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Hsieh MC, Lee WN, Chu YH, Lin HHH, Lin AYC. Sunlight enhanced the formation of tribromomethane from benzotriazole degradation during the sunlight/free chlorine treatment in the presence of bromide. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 357:142039. [PMID: 38621488 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
The coexistence of free chlorine and bromide under sunlight irradiation (sunlight/FC with Br-) is unavoidable in outdoor seawater swimming pools, and the formation of brominated disinfection byproducts could act more harmful than chlorinated disinfection byproducts. In this study, benzotriazole was selected as a model compound to investigate the degradation rate and the subsequent formation of disinfection byproducts via sunlight/FC with Br- process. The rate constants for the degradation of benzotriazole under pseudo first order conditions in sunlight/FC with Br- and sunlight/FC are 2.3 ± 0.07 × 10-1 min-1 and 6.0 ± 0.7 × 10-2 min-1, respectively. The enhanced degradation of benzotriazole can be ascribed to the generation of HO•, bromine species, and reactive halogen species (RHS) during sunlight/FC with Br-. Despite the fact that sunlight/FC with Br- process enhanced benzotriazole degradation, the reaction results in increasing tribromomethane (TBM) formation. A high concentration (37.8 μg/L) of TBM was detected in the sunlight/FC with Br-, which was due to the reaction of RHS. The degradation of benzotriazole was notably influenced by the pH value (pH 4 - 11), the concentration of bromide (0 - 2 mM), and free chlorine (1 - 6 mg/L). Furthermore, the concentration of TBM increased when the free chlorine concentrations increased, implying the formation potential of harmful TBM in chlorinated seawater swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chi Hsieh
- Department of Occupational Safety and Health, College of Public Health, China Medical University, No. 100, Sec. 1, Jingmao Rd., Beitun Dist., Taichung 406040, Taiwan.
| | - Wan-Ning Lee
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Yi-Hsuan Chu
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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2
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Mahy JG, Luizi F. Review on the management of water quality for bio-mineral swimming pools in Western Europe. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:872. [PMID: 37351694 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11502-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we depict the state of the art concerning the water quality management of bio-mineral bathing pools, and compare these to traditional swimming pools. Bio-mineral pools use a combination of mechanic filtration, bio-filtration, and UV-treatment to disinfect the water. Studies in test tanks have shown that bio-filtration is effective in maintaining the water quality with regard to the treatment of organic pollution. Concerning biological risks, the bio-mineral pool relies on UV-treatment to degrade bacteria. Unlike chemical disinfectant treatments, UV disinfection does not lose its effectiveness in the event of high traffic in the pool. However, as only the water taken up by the filtration system is disinfected, it is essential that all the water in the pool is filtered. If the pool has a dead zone, its water is not disinfected and there is a risk of localized pathogen development. As the development of bio-mineral pools spreads in Europe, legislation gradually follows. The health parameters measured differ slightly from one country to another, but there are constants: the measurement of Escherichia coli, Enterococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In terms of biological swimming pools, regulatory homogeneity across Europe does not exist. From these comparisons, Austrian legislation segmenting water quality into 4 categories ranging from "excellent" to "poor" represents legislation that combines health and safety with indications of possible malfunctions. Next, a study of three real sites of bio-mineral pools is presented. It appears that whatever the type of pool, bio-mineral filtration makes it possible to achieve performances comparable to those encountered in chlorinated swimming pools concerning the risks associated with fecal contamination and external pollution. On the other hand, when frequentation is high, as is the case in small pools used for aquafitness, monitoring the risks of inter-bather contamination, as illustrated by the presence of Staphylococcus aureus, reveals a recurring problem. Knowing that this parameter is not evaluated in bathing waters in the natural environment and that numerous studies show that Staphyloccocus aureus are always detected, even on beaches, we propose the definition of three thresholds: i.e., 0 CFU/100 mL (threshold value in Wallonia) for water of excellent quality, less than 20 CFU/100 mL (threshold value in France) for water of very good quality, less than 50 CFU/100 mL (contribution of bathers by simple immersion) for good quality water, and more than 50 CFU/100 mL for poor quality water. This document could therefore be converted into a manual for operators on the use and management of bio-mineral baths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien G Mahy
- Department of Chemical Engineering - Nanomaterials, Catalysis and Electrochemistry (NCE), University of Liège, Allée du Six Août 11, 4000, Liege, Belgium.
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS), Rue d'Egmont 5, 1000, Bruxelles, Belgium.
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre-Eau Terre Environnement, Université du Québec, 490, Rue de la Couronne, Québec (QC), G1K 9A9, Quebec City, Canada.
| | - Frédéric Luizi
- Aquatic Science S.A., Zoning des Hauts Sarts, 3ème Avenue 1, 4040, Herstal, Belgium
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Lu X, Chen Y, Chi H, Zhao C, Qiu W, Ma J, Ong SL, Hu J. Cu(II) assisted peroxymonosulfate for antibiotic resistant bacteria inactivation: A potential disinfection technology in swimming pool. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 876:162755. [PMID: 36907423 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Alternative disinfection technology to chlorination is required to control the risk of antibiotic resistance in swimming pools. In this study, copper ions (Cu(II)), which often exist in swimming pools as algicides, were used to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for the inactivation of ampicillin-resistant E. coli. Cu(II) and PMS showed synergistic effects on E. coli inactivation in weak alkaline conditions, obtaining 3.4 log inactivation in 20 min with 10 μM Cu(II) and 100 μM PMS at pH 8.0. Quenching experiments indicated that radicals (i.e., OH and SO4-) were not the main disinfectors for E. coli inactivation. Based on the structure of Cu(II) and density functional theory calculations, the Cu(II)-PMS complex (Cu(H2O)5SO5) was recommended as the active species for E. coli inactivation. Under the experimental conditions, the PMS concentration had a greater influence on E. coli inactivation than the Cu(II) concentration, possibly because increasing PMS concentration accelerates ligand exchange reaction and facilitates active species generation. By forming hypohalous acids, halogen ions could improve the disinfection efficiency of Cu(II)/PMS. The addition of HCO3- concentration (from 0 to 1.0 mM) and humic acid (0.5 and 1.5 mg/l) did not significantly inhibit the E. coli inactivation. The feasibility of adding PMS to waters containing Cu(II) for the inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria was validated in actual swimming pool waters, where 4.7 log inactivation of E. coli was achieved in 60 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; College of Environmental Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Yiwei Chen
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore
| | - Huiyuan Chi
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Chendong Zhao
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore; College of Environmental and Resource Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Say Leong Ong
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Jiangyong Hu
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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Peng F, Lu Y, Dong X, Wang Y, Li H, Yang Z. Advances and research needs for disinfection byproducts control strategies in swimming pools. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 454:131533. [PMID: 37146331 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pools is of great significance due to the non-negligible toxicity and widespread existence of DBPs. However, the management of DBPs remains challenging as the removal and regulation of DBPs is a multifactorial phenomenon in pools. This study summarized recent studies on the removal and regulation of DBPs, and further proposed some research needs. Specifically, the removal of DBPs was divided into the direct removal of the generated DBPs and the indirect removal by inhibiting DBP formation. Inhibiting DBP formation seems to be the more effective and economically practical strategy, which can be achieved mainly by reducing precursors, improving disinfection technology, and optimizing water quality parameters. Alternative disinfection technologies to chlorine disinfection have attracted increasing attention, while their applicability in pools requires further investigation. The regulation of DBPs was discussed in terms of improving the standards on DBPs and their preccursors. The development of online monitoring technology for DBPs is essential for implementing the standard. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to the control of DBPs in pool water by updating the latest research advances and providing detailed perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Xuelian Dong
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yingyang Wang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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5
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Li M, Sun J, Wang DD, Zhang R, Wang H, Wang N. Using potassium ferrate control hazardous disinfection by-products during chlorination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:54137-54146. [PMID: 34043169 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14525-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The generation of hazardous disinfection by-product is one of the major problems in drinking water chlorination. This study aims to investigate the potential of potassium ferrate (K2FeO4) on by-product control. Filtered raw water from a water treatment plant in Jinan was used to evaluate the effects of K2FeO4 dose, pH, ammonia nitrogen, and Br- concentration on trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) and haloacetic acid formation potential (HAAFP). The results present that 3 mg/L K2FeO4 effectively reduced ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV254) by 45%, but removed little dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by 12% at pH 7.40, since K2FeO4 tends to attack the electron-rich part of organic matter molecules but with restricted mineralization ability. Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (EEM) analyses indicate the effective removal of fulvic acid and humic acid. Increasing K2FeO4 dose reduced THMFP but increased HAAFP, due to their precursors reacting with K2FeO4 in different pathway, while the rising pH or Br- concentration increased THMFP but decreased HAAFP. Both THMFP and HAAFP decrease with increasing ammonia nitrogen concentrations. Additionally, it was found that under alkaline conditions, trihalomethanes (THMs) were dominated by haloacetic acids (HAAs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Li
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Resource and Environmental Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China
| | - Jing Sun
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Dan Dan Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ru Zhang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Hongbo Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Resource and Environmental Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China
| | - Ning Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, China.
- Resource and Environmental Innovation Institute, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China.
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6
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Lee W, Lee Y, Allard S, Ra J, Han S, Lee Y. Mechanistic and Kinetic Understanding of the UV 254 Photolysis of Chlorine and Bromine Species in Water and Formation of Oxyhalides. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11546-11555. [PMID: 32786573 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the UV254 photolysis of free available chlorine and bromine species in water. The intrinsic quantum yields for •OH and X• (X = Cl or Br) generation were determined by model fitting of formaldehyde formation using a tert-butanol assay to be 0.61/0.45 for HOCl/OCl- and 0.32/0.43 for HOBr/OBr-. The steady-state •OH concentration in UV/HOX was higher than that in UV/OX- by a factor of 23.3 and 7.8 for Cl and Br, respectively. This was attributed to the different •OH consumption rate by HOCl versus OCl-, while for HOBr/OBr-, both the •OH formation and consumption rates were implied. This was supported by a k of 1.4 × 108 M-1 s-1 for the •OH reaction with HOCl, which was >14 times less than the k for •OH reactions with OCl-, HOBr, and OBr-. Formation of ClO3- and BrO3- was found to be significant with apparent quantum yields of 0.12-0.23. A detailed mechanistic study on the formation of XO3- including a new pathway involving XO• is presented, which has important implications as the level of XO3- can exceed the regulation (BrO3-) or guideline (ClO3-) values during UV/halogen oxidant water treatment. Our new kinetic models well simulate the experimental results for the halogen oxidant decomposition, probe compound degradation, and formation of ClO3- and BrO3-.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woorim Lee
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Yuri Lee
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Sebastien Allard
- Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
| | - Jiwoon Ra
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghee Han
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunho Lee
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
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7
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Wang J, Gong T, Xian Q. Formation of haloacetic acids from different organic precursors in swimming pool water during chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 247:125793. [PMID: 31931310 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetic acids (HAAs) were reported to be the most abundant category of DBPs in swimming pool water. In this study, the formation of HAAs from different organic precursors in swimming pool water, including UV filters, human body fluids, and natural organic matter (NOM), during chlorination was examined, and the effects of chlorine dose and halide concentrations on the formation of HAAs were evaluated. The results show that the total HAA yields from benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) were the highest among the nine organic precursors, and the yields of dichloroacetic acid and bromochloroacetic acid were higher than that of the other HAA species. In all the chlorinated samples of different organic precursors, longer chlorination time enhanced HAA formation. Both chlorine dose and bromide concentration significantly affected the formation of HAAs from BP-3 and SRHA during chlorination. With the increasing chlorine dose, the total HAA yields from SRHA and BP-3 significantly increased. Besides, the proportion of trihaloacetic acids (THAAs) rose while that of dihaloacetic acids (DHAAs) and monohaloacetic acids (MHAAs) declined with the increasing chlorine dose. With the increasing bromide concentration, HAA formation from SRHA increased while that of BP-3 decreased. The bromine incorporation factor (BIF) of the formed MHAAs, DHAAs and THAAs from SRHA and BP-3 both increased with the increasing bromide concentration in the following order: BIFDHAAs > BIFTHAAs > BIFMHAAs, indicating that bromine was easier to be incorporated into DHAAs rather than MHAAs or THAAs. Moreover, bromide promoted the formation of Br-HAAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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8
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Wang L, Zhang Q, Chen B, Bu Y, Chen Y, Ma J, Rosario-Ortiz FL, Zhu R. Some issues limiting photo(cata)lysis application in water pollutant control: A critical review from chemistry perspectives. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 174:115605. [PMID: 32078833 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
For decades, photolysis and photocatalysis have been touted as promising environment-benign and robust technologies to degrade refractory pollutants from water. However, extensive, large-scale engineering applications remain limited now. To facilitate the technology transfer process, earlier reviews have advocated to developing more cost-effective and innocuous materials, maximizing efficiency of photon usage, and optimizing photoreactor systems, mostly from material and reactor improvement perspectives. However, there are also some fundamental yet critical chemistry issues in photo(cata)lysis processes demanding more in-depth understanding and more careful consideration. Hence, this review summarizes some of these challenges. Of them, the first and paramount issue is the interference of coexisting compounds, including dissolved organic matter, anions, cations, and spiked additives. Secondly, considerable concerns are pointed to the formation of undesirable reaction by-products, such as halogenated, nitrogenous, and sulfur-containing compounds, which might increase instead of reduce toxicity of water if inadequate fluence and catalyst/additive are supplied due to time and cost constraints. Lastly, a critical issue lies in the uncertainty of current approaches used for identifying and quantifying radicals, especially when multiple radicals coexist together under changing and interconvertible conditions. The review hence highlights the needs to better understand these fundamental chemistry issues and meanwhile calls for more delicate design of experiments in future studies to overcome these barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Baiyang Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| | - Yinan Bu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yi Chen
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Fernando L Rosario-Ortiz
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, 428 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States
| | - Rongshu Zhu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Prevention and Control, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
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Jiang B, Tian Y, Zhang Z, Yin Z, Feng L, Liu Y, Zhang L. Degradation behaviors of Isopropylphenazone and Aminopyrine and their genetic toxicity variations during UV/chloramine treatment. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 170:115339. [PMID: 31805497 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Combination of ultraviolet and chloramine (i.e., UV/chloramine) treatment has been attracting increasingly attention in recent years due to its high efficiency in removing trace organic contaminants. This study investigated the degradation behaviors of two pyrazolone pharmaceuticals (i.e., Isopropyl phenazone (PRP) and Aminopyrine (AMP)) and their genetic toxicity variations during UV/chloramine treatment. The results showed that chloramine could hardly degrade PRP and AMP, while UV/chloramine greatly increased the observed first-order rate constant (kobs) of PRP and AMP degradation. The quenching and probe experiments illustrated that the reactive chlorine species (RCS) contributed dominantly to PRP removal, and hydroxyl radical (HO•) was the major contributor to the degradation of AMP, while the reactive amine radicals (RNS) could hardly degrade them. The overall degradation rates of PRP and AMP decreased as pH increased from 6.5 to 10. The kobs of PRP and AMP increased along with NH2Cl dosage increasing and reached a plateau at higher concentrations (0.2-0.5 mM). The present background carbonate (HCO3-, 1-10 mM), chloride (Cl-, 1-10 mM) and natural organic matter (NOM, 5-10 mg-C L-1) exhibited inhibition impacts on PRP and AMP degradation. In addition, the intermediates/products of PRP and AMP were identified and their general degradation pathways were proposed to be hydroxylation, deacetylation, and dephenylization. Specifically, Cl-substitution was inferred during PRP degradation, while demethylation in tertiary amine group was only observed in AMP degradation. These mechanisms including the main reactive sites of PRP and AMP were further confirmed by the frontier orbitals calculation. Moreover, the results of the genetic toxicity according to the micronucleus test of Viciafaba root tip indicated that UV/chloramine treatment could partially reduce the genetic toxicity of PRP and AMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingqi Jiang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yajun Tian
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zichen Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Ze Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Li Feng
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yongze Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China.
| | - Liqiu Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29205, United States
| | - Susana Y. Kimura
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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11
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Carter RAA, Allard S, Croué JP, Joll CA. Occurrence of disinfection by-products in swimming pools and the estimated resulting cytotoxicity. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 664:851-864. [PMID: 30769309 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Swimming pools are disinfected to protect against the risk of microbial disease, however, the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) is an unwanted consequence. While many studies have reported the occurrence of commonly investigated DBPs (trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids) in pools, few studies have investigated emerging DBP classes, such as the haloketones or haloacetaldehydes, and the nitrogenous haloacetamides, halonitromethanes, haloacetonitriles and N-nitrosamines. This study investigated the occurrence of sixty four DBPs from the eight aforementioned DBP classes in pools employing different treatment methods. Approximately 70% of the DBPs were detected in at least one of the pools, with most concentrations being equal to or greater than those previously reported. Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde) was one of many DBPs detected in all chlorinated waters (202 to 1313 μg/L), and, on a molar basis, was the predominant DBP. Several other DBPs, namely chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetamide, dibromoacetamide, dibromochloroacetamide and trichloroacetamide, and many of the N-nitrosamines, were measured at concentrations greater than previously reported: up to 200 to 479 μg/L for the haloacetic acids, 56 to 736 μg/L for the haloacetamides and up to 1093 ng/L for some N-nitrosamines. The higher disinfectant residuals required to be employed in Australian pools, and poor pool management (e.g. of chlorine residual and pH) are likely factors contributing to these relatively high DBP concentrations. Where possible, the cytotoxicity values of the investigated DBPs were evaluated, with chloral hydrate representing over 90% of the total chronic cytotoxicity despite only representing up to 64% of the total molar DBP concentration. This study is the first report of bromodichloroacetaldehyde and bromochloroacetaldehyde in pools and is the first investigation of N-nitrosamines in a brominated pool. Furthermore, this work aids in understanding DBPs in both chlorine and bromine treated pools, the latter being the subject of only limited previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Sébastien Allard
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jean-Philippe Croué
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre (CWQRC), Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
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12
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Dudziak M, Wyczarska-Kokot J, Łaskawiec E, Stolarczyk A. Application of Ultrafiltration in a Swimming Pool Water Treatment System. MEMBRANES 2019; 9:membranes9030044. [PMID: 30934567 PMCID: PMC6468349 DOI: 10.3390/membranes9030044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Swimming pool water was treated using an ultrafiltration process using ceramic and polymer membranes for comparison. It was determined that the efficiency of the process depended on the type of membrane used. The polymer membrane decreased the absorbance and concentration of combined chlorine in the pool water to a greater extent than the ceramic membrane. In the case of a ceramic membrane, the concentration of combined chlorine in the permeate exceeded the limit values. During the ultrafiltration process, the permeate flux decreased, causing the blockage of membrane pores. The extent of this phenomenon was similar for both tested membranes. In the case of the ceramic membrane, flushing it with water could significantly restore its initial performance. For both tested membranes, a high regeneration efficiency was observed during chemical treatment with an alkaline solution. SEM photos of the polymer membrane showed low resistance of this polymer to the chlorine present in the swimming pool water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Dudziak
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Edyta Łaskawiec
- Institute of Water and Wastewater Engineering, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Stolarczyk
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, M. Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
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13
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Zhang A, Jia A, Park M, Li Y, Snyder SA. Genotoxicity assay and potential byproduct identification during different UV-based water treatment processes. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 217:176-182. [PMID: 30415116 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Formation of genotoxic byproducts during different ultraviolet (UV) -related water/wastewater treatment processes (including medium pressure (MP) UV oxidation, LP UV oxidation, chlorination, biological activated carbon (BAC) treatment, H2O2 oxidation, and two or more combined processes) was investigated by Ames fluctuation test using Salmonella strains TA98 and TA100 with and without rat liver enzyme extract S9. Byproducts responsible for genotoxicity were identified. The results showed that MP UV can induce mutagenicity and LP UV treatment does not induce mutagenicity. H2O2 oxidation could degrade part of genotoxic compounds. Compared with chlorination, BAC treatment is more effective in removing genotoxicity. Mutagenicity was found mostly in samples tested with TA100 instead of TA98, especially with TA100 without S9, indicating that guanosine and/or cytosine adducts contribute to mutation or toxicological effects in MP UV treated samples. Potential genotoxic byproducts were selected, most of which were nitrogenous organic compounds with more than 10 carbon atoms. Nitrosamines and histidine were excluded from potential genotoxic candidates. The results could contribute to evaluation of mutagenicity of various UV-based water treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, People's Republic of China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Ai Jia
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Minkyu Park
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Yongmei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shane A Snyder
- Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States.
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14
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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15
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Valeriani F, Margarucci LM, Romano Spica V. Recreational Use of Spa Thermal Waters: Criticisms and Perspectives for Innovative Treatments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:E2675. [PMID: 30487383 PMCID: PMC6313452 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15122675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Natural spa springs are diffused all over the world and their use in pools is known since ancient times. This review underlines the cultural and social spa context focusing on hygiene issues, public health guidelines and emerging concerns regarding water management in wellness or recreational settings. The question of the "untouchability" of therapeutic natural waters and their incompatibility with traditional disinfection processes is addressed considering the demand for effective treatments that would respect the natural properties. Available strategies and innovative treatments are reviewed, highlighting potentials and limits for a sustainable management. Alternative approaches comprise nanotechnologies, photocatalysis systems, advanced filtration. State of the art and promising perspectives are reported considering the chemical-physical component and the biological natural complexity of the spa water microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Valeriani
- Public Health Unit, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome 00135, Italy.
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16
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Disinfection Methods for Swimming Pool Water: Byproduct Formation and Control. WATER 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/w10060797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina 29205, United States
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