Prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and TSH status in newborns from Southern Spain

Does prenatal exposure to multiple airborne and tap-water pollutants increase neonatal thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations? Data from the Picardy region, France

OBJECTIVE

Systematic screening for congenital hypothyroidism by heel-stick sampling has revealed unexpected heterogeneity in the geographic distribution of newborn thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations in Picardy, France. We explored a possible relationship with environmental pollutants.

METHODS

Zip code geolocation data from mothers of newborns without congenital hypothyroidism born in 2021 were linked to ecological data for a set of airborne (particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less [PM2.5] or 10 μm or less [PM10]) and tap-water (nitrate and perchlorate ions and atrazine) pollutants. Statistical associations between mean exposure levels during the third trimester of pregnancy and Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations in 6249 newborns (51 % male) were investigated using linear regression models.

RESULTS

Median neonatal TSH concentration (interquartile range, IQR) was 1.7 (1-2.8) mIU/L. An increase of one IQR in prenatal exposure to perchlorate ions (3.6 μg/L), nitrate ions (19.2 mg/L), PM2.5 (3.7 μg/m3) and PM10 (3.4 μg/m3), were associated with increases in TSH concentrations of 2.30 % (95 % CI: 0.95-3.66), 5.84 % (95 % CI: 2.81-8.87), 13.44 % (95 % CI: 9.65-17.28) and 6.26 % (95 % CI: 3.01-9.56), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal exposure to perchlorate and nitrate ions in tap water and to airborne PM over the third trimester of pregnancy was significantly associated with increased neonatal TSH concentrations.

Association between Environmental Exposure to Multiclass Organic Pollutants and Sex Steroid Hormone Levels in Women of Reproductive Age

Organic pollutant exposure may alter sex steroid hormone levels in both animals and humans, but studies on mixture effects have been lacking and mainly limited to persistent organic pollutants, with few hormones being investigated. Moreover, measurements from a single blood or urine sample may not be able to reflect long-term status. Using hair analysis, here, we evaluated the relationship between multiclass organic pollutants and sex steroid hormones in 196 healthy Chinese women aged 25-45 years. Associations with nine sex steroid hormones, including progesterone, androstenedione (AD), testosterone (T), estrone (E1), and 17β-estradiol (E2), and eight related hormone ratios were explored on 54 pollutants from polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), pesticide, and bisphenol families using stability-based Lasso regression analysis. Our results showed that each hormone was associated with a mixture of at least 10 examined pollutants. In particular, hair E2 concentration was associated with 19 pollutants, including γ-hexachlorocyclohexane, propoxur, permethrin, fipronil, mecoprop, prochloraz, and carbendazim. There were also associations between pollutants and hormone ratios, with pentachlorophenol, dimethylthiophosphate, 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, and flusilazole being related to both E1/AD and E2/T ratios. Our results suggest that exposure to background levels of pesticides PCB180 and bisphenol S may affect sex steroid hormone homeostasis among women of reproductive age.

Endosulfan use and the risk of thyroid cancer: an ecological study

Endosulfan, an organochlorine pesticide, has been understudied in the literature on thyroid cancer. The aim of this ecological study was to assess the correlation between endosulfan exposure and thyroid cancer incidence rates (IRs) in the United States (US). Age-adjusted thyroid cancer IRs per 100,000 people per state for the years 1999 to 2019 were obtained from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). To assess the state-level use of endosulfan, data were obtained from the US Geological Survey (USGS). Endosulfan usage estimates (kilograms/acres cropland; quintiles) and thyroid cancer IRs were mapped together. The correlation between age-adjusted thyroid cancer IRs and statewide endosulfan use was calculated using the Spearman correlation. Overall endosulfan usage in the US trended downwards between 1992 and 2007 (T = -0.77; P < 0.001), while thyroid cancer IR trended upwards between 1999 and 2019 (T = 0.69; P < 0.001). There was a statistically significant correlation between 1992 endosulfan use and 2012 (r = 0.32; P = 0.03) and 2014 (r = 0.32; P = 0.03) thyroid cancer IRs. Although restrictions on endosulfan use seem effective, the potential impact of endosulfan exposure remains due to the persistent, semi-volatile, bioaccumulative, and biomagnifying properties of endosulfan metabolites in particular, indicating the need for future thyroid research of highly exposed populations.

Thyroid Carcinoma: A Review for 25 Years of Environmental Risk Factors Studies

Environmental factors are established contributors to thyroid carcinomas. Due to their known ability to cause cancer, exposure to several organic and inorganic chemical toxicants and radiation from nuclear weapons, fallout, or medical radiation poses a threat to global public health. Halogenated substances like organochlorines and pesticides can interfere with thyroid function. Like phthalates and bisphenolates, polychlorinated biphenyls and their metabolites, along with polybrominated diethyl ethers, impact thyroid hormones biosynthesis, transport, binding to target organs, and impair thyroid function. A deeper understanding of environmental exposure is crucial for managing and preventing thyroid cancer. This review aims to investigate the relationship between environmental factors and the development of thyroid cancer.

Maternal steroids during pregnancy and their associations with ambient air pollution and temperature during preconception and early gestational periods

Hormones play critical roles in facilitating pregnancy progression and the onset of parturition. Several classes of environmental contaminants, including fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ambient temperature, have been shown to alter hormone biosynthesis or activity. However, epidemiologic research has not considered PM_2.5 in relation to a broader range of steroid hormones, particularly in pregnant women. Using metabolomics data collected within 20-40 weeks of gestation in an ethnically diverse pregnancy cohort study, we identified 42 steroid hormones that we grouped into five classes (pregnenolone, androgens, estrogens, progestin, and corticosteroids) based on their biosynthesis type. We found that exposure to PM_2.5 during the pre-conception and early prenatal periods was associated with higher maternal androgen concentrations in late pregnancy. We also detected a positive association between early pregnancy PM_2.5 exposure and maternal pregnenolone levels and a marginal positive association between early pregnancy PM_2.5 exposure and progestin levels. When considering each hormone metabolite individually, we found positive associations between early pregnancy PM_2.5 exposure and five steroids, two of which survived multiple comparison testing: 11beta-hydroxyandrosterone glucuronide (a pregnenolone steroid) and adrosteroneglucuronide (a progestin steroid). None of the steroid classes were statistically significant associated with ambient temperature. In sex-stratified analyses, we did not detect any sex differences in our associations. This is the first study showing that exposure to fine particulate matter during the pre-conception and early prenatal periods can lead to altered steroid adaptation during the state of pregnancy, which has been shown to have potential consequences on maternal and child health.

Impact of High-Throughput Model Parameterization and Data Uncertainty on Thyroid-Based Toxicological Estimates for Pesticide Chemicals

Chemical-induced alteration of maternal thyroid hormone levels may increase the risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring. US federal risk assessments rely almost exclusively on apical endpoints in animal models for deriving points of departure (PODs). New approach methodologies (NAMs) such as high-throughput screening (HTS) and mechanistically informative in vitro human cell-based systems, combined with in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE), supplement in vivo studies and provide an alternative approach to calculate/determine PODs. We examine how parameterization of IVIVE models impacts the comparison between IVIVE-derived equivalent administered doses (EADs) from thyroid-relevant in vitro assays and the POD values that serve as the basis for risk assessments. Pesticide chemicals with thyroid-based in vitro bioactivity data from the US Tox21 HTS program were included (n = 45). Depending on the model structure used for IVIVE analysis, up to 35 chemicals produced EAD values lower than the POD. A total of 10 chemicals produced EAD values higher than the POD regardless of the model structure. The relationship between IVIVE-derived EAD values and the in vivo-derived POD values is highly dependent on model parameterization. Here, we derive a range of potentially thyroid-relevant doses that incorporate uncertainty in modeling choices and in vitro assay data.

Prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and thyroid function in neonates: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Thyroid hormone homeostasis is essential for normal brain development in fetuses and infants. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during pregnancy is associated with compromised maternal thyroid homeostasis, and thus may lead to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in newborns. However, evidence regarding the association of prenatal EDC exposure and thyroid hormones in newborns is controversial. Therefore, a meta-analysis to elucidate the relationship between maternal exposure to EDCs and neonatal THs was performed. A systematic search of PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library (CENTRAL) for relevant published studies that provided quantitative data on the association between prenatal EDC exposure and neonatal thyroid hormones was conducted in August 2021. To calculate the overall estimates, we pooled the adjusted β regression coefficients with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from each study by the inverse variance method. The pooling results indicated that prenatal EDC exposure had no significant influence on neonatal TSH, TT3, FT3, TT4 or FT4 level in the global assessment. However, in the specific exposure and outcome assessment, we found that prenatal exposure to organochlorine (β coefficient, -0.022; 95% CI, -0.04 to -0.003) and PFAS (β coefficient, -0.017; 95% CI, -0.033 to 0) was negatively associated with neonatal TT4 level. In conclusion, prenatal exposure to organochlorine and PFAS may be associated with lower neonatal TT4 level.

Windows of sensitivity to toxic chemicals in the development of the endocrine system: an analysis of ATSDR's toxicological profile database

This review utilizes the robust database of literature contained in toxicological profiles developed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The aim was to use this database to identify developmental toxicity studies reporting alterations in hormone levels in the developing fetus and offspring and identify windows of sensitivity. We identified 74 oral exposure studies in rats that provided relevant information on 30 chemicals from 21 profiles. Most studies located provided information on thyroid hormones, with fewer studies on anterior pituitary, adrenal medulla, ovaries, and testes. No studies pertaining to hormones of the posterior pituitary, pancreas, or adrenal cortex were located. The results demonstrate that development of the endocrine system may be affected by exposure to environmental contaminants at many different points, including gestational and/or lactational exposure. Moreover, this review demonstrates the need for more developmental toxicity studies focused on the endocrine system and specifically alterations in hormone levels.

Perinatal effects of persistent organic pollutants on thyroid hormone concentration in placenta and breastmilk

Thyroid hormones (TH) are known to play a critical role in regulating many biological processes including growth and development, energy homeostasis, thermogenesis, lipolysis and metabolism of cholesterol. Severe TH deficiency especially during fetal development results in cretinism, but can also lead to an imbalance in metabolism with, among others, an alteration in body weight composition. Over the past two decades, increasing evidence has shown that certain persistent organic pollutants (POP) can interfere with the endocrine system. These POP referred to as "endocrine disrupting chemicals" are widely present in the environment and populations are exposed globally. Moreover, epidemiological studies have shown that a particularly sensitive period is the pre- and postnatal time. Indeed, perinatal exposure to such chemicals could lead to the onset diseases in later life. It is known, that, maternal thyroid hormones are transported by the placenta to the fetus from 6 weeks of gestation and it seems that during the first trimester, and part of the second, the fetus is entirely dependent on maternal TH supply for its development. Interferences in the TH-network as a consequence of the exposure to such pollutants could cause variations in TH concentration. Only small changes in maternal thyroid hormone levels in early stages of pregnancy can influence fetal neurological and cardiovascular development, as well as according to recent studies, have effect on childhood body composition. With this review, we will report the most recent and important studies concerning the association between thyroid hormone concentration and POP levels measured during the perinatal period. We will mostly focus on the data recently reported on placenta and breastmilk as main sources for understanding the potential consequences of exposure. The possible link between exposure to pollutants, TH dysregulation and possible adverse outcome will also be briefly discussed. From our literature search, several studies support the hypothesis that pre- and postnatal exposure to different pollutants might play a role in causing variation in thyroid hormone concentration. However, few research papers have so far studied the relationship linking exposure to pollutants, TH concentration and possible health consequences. Therefore, this review highlights the need for further research in this direction.

Maternal and cord serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) among Lebanese pregnant women and predictors of exposure

In this study, the six indicator non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls NDL-PCBs (PCB28, PCB52, PCB101, PCB138, PCB153, PCB180), as well as four organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and dichlorodiphenyldichlorethylene (DDE) were measured in 98 maternal and 49 cord sera samples of a group of Lebanese women who gave birth in three hospitals in Greater Beirut, between March and July 2018. Results showed that the levels of these persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in maternal serum were below critical limits as well as those in other countries (Tunisia, France, Portugal, Spain, Poland, Greenland, Canada, Brazil, and China). The ratios of cord serum concentrations to maternal serum concentrations of analyzed POPs were higher than 1. PCB maternal serum concentrations were found to be linked to illegal incineration (OR = 5.78; p = 0.004) as well as eggs (OR = 4.68; p = 0.027) and fruits and vegetables consumption (OR = 3.92; p = 0.016). OCP concentrations were linked to red meat and cold cuts intake (OR = 3.67-4.59; p = 0.001-0.004). While PCB levels were not correlated to newborns anthropometric measurements, OCP levels in cord serum were found to be positively linked to the birth length of newborns (p = 0.014-0.027).

Oestrogenic Endocrine Disruptors in the Placenta and the Fetus

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with the stability and regulation of the endocrine system of the body or its offspring. These substances are generally stable in chemical properties, not easy to be biodegraded, and can be enriched in organisms. In the past half century, EDCs have gradually entered the food chain, and these substances have been frequently found in maternal blood. Perinatal maternal hormone levels are unstable and vulnerable to EDCs. Some EDCs can affect embryonic development through the blood-fetal barrier and cause damage to the neuroendocrine system, liver function, and genital development. Some also effect cross-generational inheritance through epigenetic mechanisms. This article mainly elaborates the mechanism and detection methods of estrogenic endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenol A (BPA), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), diethylstilbestrol (DES) and phthalates (PAEs), and their effects on placenta and fetal health in order to raise concerns about the proper use of products containing EDCs during pregnancy and provide a reference for human health.

The association between prenatal exposure to organochlorine compounds and neonatal thyroid hormone levels: a systematic review

In this systematic review, the association between prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and neonatal thyroid hormone levels was studied. A systematic search of scientific literature was performed from the PubMed, SCOPUS and ISI web of science electronic bibliographic databases. The search strategy for the review was [(organochlorine OR "organochlorine pesticides" OR "organochlorine pollutants" OR "organochlorine pollutant") AND ("thyroid hormone" OR triiodothyronine OR Thyroxine OR "fetal thyroid function" OR "thyroid function" OR "Thyroid Stimulating Hormone" AND "prenatal" AND "maternal exposure")] in English sources. In this review, 305 papers (PubMed: 30; Scopus: 29; ISI: 246) were identified through an electronic database search. Twenty-seven articles were assessed for eligibility, from which 16 qualified articles were selected for the final evaluation. The most common OCP metabolites which were evaluated in order were hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (13 studies), pp-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (pp-DDE) (13 studies), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) (10 studies) and dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane (DDT) (eight studies). A review of the documents related to the association of prenatal exposure of OCPs with fetal or neonatal thyroid function tests provides us with heterogeneous data in this field. Factors such as differences in the studied populations and their area, ethnic and genetic background, time and rate of exposure, possible interaction of other thyroid-disrupting environmental factors and dietary intake of micronutrients such as iodine and/or selenium are considered the main limitations for making an accurate conclusion. For some OCPs including DDT, DDE, HCH and HCB, there are supporting evidences, and it is suggested that their exposure could potentially alter the fetal thyroid function and consequently impair the neurodevelopment process of the infants.

Pesticides With Potential Thyroid Hormone-Disrupting Effects: A Review of Recent Data

Plant Protection Products, more commonly referred to as pesticides and biocides, are used to control a wide range of yield-reducing pests including insects, fungi, nematodes, and weeds. Concern has been raised that some pesticides may act as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) with the potential to interfere with the hormone systems of non-target invertebrates and vertebrates, including humans. EDCs act at low doses and particularly vulnerable periods of exposure include pre- and perinatal development. Of critical concern is the number of pesticides with the potential to interfere with the developing nervous system and brain, notably with thyroid hormone signaling. Across vertebrates, thyroid hormone orchestrates metamorphosis, brain development, and metabolism. Pesticide action on thyroid homeostasis can involve interference with TH production and its control, displacement from distributor proteins and liver metabolism. Here we focused on thyroid endpoints for each of the different classes of pesticides reviewing epidemiological and experimental studies carried out both in in vivo and in vitro. We conclude first, that many pesticides were placed on the market with insufficient testing, other than acute or chronic toxicity, and second, that thyroid-specific endpoints for neurodevelopmental effects and mixture assessment are largely absent from regulatory directives.

Comparative thyroid disruption by o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE in zebrafish embryos/larvae

1,1-Trichloro-2-(p-chlorophenyl)-2-(o-chlorophenyl) ethane (o,p'-DDT) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)-ethylene (p,p'-DDE) cause thyroid disruption, but the underlying mechanisms of these disturbances in fish remain unclear. To explore the potential mechanisms of thyroid dysfunction caused by o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE, thyroid hormone and gene expression levels in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were measured, and the developmental toxicity were recorded in zebrafish larvae. Zebrafish embryos/larvae were exposed to o,p'-DDT (0, 0.28, 2.8, and 28 nM; or 0, 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/L) and p,p'-DDE (0, 1.57, 15.7, and 157 nM; or 0, 0.5, 5, and 50 μg/L) for 7 days. The genes related to thyroid hormone synthesis (crh, tshβ, tg, nis and tpo) and thyroid development (nkx2.1 and pax8) were up-regulated in both the o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE exposure groups. Zebrafish embryos/larvae exposed to o,p'-DDT showed significantly increased total whole-body T4 and T3 levels, with the expression of ugt1ab and dio3 being significantly down-regulated. However, the p,p'-DDE exposure groups showed significantly lowered whole-body total T4 and T3 levels, which were associated with up-regulation and down-regulation expression of the expression of dio2 and ugt1ab, respectively. Interestingly, the ratio of T3 to T4 was significantly decreased in the o,p'-DDT (28 nM) and p,p'-DDE (157 nM) exposure groups, suggesting an impairment of thyroid function. In addition, reduced survival rates and body lengths and increased malformation rates were recorded after treatment with either o,p'-DDT or p,p'-DDE. In summary, our study indicates that the disruption of thyroid states was different in response to o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE exposure in zebrafish larvae.

Environmental exposure to pesticides and risk of thyroid diseases

Occupational and environmental exposure to pesticides has been associated with thyroid dysfunction, particularly changes in circulating thyroid hormone levels (T3, T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This study assessed the association between environmental exposure to pesticides and the risk of developing thyroid diseases. A population-based case-control study was carried out among Spanish populations living in areas categorized as of high or low pesticide use according to agronomic criteria, which were used as surrogates for environmental exposure to pesticides. The study population consisted of 79.431 individuals diagnosed with goiter, thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, and thyroiditis (according to the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision) and 1.484.257 controls matched for age, sex and area of residence. Data were collected from computerized hospital records for the period 1998 to 2015. Prevalence rates and risk of having thyroid diseases were significantly higher in areas with higher pesticide use, with a 49% greater risk for hypothyroidism, 45% for thyrotoxicosis, 20% for thyroiditis and 5% for goiter. Overall, this study indicates an association between increased environmental exposure to pesticides as a result of a greater agricultural use and diseases of the thyroid gland, thus supporting and extending previous evidence. This study also provides support to the methodology proposed for real-life risk simulation, thus contributing to a better understanding of the real life threat posed by exposure to multiple pesticides from different sources.

Comparison of iodine status pre- and post-mandatory iodine fortification of bread in South Australia: a population study using newborn thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration as a marker

Objective:

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of mandatory iodine fortification of bread on the iodine status of South Australian populations using newborn thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentration as a marker.

Design:

The study used an interrupted time-series design.

Setting:

TSH data collected between 2005 and 2016 (n 211 033) were extracted from the routine newborn screening programme in South Australia for analysis. Iodine deficiency is indicated when more than 3 % of newborns have TSH > 5 mIU/l.

Participants:

Newborns were classified into three groups: the pre-fortification group (those born before October 2009); the transition group (born between October 2009 and June 2010); and the post-fortification group (born after June 2010).

Results:

The percentage of newborns with TSH > 5 mIU/l was 5·1, 6·2 and 4·6 % in the pre-fortification, transition and post-fortification groups, respectively. Based on a segmented regression model, newborns in the post-fortification period had a 10 % lower risk of having TSH > 5 mIU/l than newborns in the pre-fortification group (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0·90; 95 % CI 0·87, 0·94), while newborns in the transitional period had a 22 % higher risk of having TSH > 5 mIU/l compared with newborns in the pre-fortification period (IRR = 1·22; 95 % CI 1·13, 1·31).

Conclusions:

Using TSH as a marker, South Australia would be classified as mild iodine deficiency post-fortification in contrast to iodine sufficiency using median urinary iodine concentration as a population marker. Re-evaluation of the current TSH criteria to define iodine status in populations is warranted in this context.

Effects of single and combined toxic exposures on the gut microbiome: Current knowledge and future directions

Human populations are chronically exposed to mixtures of toxic chemicals. Predicting the health effects of these mixtures require a large amount of information on the mode of action of their components. Xenobiotic metabolism by bacteria inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract has a major influence on human health. Our review aims to explore the literature for studies looking to characterize the different modes of action and outcomes of major chemical pollutants, and some components of cosmetics and food additives, on gut microbial communities in order to facilitate an estimation of their potential mixture effects. We identified good evidence that exposure to heavy metals, pesticides, nanoparticles, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls, and non-caloric artificial sweeteners affect the gut microbiome and which is associated with the development of metabolic, malignant, inflammatory, or immune diseases. Answering the question 'Who is there?' is not sufficient to define the mode of action of a toxicant in predictive modeling of mixture effects. Therefore, we recommend that new studies focus to simulate real-life exposure to diverse chemicals (toxicants, cosmetic/food additives), including as mixtures, and which combine metagenomics, metatranscriptomics and metabolomic analytical methods achieving in that way a comprehensive evaluation of effects on human health.

Residue Levels of Organochlorine Pesticides in Breast Milk and Its Associations with Cord Blood Thyroid Hormones and the Offspring's Neurodevelopment

Previous studies have demonstrated that organochlorine pesticide (OCP) exposure has a negative impact on the neurological function of infants. Only a few reports have investigated the thyroid and growth hormones and their relationship to neurodevelopment after human exposure to OCPs, especially in the case of infants. Our goal was to determine whether breastmilk OCP residues were associated with negative impacts and/or alterations in the neurodevelopment of infants among specific southern Taiwanese mother–breastfed infant pairs. Our subjects (n = 55 pairs) were recruited from southern Taiwan between 2007 and 2010. The thyroid and growth hormone levels in the cord blood samples collected after childbirth were determined. The breastmilk was gathered within one month after childbirth for the determination of OCP levels using a high-resolution gas chromatograph with mass spectrometry, and the neurodevelopment of 10–12-month-old infants was examined using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development^®, Third Edition (Bayley-III). It was observed that 4,4′-dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene (4,4′-DDE) (mean = 10.3 ng/g lipid) was the most predominant OCP compound in the breastmilk samples. At higher concentrations (>75th percentile), specific OCPs were associated with significantly lower levels of thyroid and growth hormones than at lower concentrations (<75th percentile). Significantly higher odds ratios (ORs) were observed for binary cognitive (OR = 8.09, p = 0.025 for 4,4′-DDT), language (OR = 11.9, p = 0.013 for 4,4′-DDT) and social–emotional (OR = 6.06, p = 0.01 for trans-CHL) composite scores for specific OCPs belonging to the lower exposure group as compared to the higher OCP exposure group. The five domain Bayley-III infant neurodevelopment outcomes were negatively associated with specific OCPs in the breast milk samples based on the redundancy analysis (RDA) test. Bayley-III scales, which include cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior scales, could be predicted by 4,4′-DDT, endrin, endosulfan I, heptachlor, or heptachlor epoxide using multivariate linear regression models with adjustment for maternal age, pre-pregnant BMI, parity, and infant gender. In conclusion, although our study showed that postnatal exposure to breast milk OCPs may be associated with infant neurodevelopmental outcomes and that prenatal exposure, if extrapolated from breastmilk levels, is associated with changes in thyroid and growth hormones that may have effects on neurodevelopment, these associations are only suggestive; thus, further studies are recommended for confirmation.

Role of Emerging Environmental Risk Factors in Thyroid Cancer: A Brief Review

Environmental factors are recognized as risk factors of thyroid cancer in humans. Exposure to radiation, both from nuclear weapon or fallout or medical radiation, and to some organic and inorganic chemical toxicants represent a worldwide public health issue for their proven carcinogenicity. Halogenated compounds, such as organochlorines and pesticides, are able to disrupt thyroid function. Polychlorinated biphenyls and their metabolites and polybrominated diethyl ethers bind to thyroid, transport proteins, replace thyroxin, and disrupt thyroid function as phthalates and bisphenolates do, highly mimicking thyroid hormones. A better knowledge of environmental risks represents a very important tool for cancer prevention through true risks prevention and management. This approach is very important because of the epigenetic origin’s theory of cancer. Therefore, the aim of this review was study the association between environmental agents and thyroid cancer promotion.

Association of Prenatal Exposure to Ambient and Traffic-Related Air Pollution With Newborn Thyroid Function: Findings From the Children's Health Study

IMPORTANCE

Thyroid hormones are critical for fetal growth and development. Prenatal particulate matter (PM) air pollution exposure has been associated with altered newborn thyroid function, but other air pollutants have not been evaluated, and critical windows of exposure are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association of prenatal exposure to ambient and traffic-related air pollutants with newborn thyroid function and identify critical windows of exposure.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cohort study used data from 2050 participants in the Children's Health Study. Statistical analyses were conducted from 2017 to 2018 using pregnancy and birth data from 1994 to 1997 for a subset of participants recruited from schools in 13 southern California communities in 2002 to 2003 when participants were 5 to 7 years of age. Participants were included in statistical analyses if they could be linked to their newborn blood spot and had complete monthly exposure measures for at least 1 air pollutant across pregnancy.

EXPOSURES

Prenatal monthly averages of ambient (PM diameter <2.5 μm [PM2.5] or <10 μm [PM10], nitrogen dioxide, and ozone) and traffic-related (freeway, nonfreeway, and total nitrogen oxides) air pollutant exposures were determined using inverse distance-squared weighting of central monitoring data and the California Line Source Dispersion model, respectively.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Newborn heel-stick blood spot total thyroxine (TT4) measures were acquired retrospectively from the California Department of Public Health.

RESULTS

Participants included 2050 newborns (50.5% male), with a median (interquartile range) age of 20 (15-29) hours. The majority of newborns were Hispanic white (1202 [58.6%]) or non-Hispanic white (638 [31.1%]). Sixty-six (3.2%) were black and 144 (7.0%) were from other racial/ethnic groups. The mean (SD) newborn TT4 measure was 16.2 (4.3) μg/dL. A 2-SD increase in prenatal PM2.5 (16.3 μg/m3) and PM10 (22.2 μg/m3) was associated with a 1.2-μg/dL (95% CI, 0.5-1.8 μg/dL) and 1.5-μg/dL (95% CI, 0.9-2.1 μg/dL) higher TT4 measure, respectively, in covariate-adjusted linear regression models. Other pollutants were not consistently associated with newborn TT4. Distributed lag models revealed that PM2.5 exposure during months 3 to 7 of pregnancy and PM10 exposure during months 1 to 8 of pregnancy were associated with significantly higher newborn TT4 concentrations (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Prenatal PM exposure, particularly in early pregnancy and midpregnancy, is associated with higher newborn TT4 concentrations. Future studies should assess the health implications of PM-associated differences in newborn TT4 concentrations.

Current status of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) exposure among mothers and their babies of Korea-CHECK cohort study

Despite the global ban, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been a persistent and significant environmental health issue worldwide. Prenatal exposure to these persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has been identified as a major route of exposure among developing fetuses and newborn infants. Among Children's Health and Environmental Health of Korea (CHECK) cohort population, pregnant females (n=148) and their matching newborn infants (n=117) recruited from four cities of Korea in 2011 were investigated. The blood serum and cord blood serum were sampled at delivery, and measured for 19 OCPs and 19 PCBs. In addition, a questionnaire regarding demographic characteristics, and dietary habits were conducted. The most frequently detected POPs in both maternal blood and cord blood were p,p'-dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE) (99% detection in maternal, and 98% in cord blood serum) and PCB153 (95% in maternal, 74% in cord blood serum). The levels of dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethanes (DDTs) in both maternal (average 82.5ng/g lw) and cord blood serum (average 77.5ng/g lw) were comparable to or greater than those reported in Japan about a decade ago. Approximately two thirds of the pregnant women and newborn infants showed the p,p'-DDE concentrations exceeding the biological equivalent (BE) corresponding to 10^-6 excess cancer risk. In addition, less chlorinated PCBs were detected higher in both maternal and cord serum. Less chlorinated PCBs also showed greater transplacental ratio. Dairy consumption among the subjects was positively associated, and tea consumption was negatively associated with serum levels of several POPs. Our results show that the exposure to legacy POPs, especially DDTs, among pregnant women and newborn infants is still prevailing, thus warrants measures for exposure mitigation among these vulnerable populations.

Association of in utero exposure to organochlorine pesticides with thyroid hormone levels in cord blood of newborns

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) had been widely used in agriculture and disease prevention from the 1940s-1960s. Currently, OCPs are raising global concerns due to their associated prevalent contamination and adverse health effects, such as endocrine disruption. Several epidemiological studies have explored the underlying association of OCPs on thyroid hormone (TH) status in adults and newborns, but the results of studies performed on newborns are often inconclusive. This exploratory study was conducted with the purpose of assessing the potential association of the prenatal exposure to OCPs with the concentrations of TH in the cord blood of newborns from China. Cord blood and information on demographic characteristics were collected from 115 newborns between November 2013 and June 2014. The exposure levels of 17 OCPs were measured with a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and TH levels including free triiodothyronine (FT3), free thyroxine (FT4), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) were detected using electrochemiluminescence immunoassay methods. After adjusting for confounding factors (the age of pregnant mothers, education level, monthly household income, parity, and sex of the newborns), we found marginally significant inverse associations of cord plasma measurements of ∑hexachlorcyclohexanes (∑HCHs), 1,1-dichloro-2,2-di(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene (ρ,ρ'-DDE) and methoxychlor with FT4 levels, but not with FT3 and TSH levels. Moreover, higher cord plasma levels of aldrin, dieldrin, ∑dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (∑DDTs), ∑Drins, and ∑OCPs were found to be related to the increase in cord plasma TSH levels after the adjustment for confounders. The results of this exploratory study indicate that in utero exposure to certain OCPs may affect TH status in newborns, and therefore, pose potential effects on early human development. Further research, with larger sample sizes, should be conducted to confirm these findings.

Thyroid Disrupting Chemicals

Endocrine disruptor compounds are exogenous agents able to interfere with a gland function, exerting their action across different functional passages, from the synthesis to the metabolism and binding to receptors of the hormone produced. Several issues, such as different levels and time of exposure and different action across different ages as well as gender, make the study of endocrine disruptors still a challenge. The thyroid is very sensitive to the action of disruptors, and considering the importance of a correct thyroid function for physical and cognitive functioning, addressing this topic should be considered a priority. In this review, we examined the most recent studies, many of them concentrating on maternal and child exposure, conducted to assess the impact of industrial chemicals which showed an influence on thyroid function. So far, the number of studies conducted on that topic is not sufficient to provide solid conclusions and lead to homogeneous guidelines. The lack of uniformity is certainly due to differences in areas and populations examined, the different conditions of exposures and the remarkable inter-subject variability. Nonetheless, the European Commission for Health and Food Safety is implementing recommendations to ensure that substances identified as endocrine disruptors will be withdrawn from the market.

Depth-distribution, possible sources, and toxic risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in different river sediment cores affected by urbanization and reclamation in a Chinese delta

Sediment cores were collected in urban (0-50 cm), rural (0-40 cm) and reclamation-affected river (0-40 cm) environments in the Pearl River Delta. Concentrations of 16 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in all collected samples to identify the depth-distribution, possible sources and ecotoxicological risks of OCPs in river sediments affected by urbanization and reclamation in a Chinese delta. The results showed that the top 10 cm of rural river sediments had slightly lower concentrations of the 16 OCPs compared to urban and reclamation-affected rivers, whereas the 30-40 cm sediment layers in the rural river showed higher levels of the 16 OCPs. However, higher OCPs levels were observed in the 20-30 cm sediment layers in the urban river than in the rural and reclamation-affected rivers. The principal OCPs in most deeper sediment layers were hexachlorobezene (HCB), the combination of aldrin, endrin and dieldrin (ΣDRINs) and the combination of α-HCH, β-HCH and γ-HCH (ΣHCHs). The predominant OCPs in surface sediments were HCB, ΣDRINs and the combination of p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE (ΣDDTs). Generally, OCP concentrations decreased with depth along sediment profiles at most sampling sites in the three types of rivers. The source analyses indicated that some sampling sites were still suffering from the recent use of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and aldrin. According to the soil quality thresholds of China, the levels of HCHs and DDTs at most sampling sites were below class Ⅰ criteria. Based on the sediment quality guideline quotient (SQGQ), the combined ecotoxicological risk of OCPs (γ-HCH, dieldrin, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT) in surface sediments (0-10 cm) was higher than deeper sediments, and the rural river sediments exhibited a higher combined ecotoxicological risk than the sediments in urban and reclamation-affected rivers.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in newborns and early life exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals: analysis of three European mother-child cohorts

BackgroundVarious studies have reported interactions between thyroid hormones and early life chemical exposure. Our objective was to analyze the associations between markers of endocrine-disrupting chemical exposure and thyroid function in newborns, determined through heel prick blood spots.MethodsThree European mother-child cohorts (FLEHSI-Belgium, HUMIS-Norway, and the PCB cohort-Slovakia. Total n=1,784) were pooled for the purpose of this study. Data on thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) were obtained from national neonatal screening registries, and samples of cord plasma and/or breast milk were collected to determine exposure to various chemicals. Multiple regression models were composed with exposure and cohort as fixed factors, and adjustments were made for a priori defined covariates.ResultsMedian TSH concentrations were 1, 1.10, and 2.76 mU/l for the Belgian, Norwegian, and Slovak cohorts, respectively. For polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-153 and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), children in the third exposure quartile had a 12-15% lower TSH at birth. Results remained unchanged after additional adjustment for birth weight and gestational weight gain. No effect on TSH was observed for the other compounds.ConclusionEarly life exposure to PCB-153 and p,p'-DDE impacts newborn TSH levels. Higher exposure levels were associated with 12-15% lower TSH levels.

Organochloride pesticides modulated gut microbiota and influenced bile acid metabolism in mice

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) can persistently accumulate in body and threaten human health. Bile acids and intestinal microbial metabolism have emerged as important signaling molecules in the host. However, knowledge on which intestinal microbiota and bile acids are modified by OCPs remains unclear. In this study, adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to p, p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p, p'-DDE) and β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) for 8 weeks. The relative abundance and composition of various bacterial species were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Bile acid composition was analyzed by metabolomic analysis using UPLC-MS. The expression of genes involved in hepatic and enteric bile acids metabolism was measured by real-time PCR. Expression of genes in bile acids synthesis and transportation were measured in HepG2 cells incubated with p, p'-DDE and β-HCH. Our findings showed OCPs changed relative abundance and composition of intestinal microbiota, especially in enhanced Lactobacillus with bile salt hydrolase (BSH) activity. OCPs affected bile acid composition, enhanced hydrophobicity, decreased expression of genes on bile acid reabsorption in the terminal ileum and compensatory increased expression of genes on synthesis of bile acids in the liver. We demonstrated that chronic exposure of OCPs could impair intestinal microbiota; as a result, hepatic and enteric bile acid profiles and metabolism were influenced. The findings in this study draw our attention to the hazards of chronic OCPs exposure in modulating bile acid metabolism that might cause metabolic disorders and their potential to cause related diseases in human.

Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment

Organochlorine (OC) pesticides are synthetic pesticides widely used all over the world. They belong to the group of chlorinated hydrocarbon derivatives, which have vast application in the chemical industry and in agriculture. These compounds are known for their high toxicity, slow degradation and bioaccumulation. Even though many of the compounds which belong to OC were banned in developed countries, the use of these agents has been rising. This concerns particularly abuse of these chemicals which is in practice across the continents. Though pesticides have been developed with the concept of target organism toxicity, often non-target species are affected badly by their application. The purpose of this review is to list the major classes of pesticides, to understand organochlorine pesticides based on their activity and persistence, and also to understand their biochemical toxicity.

Developmental neurotoxicity of succeeding generations of insecticides

Insecticides are by design toxic. They must be toxic to effectively kill target species of insects. Unfortunately, they also have off-target toxic effects that can harm other species, including humans. Developmental neurotoxicity is one of the most prominent off-target toxic risks of insecticides. Over the past seven decades several classes of insecticides have been developed, each with their own mechanisms of effect and toxic side effects. This review covers the developmental neurotoxicity of the succeeding generations of insecticides including organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates and neonicotinoids. The goal of new insecticide development is to more effectively kill target species with fewer toxic side effects on non-target species. From the experience with the developmental neurotoxicity caused by the generations of insecticides developed in the past advice is offered how to proceed with future insecticide development to decrease neurotoxic risk.

Occurrence, sources, and risk assessment of OCPs in surface sediments from urban, rural, and reclamation-affected rivers of the Pearl River Delta, China

Sediments were collected to a depth of 20 cm from urban, rural, and reclamation-affected rivers in the Pearl River Delta of China. In total, 16 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were analyzed in all sediment samples, and the occurrence, possible sources, toxicity, and health risks of OCPs were evaluated to compare the contamination characteristics of OCPs in sediments among the three types of rivers. The results showed that concentrations of Σ16OCPs in sediments from the three rivers followed the order urban river > reclamation-affected river > rural river, with a mean value of 247.21, 232.91, and 114.92 μg/kg, respectively, and the predominant OCPs were hexachlorobenzene (HCB), dieldrin, aldrin, endrin, and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs). Source diagnostics illustrated that there might be recent input of HCHs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), and endosulfan in some sampling sites. Based on the soil quality thresholds of China, both HCHs and DDTs fell within the range of class II criteria except for some sediment samples in urban rivers with lower levels (below class I criteria). According to sediment quality guidelines, 92.86 % of samples were predicted to be toxic. The health risk assessment showed that OCPs would not pose a threat to people via dermal contact, ingestion, and inhalation, and the followed order of incremental lifetime cancer risks for OCPs in sediment samples was reclamation-affected river > urban river > rural river.

Does exposure to environmental radiofrequency electromagnetic fields cause cognitive and behavioral effects in 10-year-old boys?

The relationship between exposure to electromagnetic fields from non-ionizing radiation and adverse human health effects remains controversial. We aimed to explore the association of environmental radiofrequency-electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) exposure with neurobehavioral function of children. A subsample of 123 boys belonging to the Environment and Childhood cohort from Granada (Spain), recruited at birth from 2000 through 2002, were evaluated at the age of 9-11 years. Spot electric field measurements within the 100 kHz to 6 GHz frequency range, expressed as both root mean-square (S(RMS) and maximum power density (S(MAX)) magnitudes, were performed in the immediate surrounds of childreńs dwellings. Neurocognitive and behavioral functions were assessed with a comprehensive battery of tests. Multivariate linear and logistic regression models were used, adjusting for potential confounders. All measurements were lower than reference guideline limits, with median S(RMS) and S(MAX) values of 285.94 and 2759.68 μW/m(2), respectively. Most of the cognitive and behavioral parameters did not show any effect, but children living in higher RF exposure areas (above median S(RMS) levels) had lower scores for verbal expression/comprehension and higher scores for internalizing and total problems, and obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disorders, in comparison to those living in areas with lower exposure. These associations were stronger when S(MAX) values were considered. Although some of our results may suggest that low-level environmental RF-EMF exposure has a negative impact on cognitive and/or behavior development in children; given limitations in the study design and that the majority of neurobehavioral functioning tasks were not affected, definitive conclusions cannot be drawn.

An Emerging Role of micro-RNA in the Effect of the Endocrine Disruptors

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are diverse natural and synthetic chemicals that may alter various mechanisms of the endocrine system and produce adverse developmental, reproductive, metabolic, and neurological effects in both humans and wildlife. Research on EDCs has revealed that they use a variety of both nuclear receptor-mediated and non-receptor-mediated mechanisms to modulate different components of the endocrine system. The molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of EDCs are still under investigation. Interestingly, some of the effects of EDCs have been observed to pass on to subsequent unexposed generations, which can be explained by the gametic transmission of deregulated epigenetic marks. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without a change in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic mechanisms, including histone modifications, DNA methylation, and specific micro-RNAs (miRNAs) expression, have been proposed to mediate transgenerational transmission and can be triggered by environmental factors. MiRNAs are short non-coding RNA molecules that post-transcriptionally repress the expression of genes by binding to 3′-untranslated regions of the target mRNAs. Given that there is mounting evidence that miRNAs are regulated by hormones, then clearly it is important to investigate the potential for environmental EDCs to deregulate miRNA expression and action.

Thyroid status and its association with cognitive functioning in healthy boys at 10 years of age

OBJECTIVE

Thyroid hormones (THs) are crucial for the correct maturation of the CNS and the neurodevelopment of the child. We aimed to investigate the association of TSH and free thyroxine (FT4) levels with cognitive functioning in children from the INMA-Granada cohort studied during their follow-up at the age of 9-11 years.

DESIGN

We evaluated 300 children from the original cohort, which comprised 668 eligible mother-son pairs recruited at birth from 2000 to 2002 in Granada (Spain).

METHODS

FT4 and TSH concentrations were measured, and cognitive development was assessed using neuropsychological tests (n=187). Children with chronic disease related to thyroid function and/or cognitive development were excluded.

RESULTS

Median TSH and FT4 levels were 3.1 μIU/ml and 1.2 ng/dl respectively. In multivariable regression analyses adjusted for maternal and child characteristics, children with TSH levels in the top tertile had worse verbal comprehension and immediate and long-term recall. Children with FT4 levels in the top tertile had better attention and lower impulsivity and were at a lower risk of scoring below the 20th percentile in intelligence quotient (OR=0.24; 95% CI=0.08-0.74; P=0.013) and in abstract reasoning ability (OR=0.28; 95% CI=0.09-0.88; P=0.029).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that circulating THs and TSH may in the top tertile have an impact on cognitive functions; thus, higher TSH slightly but significantly increased the risk of a lower score in certain neuropsychological tests.

Chemical contamination and the thyroid

Industrial chemical contaminants have a variable impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, this depending both on their class and on confounding factors. Today, mounting evidence is pointing to the role of environmental factors, and specifically EDCs, in the current distressing upsurge in the incidence of thyroid disease. The unease is warranted. These substances, which are nowadays rife in our environments (including in foodstuffs), have been shown to interfere with thyroid hormone action, biosynthesis, and metabolism, resulting in disruption of tissue homeostasis and/or thyroid function. Importantly, based on the concept of the "nonmonotonic dose-response curve", the relationship between dose and effect has often been found to be nonlinear. Thus, small doses can induce unpredictable, adverse effects, one case being polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), of which congener(s) may centrally inhibit the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, or dissociate thyroid receptor and selectively affect thyroid hormone signaling and action. This means that PCBs can act as agonists or antagonists at the receptor level, underlining the complexity of the interaction. This review highlights the multifold activity of chemicals demonstrated to cause thyroid disruption. It also represents a call to action among clinicians to undertake systematic monitoring of thyroid function and registering of the classes of EDs and additionally urges broader scientific collaborations to clarify these chemicals' molecular mechanisms of action, substances whose prevalence in our environments is disrupting not only the thyroid but all life on earth.

Endosulfan induced early pathological changes in vital organs of rat: a biochemical approach

AIM

To evaluate the pathogenesis in heart and liver by the early induction of biochemical and antioxidant derangements in rats exposed to endosulfan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats were gavaged with endosulfan (0.5, 1 and 1.5 mg/kg body weight in sunflower oil) for a period of 21 days (single dose at 24 h interval). Control and sunflower oil control groups were also maintained simultaneously. Rats were sacrificed on the 22(nd) day posttreatment. Blood samples, heart and liver were collected and different biochemical parameters such as total protein, cholesterol, triglycerides, amino acids and antioxidant and lipid peroxidation level were measured. Statistical analysis was carried out by one way ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni' post-hoc test.

RESULTS

Endosulfan induced a significant increase in the serum levels of total protein, amino acids, triglyceride, total cholesterol, free fatty acid and phospholipid levels in a dose-dependent manner. In the heart and liver, lipid peroxidation was increased significantly in a dose-dependent manner and the antioxidant levels such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase were significantly decreased in a dose-dependent pattern.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to endosulfan results in a significant derangement in the biochemical parameters with a decrease in antioxidant levels in the heart and liver. This is an early indication of pathogenesis in the vital organs of rats.

Levels of DDT and its metabolites in placenta, maternal and cord blood and their potential influence on neonatal anthropometric measures

Previous studies of in utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) have shown mixed results for the harmful effects on fetal growth and development. This cross-sectional study was designed to: (1) examine the extent of DDT exposure in 1578 women, aged 28.5±6.0 who delivered between June 2005 and 2006 in the area of Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia; and (2) assess its influence on neonatal anthropometric measurement of newly born babies. DDT and its metabolites, namely 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p,p'-DDE), 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane (p,p'-DDD) and 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2' bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane (p,p'-DDT) were measured in cord and maternal serum as well as placenta by Gas Chromatography coupled with an Electron Capture Detector (GC/ECD). p,p'-DDE was detected in 28.3% of cord and 54.4% of maternal serum, reflecting past exposure, whereas the p,p'-DDT was only found in 0.46% cord and 1.2% maternal samples. As expected the p,p'-DDE cord levels (0.197±0.961μg/L) were 2.8 times lower than the maternal levels (0.551±1.778μg/L), and both were significantly correlated (r=0.517) suggesting its transplacental transfer. The picture was different in placental tissues. p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT were detected in 84% and 99% of placental tissues, with the highest p,p'-DDT in placental tissues (29.62±158.282µg/kg dry wt.) compare to p,p'-DDE (10.167±18.851μg/kg dry wt.). In general, the presence of DDT metabolites in our participants indicates that these chemicals are still relevant despite the fact that they have been banned or restricted in the study area for many years. Our results support the view for an association between low in utero exposure to DDT and the anthropometric development of the fetus leading to a reduction in its head circumference, crown-heel length, birth weight and birth height. Since the reduction in these measures was independent of gestational age and/or preterm births, our findings suggest a detrimental effect of the DDT exposure on fetal growth. Neonatal anthropometric measures are considered as an important tool to detect newborns at higher risk of morbidity and impairment of growth. Efforts should be made to decrease exposure of women of reproductive age and to examine maternal DDT exposure in relation to long-term impact on health.