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Lakshminarasimman N, Gewurtz SB, Parker WJ, Smyth SA. Quantifying the removal of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in physical, chemical, and biological sludge treatment systems. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 351:141203. [PMID: 38228194 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are priority contaminants historically used as flame retardants. PBDEs are known to occur in wastewater biosolids posing potential concerns with the beneficial land application of the biosolids. This study evaluated the removal of 21 congeners in nine full-scale sludge treatment systems including pelletization (P), alkaline stabilization (AS), and aerobic (AE) and anaerobic (AN) digestion. It is the first study to conduct a mass balance analysis of a broad spectrum of PBDEs during physical, chemical, and biological sludge treatment. The PBDE congener pattern in raw sludge and biosolids samples was consistent with commercial formulations. The fully brominated congener BDE-209 dominated biosolids from all sites with an average concentration of 620 ng/g dry weight (dw), followed by BDE-99 (173 ng/g dw) and BDE-47 (162 ng/g dw). Mass balance analysis on the P and AS processes showed no change in PBDE mass flows with treatment. However, aerobic and anaerobic digestion processes reported significant levels of removal and formation of individual congeners, though the results were not consistent between facilities. One aerobic digestion process (AE2) reported an overall average removal of 48%, whereas the other (AE1) reported very high levels of accumulation of tri- and tetraBDE congeners. Similarly, there were significant variations in PBDE behavior across the five anaerobic digestion plants studied. The plant with the longest solids retention time (SRT) (AN1) reported a moderate removal (50%) of overall PBDE loading and lower congeners, whereas other plants (AN2-AN5) showed significant low (-19%) to high (-166%) levels of formation of lower congeners. The results suggest that reduced SRTs result in formation of lower congeners while extended SRTs can lead to moderate removal of some PBDEs. Conventional sludge treatment result in low to moderate PBDE removal and advanced thermal conversion technologies may be needed to improve the contaminant removal during sludge treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada, L7S 1A1
| | - Wayne J Parker
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, N2L 3G1
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada, L7S 1A1
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2
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Chen M, Coleman B, Gaburici L, Prezgot D, Jakubek ZJ, Sivarajah B, Vermaire JC, Lapen DR, Velicogna JR, Princz JI, Provencher JF, Zou S. Identification of microplastics extracted from field soils amended with municipal biosolids. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:168007. [PMID: 37871825 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Microplastic particles in arable soil are expected to impact the environment and potentially human health. The application of municipal biosolids (MBs) to agricultural land presents a further dilemma in that biosolids act as a fertilizer for crop growth, and a disposal pathway for wastewater treatment plants. They are also a direct path for emerging contaminants, such as microplastics to enter the terrestrial environment. Reliable methods are needed to identify and quantify microplastics, found in agricultural soils to determine how microplastics are being cycled in the terrestrial environment. In this study, we developed a method for extracting microplastics from soil, and characterized their composition and identity for particles sized 5 μm to 2 mm. Method development was initially completed using natural soils spiked with microplastics and MBs, followed by the analyses of soil sampled from an agricultural field where MBs were recently applied at a rate of 13 tons dw/ha. The procedures that used the spiked samples showed that microplastics can be reliably extracted from soil in a laboratory setting, and identified and semi-quantified by thermogravimetric analysis combined with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR). However, when the same methods were applied to the soil samples collected from the agricultural field, reproducibility became a challenge, as the number and type of microplastics changed even within the same soils (i.e., collected the same day from the same exact location). The variation in reproducibility observed between laboratory and field samples underscores the significant heterogeneity present in the environment. This heterogeneity, in turn, affects the identification and quantity of microplastics detected, a phenomenon observed even when comparing different fields within a single treatment regimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maohui Chen
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian Coleman
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Liliana Gaburici
- Security and Disruptive Technologies Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daniel Prezgot
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zygmunt J Jakubek
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Branaavan Sivarajah
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jesse C Vermaire
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - David R Lapen
- Ottawa Research Development Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica R Velicogna
- Biological Assessment and Standardization Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Juliska I Princz
- Biological Assessment and Standardization Section, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jennifer F Provencher
- National Wildlife Research Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shan Zou
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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3
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Johnson GR. PFAS in soil and groundwater following historical land application of biosolids. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 211:118035. [PMID: 35032876 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.118035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The land application of digested sewage sludge (biosolids) is widely employed across the globe. Studies show that biosolids contain significant amounts of inorganic and organic materials, as well as emerging pollutants, including per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS). With the wide range of pollutants commonly reported in biosolids, the potential risks associated with long-term land application operations are concerning. In this study, PFAS in surface soils, deeper soils into the vadose zone, and immediately-underlying groundwater was measured at an agricultural station with a long record of biosolids applications plus irrigation using treated wastewater. Twelve PFAS homologues were detected in every near surface soil sampled 0-30 cm depth below ground surface with multiple PFAS (especially short-chain) distributed through the soil profile. Average measured concentrations of PFAS in these soils suggest the soil burden PFOS>PFDA>PFOA for all substations sampled, independent of the historical loading rates and patterns of agricultural operations on those substations. Measured concentrations of PFOA and PFOS in the soil profile (0-90 cm) suggest these compounds have migrated to deeper soil depths (up to 9 m below the surface) with quantifiable concentrations in the soil and the immediate underlying groundwater located approximately 17 m below. Estimates of the total mass of PFAS in surface soils were effectively made using PFAS levels reported in sludges from the USEPA NSSS combined with long-term loading rates on record at the substations. With the land application of biosolids in the USA regulated by the USEPA, additional and updated risk assessments and surveys to include emerging pollutants such as PFAS are needed to protect public health and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwynn R Johnson
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Maseeh College of Engineering and Computer Science, Portland State University, Portland OR 97201, United States.
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Lupton SJ, Casey F, Smith DJ, Hakk H. Perfluorooctanoic Acid Transport in Soil and Absorption and Distribution in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa). J Food Prot 2022; 85:164-172. [PMID: 34591092 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-21-276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is used as a surfactant in consumer and industrial products and is frequently found in biosolids from wastewater treatment plants. When present in biosolids applied to croplands, PFOA can contaminate feed and fodder used by livestock, but the extent of PFOA transfer from soil to plants is not well characterized. A single dose of radiocarbon (14C)-tagged PFOA was applied to unplanted soil or soil containing growing alfalfa. PFOA transport through unplanted soil and uptake by alfalfa was monitored over a 10-week study period. Radiocarbon was initially measured in roots, stems, and leaves 7 days after [14C]-PFOA application to soil. PFOA accumulation was greatest in leaves during the 10-week sampling. By week 10, PFOA migration through unplanted soil had reached a depth of 22.8 ± 2.5 cm. In contrast, PFOA migrated to 7.5 ± 2.5 cm in soil containing alfalfa plants. The greatest predictor of PFOA concentration in alfalfa leaves was PFOA concentration in the top 5 cm of soil; PFOA concentrations at lower depths were not correlated with alfalfa PFOA concentrations. PFOA transport through soil may be slowed by the presence of forage; however, PFOA accumulation in edible portions of forage plants may increase food animal exposure to PFOA residues. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J Lupton
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center, 1616 Albrecht Boulevard, Fargo, North Dakota 58102
| | - Francis Casey
- Department of Soil Science, North Dakota State University, Department 7680, P.O. Box 6050, Fargo, North Dakota 58108, USA
| | - David J Smith
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center, 1616 Albrecht Boulevard, Fargo, North Dakota 58102
| | - Heldur Hakk
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center, 1616 Albrecht Boulevard, Fargo, North Dakota 58102
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Moodie D, Coggan T, Berry K, Kolobaric A, Fernandes M, Lee E, Reichman S, Nugegoda D, Clarke BO. Legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in Australian biosolids. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 270:129143. [PMID: 33429237 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Biosolids samples were collected from 19 Australian WWTPs during 2018 that cover a range of catchment types (urban, rural, industrial waste discharges) and treatment technologies. Samples were analysed for 44 PFAS using isotope dilution and alkaline extraction coupled with quantification with LC-MS/MS. The Σ44PFAS mean concentration was 260 ng/g dry weight (dw) and ranged between 4.2 and 910 ng/g dw. The dominant compound class detected were the di-substituted phosphate esters (Σ3PAPs mean 140 ng/g dw; range ND - 730 ng/g dw) which contributed 45% of the total mean Σ44PFAS mass, followed by perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (Σ11PFCAs mean 39 ng/g dw; range 2.3-120 ng/g dw) contributing 17%, and the perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (Σ8PFSAs mean 28 ng/g dw; range 0.9-220 ng/g) which contributed 16%. Using the population data supplied by the participating WWTPs, the mean annual estimated biosolids-associated PFAS contribution is 6 mg per person per year and ranged between 0.6 mg and 15 mg. A similar population normalised concentration regardless of WWTP, region or capacity suggests that the domestic environment provides the baseline PFAS loading. Statistically significant higher Σ44PFAS and PFOS concentrations were observed at urban locations. A weak correlation was observed between annual mass of PFAS associated with each individual WWTP and their percentage industrial waste contribution. This may be important for elevated PFAS concentrations observed in WWTPs with higher industrial waste inputs and requires further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Moodie
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia; Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Timothy Coggan
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
| | - Kathryn Berry
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
| | - Adam Kolobaric
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
| | - Milena Fernandes
- SA Water, GPO Box 1751, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Elliot Lee
- Water Corporation, Leederville, Western Australia, 6007, Australia
| | - Suzie Reichman
- Centre for Anthropogenic Pollution Impact and Management (CAPIM), School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Dayanthi Nugegoda
- School of Science, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia
| | - Bradley O Clarke
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia.
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Lakshminarasimman N, Gewurtz SB, Parker WJ, Smyth SA. Removal and formation of perfluoroalkyl substances in Canadian sludge treatment systems - A mass balance approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142431. [PMID: 33254854 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are an emerging class of anthropogenic contaminants whose occurrence has raised concerns with the beneficial reuse of biosolids from wastewater treatment. This study evaluated the behavior of thirteen PFAS in nine Canadian sludge treatment systems including pelletization, alkaline stabilization, aerobic and anaerobic digestion processes. The composition of the overall PFAS-fluorine (ΣPFAS-F) loading in a system fed with only primary sludge was dominated by perfluorodecanoate (PFDA), whereas systems with blended primary and waste activated sludge feeds had a mix of short and long chain PFAS in raw sludges and treated biosolids. An increase in average ΣPFAS-F mass flow was observed through pelletization (19% formation) and alkaline stabilization (99% formation) processes indicating negative removal or contaminant formation. One of the two aerobic digestion systems and three of the five anaerobic digestion systems showed modest reductions (< 40% removal) in ΣPFAS-F loading. Long chain PFAS such as perfluorodecanoate (PFDA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) exhibited a wide variation in behavior ranging from substantial formation (> 75% formation) to modest removal (42% removal) in the surveyed systems while short chain perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA) mass flows increased through the three systems where they occurred. Overall, the contaminant mass balances revealed that there were significant changes in mass flows of the target PFAS through all kinds of sludge treatment systems. The results of this study on PFAS fate through sludge processing can inform future global PFAS risk management activities as well as sludge treatment considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Wayne J Parker
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
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7
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Sleep JA, Juhasz AL. REMOVED: Perfluoroalkyl, fluorotelomer sulfonate, and perfluorooctane sulfonamide contamination in biosolids: Composition, co-contamination and re-use implications. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:115120. [PMID: 32682161 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This article has been removed: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal). This article has been removed at the request of the Authors. This article has been retracted because the authors did not seek or receive appropriate approvals to use these materials for the purposes of this publication. The authors apologise for any inconvenience caused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Sleep
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia.
| | - Albert L Juhasz
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
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8
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Qiu W, Ma T, Liu R, Du Y. Aluminum hydroxide colloid facilitated transport of 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) in porous media. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 258:127321. [PMID: 32531297 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, aluminum hydroxide colloids, which widely exist in soils, were selected to investigate their effect on the infiltration of an abundant congener of PBDEs (BDE-47) to groundwater. The batch and column experiments were conducted to study the co-migration of aluminum hydroxide colloid and BDE-47 in two sand media with particle sizes of 2-4.75 and 0.15 mm. The results indicated that the colloid significantly increased the transport of BDE-47 to 24.32% and 65.84% in the vadose zone of coarse and fine sand columns, respectively. The adsorption and blocking effect were found to be the two main functions during the co-migration of aluminum hydroxide colloids with BDE-47. Specifically, BDE-47 that adsorbed on colloids moved faster in the coarse porous media, and the breakthrough peak of BDE-47 appeared early in the media at an approximate pore volume of 0.15. In comparison, colloids that adsorbed onto the fine porous media formed a layer that blocked the adsorption of BDE-47 onto the fine porous media. This weakened the protection capacity of the vadose zone and led to a greater than 80% amount of BDE-47 breakthrough to the vadose zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenkai Qiu
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geoscience, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Teng Ma
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geoscience, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Rui Liu
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geoscience, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yao Du
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geoscience, Wuhan, 430074, China
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9
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Kim Lazcano R, Choi YJ, Mashtare ML, Lee LS. Characterizing and Comparing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Commercially Available Biosolid and Organic Non-Biosolid-Based Products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:8640-8648. [PMID: 32567309 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing concern over the presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in biosolids, while sales in commercially available biosolid-based products used as soil amendments are also increasing. Here, the occurrence of 17 perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) present in 13 commercially available biosolid-based products, six organic composts (manure, mushroom, peat, and untreated wood), and one food and yard waste compost were studied. The PFAA concentration ranges observed are as follows: biosolid-based products (9.0-199 μg/kg) > food and yard waste (18.5 μg/kg) > other organic products (0.1-1.1 μg/kg). Analysis of 2014, 2016, and 2018 bags produced from one product line showed a temporal decrease in the total PFAAs (181, 101, and 74 μg/kg, respectively). The total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay revealed the presence of PFAA precursors in the biosolid-based products at much higher levels, when the soluble carbon was removed by the ENVI-Carb clean-up prior to the TOP assay. Time-of-flight mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of three sulfonamides, two fluorotelomer sulfonates, and several polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters. Pore-water concentrations of water-saturated products were primarily of short-chain PFAAs and increased with increasing PFAA concentrations in the products. A strong positive log-linear correlation between organic carbon (OC)-normalized PFAA partition coefficients and the number of CFn units indicates that OC is a good predictor of PFAA release concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rooney Kim Lazcano
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ecological Sciences and Engineering-Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Youn Jeong Choi
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ecological Sciences and Engineering-Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Michael L Mashtare
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ecological Sciences and Engineering-Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Environmental and Ecological Engineering, College of Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Linda S Lee
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Ecological Sciences and Engineering-Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Environmental and Ecological Engineering, College of Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Zou H, Cui W, Wang ZL, Wang Z. The hitchhiker's guide to core samples: Key issues and lessons learned. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 685:867-885. [PMID: 31247435 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Core samples may be used as valuable geochronometers for storing historical pollution footprints of organic pollutants. A number of studies have used core samples to evaluate temporal depositions, loading inventories, and effectiveness of environmental mitigation measures. However, in order to get a reliable estimation, certain prerequisites must be satisfied to rule out various confounding factors such as biomixing and melting. This review aims to understand when core samples can or cannot be used as natural archives for organic pollutants. First, we systematically review existing studies of organic pollutants in soil, sediment and ice cores and possible factors that may influence post-depositional fate of chemicals. Then, building on field evidence, model simulation and laboratory leaching tests findings, we discuss issues of post-depositional downward movement in detail. To assist future core sample studies, we summarize lessons learned on study design in the context of sampling design, data analysis, and data reporting. In particular, the combination of a careful study design and appropriate numerical model(s) will help to elevate core samples as a more reliable tool for retrospective understanding of chemical pollution. This review is an initial step toward a better and more accurate use of core samples, and further interdisciplinary cooperation is needed to develop standardized protocols, guidelines and tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Zou
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Tianjin Normal University, 300387 Tianjin, PR China
| | - Wanqi Cui
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Tianjin Normal University, 300387 Tianjin, PR China
| | - Zhong-Liang Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Environment, Tianjin Normal University, 300387 Tianjin, PR China.
| | - Zhanyun Wang
- Ecological Systems Design, Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zurich, John-von-Neumann-Weg 9, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
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A Review of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) in terms of Sources, Applications, Human Exposure, Dietary Intake, Toxicity, Legal Regulation, and Methods of Determination. J CHEM-NY 2019. [DOI: 10.1155/2019/2717528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are widely distributed across the world and are expected to be of concern to human health and the environment. The review focuses on perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and, in particular, on the most frequently discussed perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs). In this study, some basic information concerning PFASs is reviewed, focusing mainly on PFAAs (perfluoroalkyl acids). We have made efforts to systemize their division into groups according to chemical structure, describe their basic physicochemical properties, characterize production technologies, and determine potential human exposure routes with particular reference to oral exposure. A variety of possible toxicological effects to human health are also discussed. In response to increasing public concern about the toxicity of PFAAs, an evaluation of dietary intake has been undertaken for two of the most commonly known PFAAs: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). As summarized in this study, PFAAs levels need further assessment due to the science-based TWI standards laid down by the EFSA’s CONTAM Panel regarding the risk to human health posed by the presence of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and perfluorooctanoic acid in food (tolerable weekly intakes of PFOA and PFOS set up to 6 ng·kg−1·bw·week−1 and 13 ng·kg−1·bw·week−1, respectively). Current legislation, relevant legislation on PFAAs levels in food, and the most popular methods of analysis in food matrices are described.
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Lee H, Mabury SA. Sorption of Perfluoroalkyl Phosphonates and Perfluoroalkyl Phosphinates in Soils. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3197-3205. [PMID: 28222593 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl phosphonates (PFPAs) and perfluoroalkyl phosphinates (PFPiAs) are recently discovered perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) that have been widely detected in house dust, aquatic biota, surface water, and wastewater environments. The sorption of C6, C8, and C10 monoalkylated PFPAs and C6/C6, C6/C8, and C8/C8 dialkylated PFPiAs was investigated in seven soils of varying geochemical parameters. Mean distribution coefficients, log Kd*, ranged from 0.2 to 2.1 for the PFPAs and PFPiAs and were generally observed to increase with perfluoroalkyl chain length. The log Kd* of PFPiAs calculated here (1.6-2.1) were similar to those previously measured for the longer-chain perfluorodecanesulfonate (1.9, PFDS) and perfluoroundecanoate (1.7, PFUnA) in sediments, but overall when compared as a class, were greater than those for the perfluoroalkanesulfonates (-0.8-1.9, PFSAs), perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (-0.4-1.7, PFCAs), and PFPAs (0.2-1.5). No single soil-specific parameter, such as pH and organic carbon content, was observed to control the sorption of PFPAs and PFPiAs, the lack of which may be attributed to competing interferences in the naturally heterogeneous soils. The PFPAs were observed to desorb to a greater extent and likely circulate as aqueous contaminants in the environment, while the more sorptive PFPiAs would be preferentially retained by environmental solid phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Lee
- Sciex , 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario, Canada , L4K 4 V8
| | - Scott A Mabury
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario Canada , M5S 3H6
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Kim M, Li LY, Gorgy T, Grace JR. Review of contamination of sewage sludge and amended soils by polybrominated diphenyl ethers based on meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 220:753-765. [PMID: 27814985 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are still present in sewage sludge and sludge-amended soil, even though commercial PBDEs were prohibited or voluntarily phased out several years ago. In this study, levels and compositional profiles of seven major PBDE congeners in sludge are assessed in relation to their usage patterns in commercial products, and years of being banned and phased out in North America, Europe, and Asia. Annual accumulations and future long-term changes of PBDE in sludge-amended soil are estimated. BDE-209 has the highest concentration, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. The highest concentrations, up to 23,500 ng g-1, of PBDEs in sludge were found in North America until 2004-2007, whereas since then sludge PBDE concentrations, up to 6600 ng g-1 have been higher in Asia than on the other two continents. The amount of sludge applied and the soil organic matter content play important roles in determining PBDE concentrations in sludge-amended soil. The estimated concentrations of BDE-47, -99, and -209 in soils receiving sludge applications during the past 15 years are 40-300 times higher than in soils after the initial sludge application. The accumulated concentrations of BDE-47 and BDE-99 are expected to decrease by 99% between 2016 and 2100, whereas the decrease in the BDE-209 concentration is predicted to be approximately 87%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minhee Kim
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Loretta Y Li
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Tamer Gorgy
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; WorleyParsons, 4321 Still Creek Dr, Burnaby, BC, V5C 6S7, Canada
| | - John R Grace
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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Gottschall N, Topp E, Edwards M, Payne M, Kleywegt S, Lapen DR. Brominated flame retardants and perfluoroalkyl acids in groundwater, tile drainage, soil, and crop grain following a high application of municipal biosolids to a field. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 574:1345-1359. [PMID: 27644852 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Dewatered municipal biosolids (DMB) were applied at a rate of 22Mgdwha-1 to an agricultural field in fall 2008. Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs; BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, -197, -207, -209), other brominated flame retardants (BFRs; HBB, PBEB, DBDPE, BTBPE) and perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs; PFHxS, PFOS, PFDS, PFOSA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnA, PFDoA, PFTA) were monitored in tile drainage, groundwater (2m, 4m and 6m depth), soil cores (0-0.3m) pre- and post-application, DMB aggregates incorporated into the soil post-application, and in wheat (Triticum spp.) planted post-application. Several compounds were detected in soil and water pre-application and on a reference field plot. PBDEs, other BFRs and PFAAs were detected in tile drainage and 2m groundwater throughout the post-application study period; a few PBDEs were also detected sporadically at lower depths in groundwater. Some of these compounds had not been detected pre-application, while some exceeded reference field plot/pre-application levels (some significantly (p<0.05) in tile drainage); both cases indicating biosolid-based water contamination. In DMB aggregates, several PBDE congeners were found to have dissipated exponentially, with reductions >90% in many of them within 1year post-application. Exponential dissipation of other BFRs and PFAAs in DMB aggregates were not significant. No PBDEs, other BFRs, or PFAAs were detected in wheat grain.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Gottschall
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - E Topp
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, ON N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - M Edwards
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - M Payne
- Black Lake Environmental, Sudbury, ON P3E 2L9, Canada
| | - S Kleywegt
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change, Standards Development Branch, Toronto, ON M4V 1M2, Canada
| | - D R Lapen
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada
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15
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Davis EF, Gunsch CK, Stapleton HM. Fate of flame retardants and the antimicrobial agent triclosan in planted and unplanted biosolid-amended soils. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2015; 34:968-976. [PMID: 25546022 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of the fate of contaminant-laden biosolids is needed to fully evaluate the environmental impacts of biosolid land application. The present study examined the fate of several flame retardants and triclosan in biosolid-amended soil in a 90-d greenhouse experiment. Objectives included evaluating the persistence of these compounds in soil, their phytoaccumulation potential by alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and potential degradation reactions. Concentrations of the polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners BDE-47 and BDE-209 and the antimicrobial triclosan declined significantly over time in biosolid-amended soil planted with alfalfa and then reached a steady state by day 28. In contrast, no significant losses of those analytes were observed from soil in nonvegetated pots. The amount of an analyte lost from vegetated soil ranged from 43% for the flame retardant di(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate to 61% for triclosan and was significantly and negatively related to the log octanol-water partition coefficient. Alfalfa roots and shoots were monitored for the compounds, but no clear evidence of phytoaccumulation was observed. Methyl triclosan formation was observed in the biosolid-amended soils during the study period, indicating in situ biotransformation of triclosan. The present study demonstrates that, although they are highly recalcitrant, PBDEs, selected alternate brominated flame retardants, and triclosan are capable of undergoing dissipation from biosolid-amended soils in the presence of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F Davis
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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16
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Xu T, Xie F, Wei Z, Zeng S, Wu QT. Phytoremediation of sewage sludge and use of its leachate for crop production. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2014; 36:3000-3007. [PMID: 25205245 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2014.955061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The land application of sewage sludge has the potential risk of transferring heavy metals to soil or groundwater. The agricultural reuse of sludge leachate could be a cost-effective way to decrease metal contamination. Sludge leachate collected during the phytoremediation of sludge by co-cropping with Sedum alfredii and Zea mays was used for irrigating vegetables in a field experiment. Results indicate that the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd in sludge leachates complied with the National Standards for agricultural irrigation water in China. For the vegetable crop Ipomoea aquatica, nutrients obtained only from the sludge leachate were not sufficient to support growth. For the second crop, Brassica parachinensis, no differences in biomass were observed between the treatment with leachate plus a half dose of inorganic fertilizer and the treatment with a full dose of inorganic fertilizers. The concentrations of heavy metals in I. aquatica and B. parachinensis were not significantly affected by the application of sludge leachates. Compared with initial values, there were no significant differences in Zn, Cd, Cu, and Pb concentrations in soil following treatment with sludge leachate. This study indicates that on range lands, sludge phytoremediation can be conducted at the upper level, and the generated sludge leachate can be safely and easily used in crop production at the lower level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianfen Xu
- a Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Waste Reuse in Agriculture of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes , College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642 , People's Republic of China
- b Department of Basic Biology , Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou 510182 , People's Republic of China
| | - Fangwen Xie
- a Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Waste Reuse in Agriculture of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes , College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zebin Wei
- a Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Waste Reuse in Agriculture of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes , College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642 , People's Republic of China
| | - Shucai Zeng
- a Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Waste Reuse in Agriculture of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes , College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642 , People's Republic of China
| | - Qi-Tang Wu
- a Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Waste Reuse in Agriculture of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes , College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University , Guangzhou 510642 , People's Republic of China
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17
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Lee H, Tevlin AG, Mabury SA, Mabury SA. Fate of polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters and their metabolites in biosolids-applied soil: biodegradation and plant uptake in greenhouse and field experiments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 48:340-9. [PMID: 24308318 DOI: 10.1021/es403949z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Significant contamination of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) sludge implicates the practice of applying treated sludge or biosolids as a potential source of these chemicals onto agricultural farmlands. Recent efforts to characterize the sources of PFAAs in the environment have unveiled a number of fluorotelomer-based materials that are capable of degrading to the perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs), such as the polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters (diPAPs), which have been detected in WWTP and paper fiber biosolids. Here, a greenhouse microcosm was used to investigate the fate of endogenous diPAPs and PFCAs present in WWTP and paper fiber biosolids upon amendment of these materials with soil that had been sown with Medicago truncatula plants. Biodegradation pathways and plant uptake were further elucidated in a separate greenhouse microcosm supplemented with high concentrations of 6:2 diPAP. Biosolid-amended soil exhibited increased concentrations of diPAPs (4-83 ng/g dry weight (dw)) and PFCAs (0.1-19 ng/g dw), as compared to control soils (nd-1.4 ng/g dw). Both plant uptake and biotransformation contributed to the observed decline in diPAP soil concentrations over time. Biotransformation was further evidenced by the degradation of 6:2 diPAP to its corresponding fluorotelomer intermediates and C4-C7 PFCAs. Substantial plant accumulation of endogenous PFCAs present in the biosolids (0.1-138 ng/g wet weight (ww)) and those produced from 6:2 diPAP degradation (100-58 000 ng/g ww) were observed within 1.5 months of application, with the congener profile dominated by the short-chain PFCAs (C4-C6). This pattern was corroborated by the inverse relationship observed between the plant-soil accumulation factor (PSAF, Cplant/Csoil) and carbon chain length (p < 0.05, r = 0.90-0.97). These results were complemented by a field study in which the fate of diPAPs and PFCAs was investigated upon application of compost and paper fiber biosolids to two farm fields. Together, these studies provide the first evidence of soil biodegradation of diPAPs and the subsequent uptake of these chemicals and their metabolites into plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Lee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada , M5S 3H6
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18
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Gewurtz SB, Backus SM, De Silva AO, Ahrens L, Armellin A, Evans M, Fraser S, Gledhill M, Guerra P, Harner T, Helm PA, Hung H, Khera N, Kim MG, King M, Lee SC, Letcher RJ, Martin P, Marvin C, McGoldrick DJ, Myers AL, Pelletier M, Pomeroy J, Reiner EJ, Rondeau M, Sauve MC, Sekela M, Shoeib M, Smith DW, Smyth SA, Struger J, Spry D, Syrgiannis J, Waltho J. Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Canadian environment: multi-media assessment of current status and trends. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2013; 59:183-200. [PMID: 23831544 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In Canada, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been the focus of several monitoring programs and research and surveillance studies. Here, we integrate recent data and perform a multi-media assessment to examine the current status and ongoing trends of PFAAs in Canada. Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and other long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) in air, water, sediment, fish, and birds across Canada are generally related to urbanization, with elevated concentrations observed around cities, especially in southern Ontario. PFOS levels in water, fish tissue, and bird eggs were below their respective Draft Federal Environmental Quality Guidelines, suggesting there is low potential for adverse effects to the environment/organisms examined. However, PFOS in fish and bird eggs tended to exceed guidelines for the protection of mammalian and avian consumers, suggesting a potential risk to their wildlife predators, although wildlife population health assessments are needed to determine whether negative impacts are actually occurring. Long-term temporal trends of PFOS in suspended sediment, sediment cores, Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs collected from Lake Ontario increased consistently from the start of data collection until the 1990s. However, after this time, the trends varied by media, with concentrations stabilizing in Lake Trout and Herring Gull eggs, and decreasing and increasing in suspended sediment and the sediment cores, respectively. For PFCAs, concentrations in suspended sediment, sediment cores, and Herring Gulls generally increased from the start of data collection until present and concentrations in Lake Trout increased until the late 1990s and subsequently stabilized. A multimedia comparison of PFAA profiles provided evidence that unexpected patterns in biota of some of the lakes were due to unique source patterns rather than internal lake processes. High concentrations of PFAAs in the leachate and air of landfill sites, in the wastewater influent/effluent, biosolids, and air at wastewater treatment plants, and in indoor air and dust highlight the waste sector and current-use products (used primarily indoors) as ongoing sources of PFAAs to the Canadian environment. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of integrating data from different media. Simultaneous evaluation of spatial and temporal trends in multiple media allows inferences that would be impossible with data on only one medium. As such, more co-ordination among monitoring sites for different media is suggested for future sampling, especially at the northern sites. We emphasize the importance of continued monitoring of multiple-media for determining future responses of environmental PFAA concentrations to voluntary and regulatory actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Gewurtz
- Conestoga-Rovers & Associates, 651 Colby Drive, Waterloo, ON, N2V 1C2, Canada
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19
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Wu C, Spongberg AL, Witter JD, Sridhar BBM. Transfer of wastewater associated pharmaceuticals and personal care products to crop plants from biosolids treated soil. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2012; 85:104-9. [PMID: 22921256 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Revised: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The plant uptake of emerging organic contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is receiving increased attention. Biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment have been previously identified as a major source for PPCPs. Thus, plant uptake of PPCPs from biosolids applied soils needs to be understood. In the present study, the uptake of carbamazepine, diphenhydramine, and triclocarban by five vegetable crop plants was examined in a field experiment. At the time of harvest, three compounds were detected in all plants grown in biosolids-treated soils. Calculated root concentration factor (RCF) and shoot concentration factor (SCF) are the highest for carbamazepine followed by triclocarban and diphenhydramine. Positive correlation between RCF and root lipid content was observed for carbamazepine but not for diphenhydramine and triclocarban. The results demonstrate the ability of crop plants to accumulate PPCPs from contaminated soils. The plant uptake processes of PPCPs are likely affected by their physico-chemical properties, and their interaction with soil. The difference uptake behavior between plant species could not solely be attributed to the root lipid content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxi Wu
- Department of Environmental Science, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA.
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Picó Y, Farré M, Llorca M, Barceló D. Perfluorinated Compounds in Food: A Global Perspective. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2011; 51:605-25. [DOI: 10.1080/10408391003721727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Clarke BO, Smith SR. Review of 'emerging' organic contaminants in biosolids and assessment of international research priorities for the agricultural use of biosolids. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2011; 37:226-47. [PMID: 20797791 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 439] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2009] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A broad spectrum of organic chemicals is essential to modern society. Once discharged from industrial, domestic and urban sources into the urban wastewater collection system they may transfer to the residual solids during wastewater treatment and assessment of their significance and implications for beneficial recycling of the treated sewage sludge biosolids is required. Research on organic contaminants (OCs) in biosolids has been undertaken for over thirty years and the increasing body of evidence demonstrates that the majority of compounds studied do not place human health at risk when biosolids are recycled to farmland. However, there are 143,000 chemicals registered in the European Union for industrial use and all could be potentially found in biosolids. Therefore, a literature review of 'emerging' OCs in biosolids has been conducted for a selection of chemicals of potential concern for land application based upon human toxicity, evidence of adverse effects on the environment and endocrine disruption. To identify monitoring and research priorities the selected chemicals were ranked using an assessment matrix approach. Compounds were evaluated based upon environmental persistence, human toxicity, evidence of bioaccumulation in humans and the environment, evidence of ecotoxicity and the number and quality of studies focussed on the contaminant internationally. The identified chemicals of concern were ranked in decreasing order of priority: perfluorinated chemicals (PFOS, PFOA); polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs); organotins (OTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC); benzothiazoles; antibiotics and pharmaceuticals; synthetic musks; bisphenol A, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), steroids; phthalate acid esters (PAEs) and polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMSs). A number of issues were identified and recommendations for the prioritisation of further research and monitoring of 'emerging' OCs for the agricultural use of biosolids are provided. In particular, a number of 'emerging' OCs (PFOS, PFOA and PCAs) were identified for priority attention that are environmentally persistent and potentially toxic with unique chemical properties, or are present in large concentrations in sludge, that make it theoretically possible for them to enter human and ecological food-chains from biosolids-amended soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley O Clarke
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Nunes LM, Zhu YG, Stigter TY, Monteiro JP, Teixeira MR. Environmental impacts on soil and groundwater at airports: origin, contaminants of concern and environmental risks. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 13:3026-39. [DOI: 10.1039/c1em10458f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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Oral LD50 toxicity modeling and prediction of per- and polyfluorinated chemicals on rat and mouse. Mol Divers 2010; 15:467-76. [DOI: 10.1007/s11030-010-9268-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Law RJ, Herzke D. Current Levels and Trends of Brominated Flame Retardants in the Environment. BROMINATED FLAME RETARDANTS 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/698_2010_82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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