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Monteil-Rivera F, Locke S, Ye M, Smyth SA, Sullivan K, Okonski A, Jagla M, Gutzman D. Quantification of quaternary ammonium compounds by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry: Minimizing losses from the field to the laboratory. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1723:464905. [PMID: 38640882 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.464905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs) are widely used in household, medical and industrial settings. As a consequence, they are ubiquitously found in the environment. Although significant efforts have been put into the development of sensitive and reproducible analytical methods, much less effort has been dedicated to the monitoring of QACs upon sample storage and sample preparation. Here we studied the effect of storage, concentration, and extraction procedures on the concentrations of QACs in samples. Thirteen QACs selected amongst benzalkonium compounds (BACs), dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (DADMACs) and alkyltrimethylammonium compounds (ATMACs) were quantified in aqueous and solid samples using LC-MS/MS. Most QACs adsorbed on container walls could be recovered using a short washing step with MeOH containing 2 % v/v formic acid. Concentrations of QACs from aqueous solutions using solid phase extraction (SPE) with Strata-X cartridges and elution with acidified MeOH utilized to wash the emptied containers gave highly satisfactory recoveries (101-111 %). Good recoveries (89-116 %) were also obtained when extracting a spiked organic-rich synthetic soil using accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) with acidified MeOH at low solid/solvent ratio (0.4 g/20 mL). Applying the recommended methodologies to real samples collected from a Canadian wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) gave QAC concentrations in the ranges of 0.01-30 µg/L, < 1.2 µg/L, and 0.05-27 mg/kg for the influent, effluent and biosolids samples, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Monteil-Rivera
- National Research Council of Canada, Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Center, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada.
| | - Steven Locke
- National Research Council of Canada, Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Center, 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE, C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Mengwei Ye
- National Research Council of Canada, Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Center, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Regulatory Operations, Policy and Emerging Science Division, 867 Lakeshore Rd., Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Katrina Sullivan
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Substance Prioritization, Assessment and Coordination Division, 351St. Joseph Blvd., Gatineau, QC, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Alexander Okonski
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Substance Prioritization, Assessment and Coordination Division, 351St. Joseph Blvd., Gatineau, QC, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Magdalena Jagla
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Substance Prioritization, Assessment and Coordination Division, 351St. Joseph Blvd., Gatineau, QC, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Don Gutzman
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, Substance Prioritization, Assessment and Coordination Division, 351St. Joseph Blvd., Gatineau, QC, K1A 0H3, Canada
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Li WL, Shunthirasingham C, Wong F, Smyth SA, Pajda A, Alexandrou N, Hung H, Huo CY, Bisbicos T, Alaee M, Pacepavicius G, Marvin C. Assessing Contributions of Synthetic Musk Compounds from Wastewater Treatment Plants to Atmospheric and Aquatic Environments. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:5524-5533. [PMID: 38466636 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c00840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The high environmental concentrations, persistence, and toxicity of synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) necessitate a better grasp of their fate in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). To investigate the importance of WWTPs as pathways of SMCs to the environment, air and wastewater samples were collected at four WWTPs in Ontario, Canada. Polycyclic musks (PCMs) were present at higher concentrations than nitro musks (NMs) and macrocyclic musks (MCMs). Three PCMs [galaxolide (HHCB), tonalide (AHTN), and iso-E super (OTNE)] were the most abundant compounds (0.30-680 ng/m3 in air, 0.40-15 μg/L in influent, and 0.007-6.0 μg/L in effluent). Analyses of multiyear data suggest that risk management measures put in place have been effective in reducing the release of many SMCs into the environment. The highest removal efficiency, up to almost 100% of some SMCs, was observed for the plant with the longest solid retention time. A fugacity-based model was established to simulate the transport and fate of SMCs in the WWTP, and good agreement was obtained between the measured and modeled values. These findings indicate that the levels of certain SMCs discharged into the atmospheric and aquatic environments were substantial, potentially resulting in exposure to both humans and wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Long Li
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
- College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Chubashini Shunthirasingham
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Fiona Wong
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Artur Pajda
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Nick Alexandrou
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Hayley Hung
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Chun-Yan Huo
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin St, Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada
- College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Tommy Bisbicos
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Mehran Alaee
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Grazina Pacepavicius
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Chris Marvin
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
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Lakshminarasimman N, Gewurtz SB, Parker WJ, Smyth SA. Quantifying the removal of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in physical, chemical, and biological sludge treatment systems. Chemosphere 2024; 351:141203. [PMID: 38228194 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are priority contaminants historically used as flame retardants. PBDEs are known to occur in wastewater biosolids posing potential concerns with the beneficial land application of the biosolids. This study evaluated the removal of 21 congeners in nine full-scale sludge treatment systems including pelletization (P), alkaline stabilization (AS), and aerobic (AE) and anaerobic (AN) digestion. It is the first study to conduct a mass balance analysis of a broad spectrum of PBDEs during physical, chemical, and biological sludge treatment. The PBDE congener pattern in raw sludge and biosolids samples was consistent with commercial formulations. The fully brominated congener BDE-209 dominated biosolids from all sites with an average concentration of 620 ng/g dry weight (dw), followed by BDE-99 (173 ng/g dw) and BDE-47 (162 ng/g dw). Mass balance analysis on the P and AS processes showed no change in PBDE mass flows with treatment. However, aerobic and anaerobic digestion processes reported significant levels of removal and formation of individual congeners, though the results were not consistent between facilities. One aerobic digestion process (AE2) reported an overall average removal of 48%, whereas the other (AE1) reported very high levels of accumulation of tri- and tetraBDE congeners. Similarly, there were significant variations in PBDE behavior across the five anaerobic digestion plants studied. The plant with the longest solids retention time (SRT) (AN1) reported a moderate removal (50%) of overall PBDE loading and lower congeners, whereas other plants (AN2-AN5) showed significant low (-19%) to high (-166%) levels of formation of lower congeners. The results suggest that reduced SRTs result in formation of lower congeners while extended SRTs can lead to moderate removal of some PBDEs. Conventional sludge treatment result in low to moderate PBDE removal and advanced thermal conversion technologies may be needed to improve the contaminant removal during sludge treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada, L7S 1A1
| | - Wayne J Parker
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, N2L 3G1
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada, L7S 1A1
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Gewurtz SB, Auyeung AS, De Silva AO, Teslic S, Smyth SA. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Canadian municipal wastewater and biosolids: Recent patterns and time trends 2009 to 2021. Sci Total Environ 2024; 912:168638. [PMID: 37984658 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were determined in raw influent, final effluent, and treated biosolids at Canadian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to evaluate the fate of PFAS through liquid and solids trains of typical treatment process types used in Canada and to assess time trends of PFAS in wastewater between 2009 and 2021. Data for 42 PFAS in samples collected from 27 WWTP across Canada were used to assess current concentrations and 48 WWTPs were included in the time trends analysis. Although regulated and phased-out of production by industry since the early 2000s and late 2000s/early2010s, respectively, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and other long-chain PFAS continue to be widely detected in Canadian wastewater and biosolids. Short-chain PFAS that are not currently regulated in Canada were also widely detected. In general, elevated concentrations of several PFAS were observed at WWTPs that receive landfill leachate. Except for PFOS, concentrations of long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkane sulfonates (PFSAs) generally decreased over time in influent, effluent, and biosolids, which is attributable to industrial production phase-outs and regulations. Concentrations of PFOS did not decrease over time in wastewater media. This indicates that regulatory action and industrial phase-outs of PFOS are slow to be reflected in wastewater. Concentrations of short-chain PFCAs in wastewater influent and effluent consistently increased between 2009 and 2021, which reflect the use of short-chain PFAS as replacements for phased-out and regulated longer-chained PFAS. Short-chain PFAS were infrequently detected in biosolids. Continued periodic monitoring of PFAS in wastewater matrices in Canada and throughout the world is recommended to track the effectiveness of regulatory actions, particularly activities to address the broad class of PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Alexandra S Auyeung
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Amila O De Silva
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Steven Teslic
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada.
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5
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Sivarajah B, Lapen DR, Gewurtz SB, Smyth SA, Provencher JF, Vermaire JC. How many microplastic particles are present in Canadian biosolids? J Environ Qual 2023; 52:1037-1048. [PMID: 37296527 DOI: 10.1002/jeq2.20497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Application of treated sewage sludge (biosolids) from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to farmlands is an important pathway through which microplastic particles (MPs) enter terrestrial ecosystems. Yet, microplastic concentrations in Canadian biosolids have only been estimated in samples from four WWTPs previously. We aimed to fill this knowledge gap by quantifying microplastics in biosolids from 22 WWTPs located in nine provinces and two commercial fertilizer producers in Canada. All samples had substantial microplastic concentrations ranging from 228 to 1353 particles per gram dry weight (median = 636 particles), which are orders of magnitude greater than MPs reported from earlier investigations of biosolids from other countries. Fibers (median: 86%) were the most common type of MPs observed, followed by fragments (median: 13%). There were no statistically significant differences in the amount of microplastics observed in the biosolids from different geographical regions, WWTP types, and sludge treatment processes. This suggests that diverse combinations of local sewershed characteristics, site-specific treatment approaches, and daily flow at WWTPs may be influencing concentrations of microplastics in biosolids. Our results indicate that microplastic concentrations in biosolids are substantially higher than they are in other environmental matrices, and this has important implications to managing microplastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branaavan Sivarajah
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - David R Lapen
- Ottawa Research Development Centre, Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jennifer F Provencher
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Division, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jesse C Vermaire
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Institute of Environmental and Interdisciplinary Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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6
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Gagnon C, Turcotte P, Gagné F, Smyth SA. Occurrence and size distribution of silver nanoparticles in wastewater effluents from various treatment processes in Canada. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2021; 28:65952-65959. [PMID: 34327645 PMCID: PMC8636396 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of silver (Ag) in urban effluents is partly associated with the increasing use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) as an antiseptic agent in various consumer products. Distinction among Ag forms must be taken into account in the assessment of exposure and toxicological effects to aquatic organisms. Wastewater treatment processes effectively remove Ag particles and colloids (mostly > 95%), but this still leaves notable concentrations (in order of ng/L) escaping to effluent-receiving waters. Total suspended Ag concentrations in various studied effluents ranged from 0.1 to 6 ng/L. The purpose of this study was then to measure and characterize Ag NPs in urban effluents for their concentrations and size distribution using the single particle ICP-MS technique (SP-ICP-MS). Wastewater influents and effluents from various treatment plants-from aerated lagoons to advanced treatment technology-were collected for three sampling days. Our results showed the presence of Ag NP in all samples with concentrations reaching 0.5 ng/L on a mass basis. However, on a particle number basis, Ag NP concentrations (expressed in particle/mL) in the 20-34-nm fraction (up to 3400 particles/mL) were much more abundant (> 700%) than in the > 35-nm larger fraction. The proportion of Ag at the nanoscale (1-100 nm) represents less than 8% of the total suspended Ag for all effluent samples, regardless of their origins. A significant correlation (linear regression: r2 > 0.7) was observed between Ag NP and total suspended Ag concentrations in investigated effluents. Because Ag nanotoxicity is size dependent, the determination of size distribution and exposure concentration on a particle number basis is urgently needed for risk assessment of this class of nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gagnon
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 7th Floor, St. Lawrence Centre, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC, H2Y 2E7, Canada.
| | - Patrice Turcotte
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 7th Floor, St. Lawrence Centre, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC, H2Y 2E7, Canada
| | - François Gagné
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 7th Floor, St. Lawrence Centre, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC, H2Y 2E7, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 7th Floor, St. Lawrence Centre, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, QC, H2Y 2E7, Canada
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Gewurtz SB, Tardif G, Power M, Backus SM, Dove A, Dubé-Roberge K, Garron C, King M, Lalonde B, Letcher RJ, Martin PA, McDaniel TV, McGoldrick DJ, Pelletier M, Small J, Smyth SA, Teslic S, Tessier J. Bisphenol A in the Canadian environment: A multimedia analysis. Sci Total Environ 2021; 755:142472. [PMID: 33059142 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical that has been identified by some jurisdictions as an environmental concern. In 2010, Canada concluded that this substance posed a risk to the environment and human health, and implemented actions to reduce its concentrations in the environment. To support these activities, a multimedia analysis of BPA in the Canadian environment was conducted to evaluate spatial and temporal trends, and to infer mechanisms influencing the patterns. BPA was consistently detected in wastewater and biosolids across Canadian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and in landfill leachate. In addition, BPA concentrations were significantly higher in surface water downstream compared to upstream of WWTPs in three of five urban areas evaluated. However, application of biosolids to Canadian agricultural fields did not contribute to elevated BPA concentrations in soil, earthworms, and European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) plasma one and two years post-treatment. Spatial trends of BPA concentrations in surface water and sediment are influenced by human activity, with higher concentrations typically found downstream of industrial sources and WWTPs in urban areas. BPA was detected in bird plasma at locations impacted by WWTPs and landfills. However, spatial trends in birds were less clear and may have been confounded by metabolic biotransformation. In terms of temporal trends, BPA concentrations in surface water decreased significantly at 10 of 16 monitoring sites evaluated between 2008 and 2018. In contrast, recent temporal trends of BPA in six sediment cores were variable, which may be a result of biotransformation of the flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A to BPA. Overall, our study provides evidence that Government of Canada actions have been generally successful in reducing BPA concentrations in the Canadian environment. Our results indicate that long-term monitoring programs using surface water are more effective than other media for tracking and understanding future environmental trends of BPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Geneviève Tardif
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Monique Power
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Sean M Backus
- Strategic Policy Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Alice Dove
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Karine Dubé-Roberge
- Environmental Protection Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Christine Garron
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 2N6, Canada
| | - Martha King
- Environmental Protection Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Benoit Lalonde
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 2N6, Canada
| | - Robert J Letcher
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Pamela A Martin
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Tana V McDaniel
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Daryl J McGoldrick
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Magella Pelletier
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Montréal, Quebec H2Y 2E7, Canada
| | - Jeff Small
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Steven Teslic
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Judith Tessier
- Environmental Protection Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
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Lakshminarasimman N, Gewurtz SB, Parker WJ, Smyth SA. Removal and formation of perfluoroalkyl substances in Canadian sludge treatment systems - A mass balance approach. Sci Total Environ 2021; 754:142431. [PMID: 33254854 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are an emerging class of anthropogenic contaminants whose occurrence has raised concerns with the beneficial reuse of biosolids from wastewater treatment. This study evaluated the behavior of thirteen PFAS in nine Canadian sludge treatment systems including pelletization, alkaline stabilization, aerobic and anaerobic digestion processes. The composition of the overall PFAS-fluorine (ΣPFAS-F) loading in a system fed with only primary sludge was dominated by perfluorodecanoate (PFDA), whereas systems with blended primary and waste activated sludge feeds had a mix of short and long chain PFAS in raw sludges and treated biosolids. An increase in average ΣPFAS-F mass flow was observed through pelletization (19% formation) and alkaline stabilization (99% formation) processes indicating negative removal or contaminant formation. One of the two aerobic digestion systems and three of the five anaerobic digestion systems showed modest reductions (< 40% removal) in ΣPFAS-F loading. Long chain PFAS such as perfluorodecanoate (PFDA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) exhibited a wide variation in behavior ranging from substantial formation (> 75% formation) to modest removal (42% removal) in the surveyed systems while short chain perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA) mass flows increased through the three systems where they occurred. Overall, the contaminant mass balances revealed that there were significant changes in mass flows of the target PFAS through all kinds of sludge treatment systems. The results of this study on PFAS fate through sludge processing can inform future global PFAS risk management activities as well as sludge treatment considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Wayne J Parker
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
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9
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Zhang ZF, Zhang X, Zhang X, Sverko E, Smyth SA, Li YF. Diphenylamine Antioxidants in wastewater influent, effluent, biosolids and landfill leachate: Contribution to environmental releases. Water Res 2021; 189:116602. [PMID: 33189976 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Diphenylamine antioxidants (DPAs) are widely used industrial chemicals. Wastewater effluents and biosolids are important pathways for DPAs to enter the environment. Information on the fate of DPAs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and their environmental releases is limited. In this study, we characterized the occurrence, removal efficiencies, distribution, mass balance, and environmental releases of 17 DPAs in ten Canadian WWTPs and four landfill sites from 2013 to 2015. These WWTPs are different in sizes, and treatment technologies. Median concentrations of ΣDPAs were 78 ng/L in influent, 6.9 ng/L in effluent, 326 ng/L in leachate, and 445 ng/g in biosolids (dry weight), respectively. Diphenylamine (DPA) and ditertoctyl-diphenylamine (DTO-DPA) were the predominant congeners of DPAs in all the matrices. Residues of DPAs were not completely removed during wastewater treatment processes: most DPAs were detected in at least one sample of WWTP effluent with the highest concentration of 117 ng/L (DPA). Overall, high removal efficiencies (median > 90%) of most of the DPAs were observed in the secondary and advanced treatment, as well as in the facultative and aerated lagoons. In contrast, primary treatment exhibited a lower removal efficiency of the DPAs. Mass balance analysis shows that sorption to biosolids is the major removal pathway of DPAs in WWTPs. The results also highlight that environmental releases of DPAs via biosolid applications (70 mg/d/1000 people) can be over several times higher than that via wastewater effluent (2.5-36 mg/d/1000 people).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Feng Zhang
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), Polar Academy, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road Burlington, ON, L7S1A1, Canada.
| | - Xue Zhang
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), Polar Academy, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | | | - Ed Sverko
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), Polar Academy, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road Burlington, ON, L7S1A1, Canada
| | - Yi-Fan Li
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), Polar Academy, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; IJRC-PTS-NA, Toronto, M2N 6X9, Canada
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10
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Van Stempvoort DR, Brown SJ, Spoelstra J, Garda D, Robertson WD, Smyth SA. Variable persistence of artificial sweeteners during wastewater treatment: Implications for future use as tracers. Water Res 2020; 184:116124. [PMID: 32755735 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
For more than a decade the artificial sweeteners acesulfame (ACE) and sucralose (SUC) have been applied as tracers of the input of wastewater to environmental waters. Recently concerns have been raised that degradation of ACE during treatment may hinder or restrict its use as a wastewater tracer. In this study the value of ACE and SUC as tracers was reassessed based on samples of wastewater at 12 municipal wastewater treatment (MWWT) plants and from 7 septic systems and associated septic plumes in groundwater. The results indicated stability of SUC during MWWT at most plants, and variable removal of both sweeteners during some MWWT and in the septic wastewater systems. However, the residual concentrations of ACE and SUC in municipal effluent and in septic plumes indicate that both sweeteners remain valuable wastewater tracers. The mass ratio SUC/ACE was found to be a useful parameter for examining the relative persistence of these sweeteners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale R Van Stempvoort
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Susan J Brown
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - John Spoelstra
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada; Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Dorothy Garda
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - William D Robertson
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada
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11
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Van Stempvoort DR, Brown SJ, Smyth SA. Detections of alkyl-phenoxy-benzenesulfonates in municipal wastewater. Chemosphere 2020; 251:126386. [PMID: 32155495 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study presents the first reported detections and concentrations of alkyl phenoxy-benzenesulfonate surfactants (APBS) in municipal wastewater. A semi quantitative direct injection LC/MS/MS method was developed. Samples of raw influent and final effluent were obtained from fourteen municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) at various locations in Canada and were analyzed for APBS, including five homologues of monoalkyldiphenylether disulfonates (MADS) and one monoalkyldiphenylether sulfonate (MAMS) homologue. APBS were detected in all 42 of the wastewater raw influent samples and in 37 of the 42 wastewater final effluent samples; the other 5 final effluent samples had trace levels below the minimum detection limit. In the samples of raw influent from the fourteen municipal treatment plants, the dissolved concentrations of APBS (total) ranged from 0.9 to 13.6 μg/L. In samples of final effluent from the same plants the total APBS ranged from below detection to 4 μg/L. The APBS were more resistant to loss during wastewater treatment compared to previous studies of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates in wastewaters. The most effective wastewater treatments for removal of APBS were those that involved either secondary treatment with aeration or advanced treatment including biological nutrient removal. Available information on ecotoxicity is lacking for evaluating the impacts of APBS surfactants when released to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale R Van Stempvoort
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Susan J Brown
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada
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12
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Gewurtz SB, Guerra P, Kim MG, Jones F, Challen Urbanic J, Teslic S, Smyth SA. Wastewater Treatment Lagoons: Local Pathways of Perfluoroalkyl Acids and Brominated Flame Retardants to the Arctic Environment. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:6053-6062. [PMID: 32345008 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and "novel" brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were determined in lagoons processing wastewater from two high-Arctic and two sub-Arctic of Canada communities to assess the importance of local anthropogenic sources. ∑PFAAs in influent and effluent of the Arctic lagoons were within the lower end of the range of concentrations previously observed in Canadian temperate wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In comparison, influent and effluent concentrations of ∑PBDEs and NBFRs were significantly greater (p < 0.05) in high-Arctic lagoons compared to sub-Arctic and temperate plants. The surprisingly elevated concentrations of PBDEs and NBFRs in high-Arctic lagoons were probably related to high organic matter found in Arctic wastewater due to lower consumption of potable water leading to less dilution compared to temperate regions. Although PFAAs also sorb to solids, the wastewater samples were filtered prior to analysis of PFAAs (but not PBDEs and NBFRs), which likely reduced the impacts of solids on the results for PFAAs. Based on an extrapolation of per capita mass effluent loadings of the four Arctic lagoons, mass loadings to the Arctic of Canada via WWTP effluent were estimated as 1405 g/year and 549 g/year for ∑PFAAs and ∑PBDEs, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Gewurtz
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Paula Guerra
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Min Gu Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Frankie Jones
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Jane Challen Urbanic
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Steven Teslic
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
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13
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Van Stempvoort DR, Spoelstra J, Brown SJ, Robertson WD, Post R, Smyth SA. Sulfamate in environmental waters. Sci Total Environ 2019; 695:133734. [PMID: 31422333 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Although sulfamate (the anion of sulfamic acid) has been in use for decades in various industrial and other applications, there is no previously published information about its occurrence and fate in environmental waters. In this study sulfamate was widely detected in environmental waters in Ontario, Canada, ranging up to 128,000ng/L. It was always detected (>100ng/L) in bulk precipitation samples and streams, it was usually detected in samples of lake water, and often detected in groundwater. Spatial and temporal variations suggest that both widespread atmospheric deposition and localized land-based anthropogenic sources of sulfamate may be important. Lower concentrations or non-detections of sulfamate in waters that had relatively low dissolved oxygen (e.g. some groundwaters) suggest that sulfamate may be degraded in the environment under suboxic or anoxic conditions. Given our findings of a wide distribution of sulfamate in environmental waters, including precipitation, it is not likely to be very useful as a wastewater tracer.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Van Stempvoort
- Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - J Spoelstra
- Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada; Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - S J Brown
- Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - W D Robertson
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - R Post
- Nottawasaga Valley Conservation Authority, 8195 8th Line, Utopia, Ontario L0M 1T0, Canada
| | - S A Smyth
- Emerging Priorities Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
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14
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Guerra P, Teslic S, Shah A, Albert A, Gewurtz SB, Smyth SA. Occurrence and removal of triclosan in Canadian wastewater systems. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2019; 26:31873-31886. [PMID: 31489545 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06338-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial agent used in many personal care and cleaning products. It has been detected in most environmental compartments and the main entry pathway is wastewater effluents and biosolids. TCS was analyzed in 300 samples of raw influent, final effluent, and biosolids from 13 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across Canada representing five types of typical wastewater treatment systems. TCS was almost always detected in influent (median 1480 ng/L), effluent (median 107 ng/L), and biosolids (median 8000 ng/g dry weight) samples. Removals of TCS from lagoons as well as secondary and advanced treatment facilities were significantly higher than primary treatment facilities (p < 0.001). TCS removal was strongly correlated with organic nitrogen removal. TCS removals at most lagoons and plants that use biological treatment were higher during summer compared with winter. However, no seasonal or temperature effects were observed at the two primary facilities, likely due to the absence of biological activity. Aerobically digested solids contained the lowest levels (median 555 ng/g) while anaerobically digested primary solids contained the highest levels of TCS (median 22,700 ng/g). The results of this large comprehensive study demonstrate that TCS is consistently present in wastewater and biosolids at relatively high concentrations and that removal from wastewater and levels in biosolids are strongly influenced by the wastewater and solids treatment types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Guerra
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
- Contract Pharmaceuticals Limited, 2145 Meadowpine Blvd, Mississauga, ON, L5N 6R8, Canada
| | - Steven Teslic
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Ariba Shah
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
- Queen's University, 1-149 Brock St., Kingston, ON, K7L 1S2, Canada
| | - Amber Albert
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
- Columbia University, 232W 116th St. Unit 809, New York, NY, 10026, USA
| | - Sarah B Gewurtz
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada.
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15
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Lu Z, Smyth SA, De Silva AO. Distribution and fate of synthetic phenolic antioxidants in various wastewater treatment processes in Canada. Chemosphere 2019; 219:826-835. [PMID: 30562689 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPAs) are of emerging concern due to their potential environmental risks. However, the environmental occurrence and fate of SPAs are poorly understood. In this study, 13 SPAs were analyzed in 70 liquid and 21 solid samples from 12 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 2016 to investigate the distribution and composition of SPAs in different wastewater treatment processes in Canada. Wastewater samples were liquid-liquid extracted and biosolids were treated using ultrasonic assisted solvent extraction. SPAs were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The concentrations of total SPAs were in the ranges of 71-3193 ng L-1 in influent, less than method quantification limits (MQLs)-520 ng L-1 in effluent, and 479-4794 ng g-1 in biosolids (dry weight (dw)). SPAs were effectively removed (median >75%) from the liquid stream in most WWTPs. In one aerated lagoon and two primary treatment sites, low removal efficiency (median -26%-43%) was observed for 4-tert-octylphenol (4-tOP). These results indicate that wastewater effluent is a vector for SPAs, including the endocrine disruptor 4-tOP, to aquatic environments. The mass balance approximation found major removal mechanisms are sludge sorption/separation and degradation. A preliminary risk assessment suggested that most SPAs in WWTP effluent were unlikely to pose ecotoxicological risks to aquatic organisms in the receiving waters. Future research should evaluate the environmental risks of SPAs associated with land application of biosolids and investigate the occurrence and fate of the degradation products of these contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Lu
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada; Institut des Sciences de La Mer de Rimouski (ISMER), Université Du Québec à Rimouski (UQAR), 310 Allée des Ursulines, Rimouski, Québec, G5L 3A1, Canada.
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Amila O De Silva
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
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16
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Shen J, Smyth SA, Droste R, Delâge D. Variability of release rate of flame retardants in wastewater treatment plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2018; 25:34740-34752. [PMID: 30324373 PMCID: PMC6245005 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3403-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Information on variability is important in the assessment of the releases and potential risks of brominated flame retardants (BRFs) in the environment, but related data are limited. In this study, two release-characterizing parameters, release fraction to final effluent and influent-biosolids transfer coefficient, were used to quantify releases of five BFRs from eight secondary wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The five BFRs are recalcitrant, hydrophobic, and low in volatility. The two parameters for these BFRs were found to vary from day to day and season to season within individual WWTPs as well as from one WWTP to another. These temporal and spatial variations were, however, comparable to each other and both within a factor of 3 above or below the parameter averages. Averages for release fraction were in the range of 0.02-0.29 and those for influent-biosolids transfer coefficient in the range of 3-26 L/g, depending upon a given BFR at a given WWTP. These ranges and the observed factor-3 variability are not only useful for estimating releases of the five BFRs, but more importantly provide read-across data for the assessment of substances with similar physical-chemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Shen
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 351 Saint Joseph Boulevard, Gatineau, Quebec, K1A 0H3, Canada.
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 351 Saint Joseph Boulevard, Gatineau, Quebec, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Ronald Droste
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Danaëlle Delâge
- Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 351 Saint Joseph Boulevard, Gatineau, Quebec, K1A 0H3, Canada
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17
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Lu Z, Smyth SA, Peart TE, De Silva AO. Occurrence and fate of substituted diphenylamine antioxidants and benzotriazole UV stabilizers in various Canadian wastewater treatment processes. Water Res 2017; 124:158-166. [PMID: 28756218 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.07.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Substituted diphenylamine antioxidants (SDPAs) and benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BZT-UVs) are additives used in industrial and consumer products to prevent degradation or color change of materials, but their environmental fate and disposition are not well characterized. In this study, SDPAs and BZT-UVs were analyzed in 68 liquid and 39 solid samples collected from 9 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Canada to investigate the occurrence and fate of these contaminants. The median concentrations of ΣSDPAs and ΣBZT-UVs was 483 and 76.2 ng L-1 in influent, 28.4 and 4.84 ng L-1 in effluent, and 2750 and 457 ng g-1 in biosolids (dry weight), respectively. Dinonyl-diphenylamine (C9C9) was the predominant congener of SDPAs in all matrices (>40%). For target BZT-UVs, the major components were 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-bis(1-methyl-1-phenylethyl)phenol (UV234) and 2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-di-tert-pentylphenol (UV328). SDPAs and BZT-UVs were effectively removed (>90%) from the liquid stream in most WWTPs mainly through sludge sorption and separation, but biotransformation, UV treatment and filtration may also contribute to removal of some contaminants in advanced treatment plants. In contrast, the removal efficiency of target contaminants using chemically assisted primary treatment was low, likely due to the short hydraulic retention time of this site. Our results suggest that wastewater effluent is a vector of SDPAs and BZT-UVs to the aquatic environment. The results also highlight the high concentrations of SDPAs and BZT-UVs associated with the solid stream in WWTPs, which could affect the beneficial use of biosolids (e.g., compost or land applications).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Lu
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Thomas E Peart
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
| | - Amila O De Silva
- Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7S 1A1, Canada.
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18
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Sverko E, McCarry B, McCrindle R, Brazeau A, Pena-Abaurrea M, Reiner E, Anne Smyth S, Gill B, Tomy GT. Evidence for Anaerobic Dechlorination of Dechlorane Plus in Sewage Sludge. Environ Sci Technol 2015; 49:13862-13867. [PMID: 26572321 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The environmental occurrence of dechlorination moieties from the high production volume flame retardant, Dechlorane Plus (DP), has largely been documented; however, the sources have yet to be well understood. In addition, few laboratory-based studies exist which identify the cause for the occurrence of these chemicals in the environment or humans. Anaerobic dechlorination of the two DP isomers was investigated using a laboratory-simulated wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) environment where anaerobic digestion is used as part of the treatment regime. Known amounts of each isomer were added separately to sewage sludge which provided the electron-donating substrate and at prescribed time points in the incubation, a portion of the media was removed and analyzed for DP and any dechlorination metabolites. After 7 days, monohydrodechlorinated products were observed for both the syn- and anti-DP which were continued throughout the duration of our study (49 days) in an increasing manner giving a calculated formation rate of 0.48 ± 0.09 and 0.79 ± 0.12 pmols/day for syn- and anti-DP, respectively. Furthermore, we observed a second monohydrodechlorinated product only in the anti-DP isomer incubation medium. This strongly suggests that anti-DP is more susceptible to anaerobic degradation than the syn isomer. We also provide compelling evidence to the location of chlorine loss in the dechlorination DP analogues. Finally, the dechlorination DP moieties formed in our study matched the retention times and identification of those observed in surficial sediment located downstream of the WWTP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Sverko
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada , Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Brian McCarry
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Eric Reiner
- Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, Ontario M9P 3 V6, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada , Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Biban Gill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough Campus , Toronto, Ontario, M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Gregg T Tomy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada
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19
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Guerra P, Kleywegt S, Payne M, Svoboda ML, Lee HB, Reiner E, Kolic T, Metcalfe C, Smyth SA. Occurrence and Fate of Trace Contaminants during Aerobic and Anaerobic Sludge Digestion and Dewatering. J Environ Qual 2015; 44:1193-1200. [PMID: 26437100 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2015.01.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Digestion of municipal wastewater biosolids is a necessary prerequisite to their beneficial use in land application, in order to protect public health and the receiving environment. In this study, 13 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), 11 musks, and 17 polybrominated diphenyl ethers were analyzed in 84 samples including primary sludge, waste activated sludge, digested biosolids, dewatered biosolids, and dewatering centrate or filtrate collected from five wastewater treatment plants with aerobic or anaerobic digestion. Aerobic digestion processes were sampled during both warm and cold temperatures to analyze seasonal differences. Among the studied compounds, triclosan, triclocarban, galaxolide, and BDE-209 were the substances most frequently detected under different treatment processes at levels up to 30,000 ng/g dry weight. Comparing aerobic and anaerobic digestion, it was observed that the levels of certain PPCPs and musks were significantly higher in anaerobically digested biosolids, relative to the residues from aerobic digestion. Therefore, aerobic digestion has the potential advantage of reducing levels of PPCPs and musks. On the other hand, anaerobic digestion has the advantage of recovering energy from the biosolids in the form of combustible gases while retaining the nutrient and soil conditioning value of this resource.
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20
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Guerra P, Kim M, Teslic S, Alaee M, Smyth SA. Bisphenol-A removal in various wastewater treatment processes: operational conditions, mass balance, and optimization. J Environ Manage 2015; 152:192-200. [PMID: 25684568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol-A (BPA) was analyzed in 499 liquid and 347 solid samples collected from twenty-five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to investigate parameters affecting BPA occurrence, removal, and fate. Lagoons, chemically-assisted primary treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced treatment processes were included. Median BPA concentrations in influent and final effluent were 400 ng/L and 150 ng/L, respectively. Median removal efficiencies ranged from 1 to 77%. Respective median BPA levels in primary sludge, secondary biological sludge, and biosolids were 230, 260, and 460 ng/g with digested biosolids having the highest concentrations. The biological aerated filter and membrane bioreactor processes showed the best performance, while chemically-assisted primary treatment achieved the lowest removal. Biodegradation and sorption contributing to BPA removal were influenced by operational conditions: hydraulic retention time (HRT), solids retention time (SRT), and mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). The influence of HRT, SRT, and MLSS in the bioreactor was stronger during cold temperatures. In order to achieve above 80% removal, the required conditions for HRT, SRT, and MLSS were 13 h, 7 days, and 1600 mg/L during summer (median temperature 19 °C) and 13 h, 17 days, and 5300 mg/L during winter (median temperature 10 °C); indicating that longer SRT and higher MLSS were needed during winter. BPA's sorption tendency to sludge was strongly influenced by the degree of nitrification and HRT.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Guerra
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington L7R 4A6, Ontario, Canada
| | - M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington L7R 4A6, Ontario, Canada
| | - S Teslic
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington L7R 4A6, Ontario, Canada
| | - M Alaee
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington L7R 4A6, Ontario, Canada
| | - S A Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington L7R 4A6, Ontario, Canada.
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21
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Wang DG, Aggarwal M, Tait T, Brimble S, Pacepavicius G, Kinsman L, Theocharides M, Smyth SA, Alaee M. Fate of anthropogenic cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes in a wastewater treatment plant. Water Res 2015; 72:209-217. [PMID: 25455042 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The fate of cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes (cVMS) - octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), and dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6) - was evaluated in a typical secondary activated sludge wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Water samples (influent, primary effluent, and final effluent) and sludge (primary sludge and waste activated sludge) samples were collected at overnight low, morning high, afternoon low, and evening high flows. Concentrations of cVMS in influents fluctuated with the influent flows, ranging from 0.166 to 1.13 μg L(-1), 3.47-19.3 μg L(-1), and 0.446-3.87 μg L(-1) for D4, D5, and D6, respectively. Mass balance analysis of cVMS showed the average mass of D4, D5, and D6 entering and exiting the plant in influent and effluent, respectively, were 109 g d(-1), 2050 g d(-1), 280 g d(-1), and 1.41 g d(-1), 27.0 g d(-1), 1.90 g d(-1). The total removal efficiency of cVMS was >96%. To elucidate their detailed removal mechanisms, Mackay's fugacity-based treatment plant model was used to simulate the fate of cVMS through the WWTP. Due to the unusual combination of high hydrophobicity and volatility of cVMS, volatilization in the aeration tank and adsorption to sludge were the two main pathways of cVMS removal from water in this WWTP based on the experimental and modeled results. The morning and evening high influent mass flows contributed almost equally at approximately 40% of the total daily cVMS mass, with D5 accounting for the majority of this daily loading.
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Affiliation(s)
- De-Gao Wang
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Monica Aggarwal
- Chemicals Sector Directorate, Environment Canada, 351 St-Joseph Boulevard, Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Tara Tait
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Samantha Brimble
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Grazina Pacepavicius
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Laura Kinsman
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Mike Theocharides
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Shirley Anne Smyth
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - Mehran Alaee
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada.
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Kim M, Guerra P, Alaee M, Smyth SA. Occurrence and fate of four novel brominated flame retardants in wastewater treatment plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2014; 21:13394-13404. [PMID: 24999183 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3262-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Four novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), i.e., decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), and hexabromobenzene (HBB) were studied in 377 liquid samples and 288 solid samples collected from 20 wastewater treatment plants. Lagoon, primary, secondary, and advanced treatment processes were included, in order to investigate NBFR occurrence and the effects of WWTP operational conditions on NBFR removal. Median influent and effluent levels were 14 to 3,700 and 1.0 to 180 pg/L respectively, with DBDPE being the highest in both. Overall median removal efficiencies for DBDPE, BTBPE, HBB, and PBEB across all process types were 81 to 93, 76 to 98, 61 to 97, and 54 to 97 %, respectively with advanced treatment processes obtaining the best removals. NBFRs removal was related to retention time, surface loading rate, and biomass concentration. Median NBFR levels in treated biosolids were 80 to 32,000 pg/g, influenced by solids treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6
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23
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Guerra P, Kim M, Kinsman L, Ng T, Alaee M, Smyth SA. Parameters affecting the formation of perfluoroalkyl acids during wastewater treatment. J Hazard Mater 2014; 272:148-54. [PMID: 24691135 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the fate and behaviour of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in liquid and solid samples from five different wastewater treatment types: facultative and aerated lagoons, chemically assisted primary treatment, secondary aerobic biological treatment, and advanced biological nutrient removal treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest data set from a single study available in the literature to date for PFAAs monitoring study in wastewater treatment. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was the predominant PFAA in wastewater with levels from 2.2 to 150ng/L (influent) and 1.9 to 140ng/L (effluent). Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) was the predominant compound in primary sludge, waste biological sludge, and treated biosolids with concentrations from 6.4 to 2900ng/g dry weight (dw), 9.7 to 8200ng/gdw, and 2.1 to 17,000ng/gdw, respectively. PFAAs were formed during wastewater treatment and it was dependant on both process temperature and treatment type; with higher rates of formation in biological wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) operating at longer hydraulic retention times and higher temperatures. PFAA removal by sorption was influenced by different sorption tendencies; median log values of the solid-liquid distribution coefficient estimated from wastewater biological sludge and final effluent were: PFOS (3.73)>PFDA (3.68)>PFNA (3.25)>PFOA (2.49)>PFHxA (1.93). Mass balances confirmed the formation of PFAAs, low PFAA removal by sorption, and high PFAA levels in effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Guerra
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - L Kinsman
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - T Ng
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - M Alaee
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - S A Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada.
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24
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Guerra P, Kim M, Shah A, Alaee M, Smyth SA. Occurrence and fate of antibiotic, analgesic/anti-inflammatory, and antifungal compounds in five wastewater treatment processes. Sci Total Environ 2014; 473-474:235-43. [PMID: 24370698 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the aquatic environment as a result of wastewater effluent discharge is a concern in many countries. In order to expand our understanding on the occurrence and fate of PPCPs during wastewater treatment processes, 62 antibiotic, analgesic/anti-inflammatory, and antifungal compounds were analyzed in 72 liquid and 24 biosolid samples from six wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) during the summer and winter seasons of 2010-2012. This is the first scientific study to compare five different wastewater treatment processes: facultative and aerated lagoons, chemically-enhanced primary treatment, secondary activated sludge, and advanced biological nutrient removal. PPCPs were detected in all WWTP influents at median concentrations of 1.5 to 92,000 ng/L, with no seasonal differences. PPCPs were also found in all final effluents at median levels ranging from 3.6 to 4,200 ng/L with higher values during winter (p<0.05). Removal efficiencies ranged between -450% and 120%, depending on the compound, WWTP type, and season. Mass balance showed that the fate of analgesic/anti-inflammatory compounds was predominantly biodegradation during biological treatment, while antibiotics and antifungal compounds were more likely to sorb to sludge. However, some PPCPs remained soluble and were detected in effluent samples. Overall, this study highlighted the occurrence and behavior of a large set of PPCPs and determined how their removal is affected by environmental/operational factors in different WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Guerra
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - A Shah
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - M Alaee
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada
| | - S A Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6, Canada.
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Kim M, Guerra P, Shah A, Parsa M, Alaee M, Smyth SA. Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a membrane bioreactor wastewater treatment plant. Water Sci Technol 2014; 69:2221-9. [PMID: 24901615 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2014.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Ninety-nine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were analyzed in influent, final effluent, and biosolids samples from a wastewater treatment plant employing a membrane bioreactor (MBR). High concentrations in influent were found for acetaminophen, caffeine, metformin, 2-hydroxy-ibuprofen, paraxanthine, ibuprofen, and naproxen (10(4)-10(5) ng/L). Final effluents contained clarithromycin, metformin, atenolol, carbamazepine, and trimethoprim (>500 ng/L) at the highest concentrations, while triclosan, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, triclocarban, metformin, caffeine, ofloxacin, and paraxanthine were found at high concentrations in biosolids (>10(3) ng/g dry weight). PPCP removals varied from -34% to >99% and 23 PPCPs had ≥90% removal. Of the studied PPCPs, 26 compounds have been rarely or never studied in previous membrane bioreactor (MBR) investigations. The removal pathway showed that acetaminophen, 2-hydroxy-ibuprofen, naproxen, ibuprofen, codeine, metformin, enalapril, atorvastatin, caffeine, paraxanthine, and cotinine exhibited high degradation/transformation. PPCPs showing strong sorption to solids included triclocarban, triclosan, miconazole, tetracycline, 4-epitetracycline, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, paroxetine, and ofloxacin. Trimethoprim, oxycodone, clarithromycin, thiabendazole, hydrochlorothiazide, erythromycin-H2O, carbamazepine, meprobamate, and propranolol were not removed during treatment, and clarithromycin was even formed during treatment. This investigation extended our understanding of the occurrence and fate of PPCPs in an MBR process through the analysis of the largest number of compounds in an MBR study to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
| | - P Guerra
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
| | - A Shah
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
| | - M Parsa
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
| | - M Alaee
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
| | - S A Smyth
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Canada, L7R 4A6 E-mail:
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26
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Kim M, Guerra P, Theocharides M, Barclay K, Smyth SA, Alaee M. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge and treated biosolids: effect factors and mass balance. Water Res 2013; 47:6496-6505. [PMID: 24091190 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants have been consistently detected in sewage sludge and treated biosolids. Two hundred and eighty-eight samples including primary sludge (PS), waste biological sludge (WBS) and treated biosolids from fifteen wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Canada were analyzed to investigate the factors affecting accumulation of PBDEs in sludge and biosolids. Factors examined included environmental/sewershed conditions and operational parameters of the WWTPs. PBDE concentrations in PS, WBS and treated biosolids were 230-82,000 ng/g, 530-8800 ng/g and 420-6000 ng/g, respectively; BDE-209,-99, and -47 were the predominant congeners. Concentrations were influenced by industrial input, leachate, and temperature. Several examinations including the measurement of BDE-202 indicated minimal debromination during wastewater treatment. Estimated solids-liquid distribution coefficients were moderately correlated to hydraulic retention time, solids loading rate, mixed liquor suspended solids, solids retention time, and removal of organic solids, indicating that PBDE partitioning to solids can be optimized by WWTPs' operational conditions. Solids treatment type strongly affected PBDE levels in biosolids: 1.5 times increase after solids digestion, therefore, digestion efficiency could be a potential factor for variability of PBDEs concentration. In contrast, alkaline treatment reduced PBDE concentrations in biosolids. Overall, mass balance approaches confirmed that PBDEs were removed from the liquid stream through partitioning to solids. Variability of PBDE levels in biosolids could result in different PBDEs burdens to agricultural land, and different exposure levels to soil organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kim
- Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Rd., P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, ON L7R 4A6, Canada
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27
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Gewurtz SB, Backus SM, De Silva AO, Ahrens L, Armellin A, Evans M, Fraser S, Gledhill M, Guerra P, Harner T, Helm PA, Hung H, Khera N, Kim MG, King M, Lee SC, Letcher RJ, Martin P, Marvin C, McGoldrick DJ, Myers AL, Pelletier M, Pomeroy J, Reiner EJ, Rondeau M, Sauve MC, Sekela M, Shoeib M, Smith DW, Smyth SA, Struger J, Spry D, Syrgiannis J, Waltho J. Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Canadian environment: multi-media assessment of current status and trends. Environ Int 2013; 59:183-200. [PMID: 23831544 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In Canada, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been the focus of several monitoring programs and research and surveillance studies. Here, we integrate recent data and perform a multi-media assessment to examine the current status and ongoing trends of PFAAs in Canada. Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and other long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) in air, water, sediment, fish, and birds across Canada are generally related to urbanization, with elevated concentrations observed around cities, especially in southern Ontario. PFOS levels in water, fish tissue, and bird eggs were below their respective Draft Federal Environmental Quality Guidelines, suggesting there is low potential for adverse effects to the environment/organisms examined. However, PFOS in fish and bird eggs tended to exceed guidelines for the protection of mammalian and avian consumers, suggesting a potential risk to their wildlife predators, although wildlife population health assessments are needed to determine whether negative impacts are actually occurring. Long-term temporal trends of PFOS in suspended sediment, sediment cores, Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs collected from Lake Ontario increased consistently from the start of data collection until the 1990s. However, after this time, the trends varied by media, with concentrations stabilizing in Lake Trout and Herring Gull eggs, and decreasing and increasing in suspended sediment and the sediment cores, respectively. For PFCAs, concentrations in suspended sediment, sediment cores, and Herring Gulls generally increased from the start of data collection until present and concentrations in Lake Trout increased until the late 1990s and subsequently stabilized. A multimedia comparison of PFAA profiles provided evidence that unexpected patterns in biota of some of the lakes were due to unique source patterns rather than internal lake processes. High concentrations of PFAAs in the leachate and air of landfill sites, in the wastewater influent/effluent, biosolids, and air at wastewater treatment plants, and in indoor air and dust highlight the waste sector and current-use products (used primarily indoors) as ongoing sources of PFAAs to the Canadian environment. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of integrating data from different media. Simultaneous evaluation of spatial and temporal trends in multiple media allows inferences that would be impossible with data on only one medium. As such, more co-ordination among monitoring sites for different media is suggested for future sampling, especially at the northern sites. We emphasize the importance of continued monitoring of multiple-media for determining future responses of environmental PFAA concentrations to voluntary and regulatory actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Gewurtz
- Conestoga-Rovers & Associates, 651 Colby Drive, Waterloo, ON, N2V 1C2, Canada
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Kim M, Guerra P, Theocharides M, Barclay K, Smyth SA, Alaee M. Parameters affecting the occurrence and removal of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in twenty Canadian wastewater treatment plants. Water Res 2013; 47:2213-2221. [PMID: 23466032 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study determined PBDE levels in influent, primary effluent, and final effluent collected from diverse treatment processes including four aerated lagoons, two facultative lagoons, four primary treatments, eight secondary biological treatments and two advanced treatments. Parameters examined for correlation included seasonal temperature, community sizes, industrial inputs, and operational conditions. PBDE levels in influent were 21-1000 ng/L (median 190 ng/L). Higher concentrations in influent samples were found during summer, and in WWTPs which treated leachate and higher proportions of industrial wastewater vs. residential wastewater. Final effluent levels ranged between 3 and 270 ng/L (median 12 ng/L). Among all congeners, the sum of BDE-209, -47 and -99 accounted for 79 and 71% of total PBDEs in influent and final effluent, respectively, with BDE-209 having the highest proportion. Median removal efficiencies for all process types exceeded 90% except primary treatment at 70%. PBDE levels and removals were correlated to the levels and removals of conventional parameters that represent wastewater strength, such as chemical oxygen demand and total suspended solids. The role of the primary clarifier was significant (∼82% removal) and removal was associated with hydraulic retention time (HRT) and surface loading rate. Best removal of PBDEs was achieved at greater than 2000 mg/L mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), longer than 10 h of HRT, and 9 days of solids retention time.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kim
- Emerging Priorities Division, Science and Risk Assessment Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, Burlington, Canada
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Gagné F, Smyth SA, André C, Douville M, Gélinas M, Barclay K. Stress-related gene expression changes in rainbow trout hepatocytes exposed to various municipal wastewater treatment influents and effluents. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2013; 20:1706-1718. [PMID: 23010963 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-1174-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The present study sought to examine the performance of six different wastewater treatment processes from 12 wastewater treatment plants using a toxicogenomic approach in rainbow trout hepatocytes. Freshly prepared rainbow trout hepatocytes were exposed to increasing concentrations of influent (untreated wastewaters) and effluent (C(18)) extracts for 48 h at 15 °C. A test battery of eight genes was selected to track changes in xenobiotic biotransformation, estrogenicity, heavy metal detoxification, and oxidative stress. The wastewaters were processed by six different treatment systems: facultative and aerated lagoons, activated sludge, biological aerated filter, biological nutrient removal, chemically assisted primary treated, and trickling filter/solids contact. Based on the chemical characteristics of the effluents, the treatment plants were generally effective in removing total suspended solids and chemical oxygen demand, but less so for ammonia and alkalinity. The 12 influents differed markedly with each other, which makes the comparison among treatment processes difficult. For the influents, both population size and flow rate influenced the increase in the following mRNA levels in exposed hepatocytes: metallothionein (MT), cytochrome P4503A4 (CYP3A4), and vitellogenin (VTG). Gene expression of glutathione S-transferase (GST) and the estrogen receptor (ER), were influenced only by population size in exposed cells to the influent extracts. The remaining genes-superoxide dismutase (SOD) and multidrug resistance transporter (MDR)-were not influenced by either population size or flow rate in exposed cells. It is noteworthy that the changes in MT, ER, and VTG in cells exposed to the effluents were significantly affected by the influents across the 12 cities examined. However, SOD, CYP1A1, CYP3A4, GST, and MDR gene expression were the least influenced by the incoming influents. The data also suggest that wastewater treatments involving biological or aeration processes had the best performance. We found that the effects of municipal effluents on gene expression depended on the population size, the initial properties of the incoming influent, and the wastewater treatment method applied. Considering that the long-term goals of wastewater treatment is to produce clean effluents for the aquatic biota and independent of the incoming influent, more research is needed in developing treatment processes to better protect aquatic life from anthropogenic contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gagné
- Emerging Methods, Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology, Environment Canada, 105 McGill Street, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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Lajeunesse A, Smyth SA, Barclay K, Sauvé S, Gagnon C. Distribution of antidepressant residues in wastewater and biosolids following different treatment processes by municipal wastewater treatment plants in Canada. Water Res 2012; 46:5600-5612. [PMID: 22898669 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/21/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The fate of 14 antidepressants along with their respective N-desmethyl metabolites and the anticonvulsive drug carbamazepine (CBZ) was studied in 5 different sewage treatment plants (STPs) across Canada. Using two validated LC-MS/MS analytical methods, the concentrations of the different compounds were determined in raw influent, final effluent and treated biosolids samples. Out of the 15 compounds investigated, 13 were positively detected in most 24-h composite raw influent samples. Analysis showed that venlafaxine (VEN), its metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine (DVEN), citalopram (CIT), and CBZ were detected at the highest concentrations in raw influent (up to 4.3 μg L(-1) for DVEN). Cumulated results showed strong evidence that primary treatment and trickling filter/solids contact has limited capacity to remove antidepressants from sewage, while activated sludge, biological aerated filter, and biological nutrient removal processes yielded moderate results (mean removal rates: 30%). The more recalcitrant compounds to be eliminated from secondary STPs were VEN, DVEN and CBZ with mean removal rates close to 12%. Parent compounds were removed to a greater degree than their metabolites. The highest mean concentrations in treated biosolids samples were found for CIT (1033 ng g(-1)), amitriptyline (768 ng g(-1)), and VEN (833 ng g(-1)). Experimental sorption coefficients (K(d)) were also determined. The lowest K(d) values were obtained with VEN, DVEN, and CBZ (67-490 L kg(-1)). Sorption of these compounds on solids was assumed negligible (log K(d) ≤ 2). However, important sorption on solids was observed for sertraline, desmethylsertraline, paroxetine and fluoxetine (log K(d) > 4).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lajeunesse
- Environment Canada, Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2Y 2E7
| | - S A Smyth
- Environment Canada, Aquatic Ecosystems Management Research, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6
| | - K Barclay
- Environment Canada, Aquatic Ecosystems Management Research, Science and Technology Branch, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6
| | - S Sauvé
- Université de Montréal, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 6128 Downtown, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - C Gagnon
- Environment Canada, Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, 105 McGill Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2Y 2E7.
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Smyth SA, Lishman L, Kleywegt S, Svoboda ML, Lee HB, Seto P. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Canadian Municipal Wastewater. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.2175/193864708788732919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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32
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Smyth SA, Lishman L, Alaee M, Kleywegt S, Svoboda L, Yang JJ, Lee HB, Seto P. Sample storage and extraction efficiencies in determination of polycyclic and nitro musks in sewage sludge. Chemosphere 2007; 67:267-75. [PMID: 17156817 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2006] [Revised: 10/03/2006] [Accepted: 10/05/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Analytical technology is continuously improving, developing better methods for isolating and concentrating trace compounds in environmental samples. Polycyclic and nitro musks (PNMs) are one group of emerging trace compounds detected in municipal wastewater. Differences in sample storage, preparation, and extraction methods for their measurement have led to variability in results. We analyzed 11 PNMs by GC/MS and compared the results of different storage times and extraction methods (supercritical fluid (SFE) or microwave-assisted (MAE)) for 202 samples of primary sludge, waste activated sludge (WAS), raw sludge, and aerobically/anaerobically digested biosolids collected from Canadian municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sixty-three air-dried samples were extracted by SFE, and 139 air-dried, centrifuged, or filtered samples were extracted by MAE. The mean surrogate recoveries were 89% (standard deviation (SD)=11%) for d(10)-anthracene by SFE and 88% (SD=14%) for d(10)-phenanthrene by MAE. Storage study results showed that PNM concentrations changed by a mean of 7% and 9% for primary sludge and WAS respectively after four weeks and decreased up to 25% after 13.5 months of storage in amber glass containers at -18 degrees C. Air-drying of sludge at room temperature caused losses of about 50% of PNM concentrations compared to centrifugation. The proportions of PNMs present in the liquid phase of sludge samples were less than 5% compared to proportions in the sludge solids. The most complete liquid-solid separation was achieved by filtration of frozen/thawed sludge samples, producing a liquid phase that contained less than 1% of the total musk content of the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirley Anne Smyth
- Environment Canada, Water Science and Technology Directorate, 867 Lakeshore Road, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ont., Canada L7R 4A6.
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Lishman L, Smyth SA, Sarafin K, Kleywegt S, Toito J, Peart T, Lee B, Servos M, Beland M, Seto P. Occurrence and reductions of pharmaceuticals and personal care products and estrogens by municipal wastewater treatment plants in Ontario, Canada. Sci Total Environ 2006; 367:544-58. [PMID: 16697441 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2005] [Revised: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 03/17/2006] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Over the last ten years there have been reports of pharmaceuticals and personal care product (PPCP) residuals in municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. The principle goal of this study was specifically to expand and in some cases establish a Canadian database for the presence of selected acidic drugs, triclosan, polycyclic musks, and selected estrogens in MWWTP influent and effluent. The impact of treatment configuration (e.g. lagoons, conventional activated sludge (CAS), and CAS followed by media filtration (CAS+filtration)) was also examined. For CAS systems, the most prevalent treatment type, the effect of operating temperature and SRT was evaluated. Selected PPCPs included ten acidic pharmaceuticals (i.e. a group of pharmaceuticals that are extractable at a pH of 2 or less), triclosan, five polycyclic musks and two estrogens. The pharmaceuticals and musks were selected on the basis of levels of use in Canada; reported aquatic toxicity effects; and the ability to analyze for the compounds at low levels. Twelve MWWTPs discharging into the Thames River, the second largest river in southwestern Ontario, were surveyed. The only common characteristic of acidic drugs is their extraction pH as they differ in their intended biological function and chemical structure. Many organics degraded by WWTP processes benefit from warm temperatures and long SRTs so the impact of these variables warranted additional attention. Influent concentrations and reductions for acidic drugs reported by this study were compared to other Canadian studies, when available, and European investigations. The data of this study seems consistent with other reports. Ten acidic drugs were considered by this study. Three were consistently present at non-quantifiable levels (e.g. CLF, FNP and FNF). Additionally, one analyte, SYL, presented results that were so inconsistent that the values were not analysed. The remaining six acidic pharmaceuticals were placed into three categories. IBU and NPX members of the first category had consistently high reductions. At the level of reduction achieved (i.e. median reduction of greater than 93%) and any effect of treatment type or operating characteristics would be subtle and non-discernable given the analytical noise. In the second group are KTP and IND, and definitive comments are difficult to make on the impact of treatment type and operational considerations due to a sparse data set (i.e. many influent values were at non-quantifiable concentrations). Median reductions were in the 23% to 44% range. In the last category are GMF and DCF which have median reductions of 66% and -34%, respectively. Several negative reduction values in the data set (i.e. twelve of twenty six sampling events) suggest that DCF may be deconjugated under certain conditions. This warrants further evaluation when analytical methods for measuring human metabolites of DCF are available. For both GMF and DCF, reduction does not appear to be strongly influenced by SRTs up to 15 days, while SRTs over 30 days were associated with more frequent non-quantifiable effluent levels of DCF. This would suggest that better treatment would be provided by lagoons and CAS systems with extended aeration. Preliminary data suggests that temperature does not play a strong role in the reduction of these compounds. Triclosan (TCL) was detected at concentrations of 0.01-4.01 microg/L in influent samples and 0.01-0.324 microg/L in effluent samples. Reduction of TCL ranged from 74% to 98%. Lagoon treatment seems to be the best TCL reduction as it was present in the influent and effluent at quantifiable and non-quantifiable concentrations, respectively, on nine of nine sampling occasions. Influent and reduction values of five polycyclic musks (e.g. ADBI, AHMI, ATII, HHCB, and AHTN) were examined over the course of this study. AHMI was predominantly present at non-quantifiable concentrations. HHCB and AHTN were present at the highest concentrations. A comparison between Canadian values and those of European studies indicate that in general polycyclic musk concentrations in Canadian MWWTP effluents are 5-10 times lower. More extensive European and Canadian databases would be useful in confirming this initial observation. Median reductions for the five remaining musks range between 37% and 65% in CAS systems. CAS+filtration systems would be expected to have higher reductions if musks were bound to the effluent solids. This trend is not apparent but this may be due to the small size of the data set. In lagoon systems, musk reduction for HHCB and AHTN are approximately 98-99%. For ADBI and ATII musk, there are no numerical reduction values as most often the effluent concentration was non-quantifiable. In some instances, both the influent and effluent concentrations were non-quantifiable. The hormones 17-beta-estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1) were detected at concentrations of 0.006 to 0.014 and 0.016 to 0.049 microg/L, respectively. E2 was not detected in any effluent samples (<0.005 microg/L) whereas E1 was detected in effluent samples from CAS treatment plants (median of 0.008 microg/L), and in one sample from lagoons. These data demonstrate that there are detectable levels of PPCPs entering Canadian waterways at trace levels, and that only some of these compounds are being reduced in a significant proportion by municipal wastewater treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Lishman
- Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute, 867 Lakeshore Road, P. O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6.
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Servos MR, Bennie DT, Burnison BK, Jurkovic A, McInnis R, Neheli T, Schnell A, Seto P, Smyth SA, Ternes TA. Distribution of estrogens, 17beta-estradiol and estrone, in Canadian municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sci Total Environ 2005; 336:155-170. [PMID: 15589256 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2003] [Accepted: 05/25/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of female hormones, 17beta-estradiol and estrone, was determined in effluents of 18 selected municipal treatment plants across Canada. Replicate 24-h composite samples were collected from the influent and final effluent of each treatment plant, and the removal efficiency compared to the operational characteristics of the plants. In conventional activated sludge and lagoon treatment systems, the mean concentrations of 17beta-estradiol and estrone in influent were 15.6 ng/l (range 2.4-26 ng/l) and 49 ng/l (19-78 ng/l). In final effluents, the mean concentrations of both 17beta-estradiol and estrone were reduced to 1.8 ng/l (0.2-14.7 ng/l) and 17 ng/l (1-96 ng/l), respectively. 17beta-estradiol was removed effectively, >75% and as high as 98%, in most of the conventional mechanical treatment systems with secondary treatment. The removal of estrone was much more complex with removal varying from 98% to situations where the concentrations in the effluent were elevated above that detected in the influent. The estrogenicity, measured using a transfected estrogen receptor in yeast (YES) assay, was also variable, ranging from high removal to elevations of estrogenicity in final effluent. Although the apparent removals were not statistically correlated with either hydraulic (HRT) or solid (SRT) retention times, plants or lagoons with high SRT were very effective at reducing the levels of hormones. Well-operated plants that achieved nitrification also tended to have higher removal of hormones than those that did not nitrify. Laboratory aerobic reactor experiments confirmed the rapid removal of 17beta-estradiol, estrone, and estrogenicity when exposed to sewage slurries.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Servos
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1.
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