of disturbed automatic timing should be more thoroughly investigated with the aim of defining it as a cognitive phenotype for more homogeneous diagnostic subgrouping.

Meta-Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging and Cognitive Control Studies in Schizophrenia: Preliminary Elucidation of a Core Dysfunctional Timing Network

Timing and other cognitive processes demanding cognitive control become interlinked when there is an increase in the level of difficulty or effort required. Both functions are interrelated and share neuroanatomical bases. A previous meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies found that people with schizophrenia had significantly lower activation, relative to normal controls, of most right hemisphere regions of the time circuit. This finding suggests that a pattern of disconnectivity of this circuit, particularly in the supplementary motor area, is a trait of this mental disease. We hypothesize that a dysfunctional temporal/cognitive control network underlies both cognitive and psychiatric symptoms of schizophrenia and that timing dysfunction is at the root of the cognitive deficits observed. The goal of our study was to look, in schizophrenia patients, for brain structures activated both by execution of cognitive tasks requiring increased effort and by performance of time perception tasks. We conducted a signed differential mapping (SDM) meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies in schizophrenia patients assessing the brain response to increasing levels of cognitive difficulty. Then, we performed a multimodal meta-analysis to identify common brain regions in the findings of that SDM meta-analysis and our previously-published activation likelihood estimate (ALE) meta-analysis of neuroimaging of time perception in schizophrenia patients. The current study supports the hypothesis that there exists an overlap between neural structures engaged by both timing tasks and non-temporal cognitive tasks of escalating difficulty in schizophrenia. The implication is that a deficit in timing can be considered as a trait marker of the schizophrenia cognitive profile.

Time perception networks and cognition in schizophrenia: a review and a proposal

Timing is an essential function for the survival of many living organisms. Despite its significance, it is relatively under-researched, particularly in schizophrenia. We examined neurophysiological, neuropathological, imaging and genetic studies of both healthy subjects and subjects suffering from schizophrenia in relation to time perception as measured by interval timing. We found that the data from studies in healthy populations indicate that time perception may be inter-linked with numerous other cognitive functions and share common brain networks. The same networks are implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. There is also evidence that several neurotransmitter systems, particularly the dopaminergic D2 system, are involved in interval timing. Patients with schizophrenia have been shown to suffer from a distorted sense of time, which has an impact on their cognitive function and results in both positive and negative symptoms. Therefore, genes involved in interval timing can be considered candidate genes for distorted cognition in schizophrenia. We discuss the hypothesis that time perception dysfunction is a primary cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia.

Prefrontal and parietal activity is modulated by the rule complexity of inductive reasoning and can be predicted by a cognitive model

In neuroimaging studies, increased task complexity can lead to increased activation in task-specific regions or to activation of additional regions. How the brain adapts to increased rule complexity during inductive reasoning remains unclear. In the current study, three types of problems were created: simple rule induction (i.e., SI, with rule complexity of 1), complex rule induction (i.e., CI, with rule complexity of 2), and perceptual control. Our findings revealed that increased activations accompany increased rule complexity in the right dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and medial posterior parietal cortex (precuneus). A cognitive model predicted both the behavioral and brain imaging results. The current findings suggest that neural activity in frontal and parietal regions is modulated by rule complexity, which may shed light on the neural mechanisms of inductive reasoning.

The influence of hallucination proneness and social threat on time perception

INTRODUCTION

Individuals with schizophrenia frequently report disturbances in time perception, but the precise nature of such deficits and their relation to specific symptoms of the disorder is unclear. We sought to determine the relationship between hallucination proneness and time perception in healthy individuals, and whether this relationship is moderated by hypervigilance to threat-related stimuli.

METHODS

206 participants completed the Revised Launay-Slade Hallucination Scale (LSHS-R) and a time reproduction task in which, on each trial, participants viewed a face (happy, angry, neutral, or fearful) for between 1 and 5 s and then reproduced the time period with a spacebar press.

RESULTS

High LSHS-R scores were associated with longer time estimates, but only during exposure to angry faces. A factor analysis of LSHS-R scores identified a factor comprising items related to reality monitoring, and this factor was most associated with the longer time estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

During exposure to potential threat in the environment, duration estimates increase with hallucination proneness. The experience of feeling exposed to threat for longer may serve to maintain a state of hypervigilance which has been shown previously to be associated with positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Prospective memory in schizophrenia: a review

The wide range of psychological and cognitive symptoms associated with schizophrenia can often affect the level of independence that individuals with schizophrenia can achieve in their lives. Prospective memory (PM), or memory associated with future intentions, has been proposed as a useful indicator of select independent living skills. Currently, there is limited research with regards to prospective memory in schizophrenia. The current review systematically summarizes the literature focusing on prospective memory in schizophrenia and concludes that individuals with schizophrenia exhibited both an impairment in PM when compared to healthy controls and a general lack of awareness regarding these deficits. The existing research also suggests that PM deficits are not related to chronicity of illness or medications associated with schizophrenia. Limited findings suggest that PM deficits in individuals with schizophrenia may be associated with the ability to live independently and instrumental activities of daily living.

Serotonergic hallucinogens as translational models relevant to schizophrenia

One of the oldest models of schizophrenia is based on the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens such as mescaline, psilocybin, and (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), which act through the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor. These compounds produce a 'model psychosis' in normal individuals that resembles at least some of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Based on these similarities, and because evidence has emerged that the serotonergic system plays a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in some patients, animal models relevant to schizophrenia have been developed based on hallucinogen effects. Here we review the behavioural effects of hallucinogens in four of those models, the receptor and neurochemical mechanisms for the effects and their translational relevance. Despite the difficulty of modelling hallucinogen effects in nonverbal species, animal models of schizophrenia based on hallucinogens have yielded important insights into the linkage between 5-HT and schizophrenia and have helped to identify receptor targets and interactions that could be exploited in the development of new therapeutic agents.

Pathophysiological distortions in time perception and timed performance

Distortions in time perception and timed performance are presented by a number of different neurological and psychiatric conditions (e.g. Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism). As a consequence, the primary focus of this review is on factors that define or produce systematic changes in the attention, clock, memory and decision stages of temporal processing as originally defined by Scalar Expectancy Theory. These findings are used to evaluate the Striatal Beat Frequency Theory, which is a neurobiological model of interval timing based upon the coincidence detection of oscillatory processes in corticostriatal circuits that can be mapped onto the stages of information processing proposed by Scalar Timing Theory.