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Ahkola H, Junttila V, Kauppi S. Do hazardous substances in demolition waste hinder circular economy? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 364:121362. [PMID: 38878568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Hazardous substances in demolition waste are often deemed a barrier to a circular economy owing to concerns about their fate in recycled materials. However, with the growing demand for recycling materials, it is essential to find circular solutions for construction materials but still protect health and the environment by managing hazardous substances. In this study, selected hazardous substance groups were analysed from demolition waste samples. Most of the concentrations did not raise any concerns when the safety of recycling materials was considered. However, the detection limits of laboratory chemical analysis can be discussed, as bromine was found in samples by an X-ray fluorescence (XRF)-analyser, but only one laboratory detected brominated flame retardants (BRFs). New technologies and practices are needed to follow the chemical content of materials used in the construction phase. Detecting hazardous substances in recyclable materials is the only way to achieve harmless material cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Ahkola
- Finnish Environment Institute, Latokartanonkaari 11, 00790 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Ville Junttila
- Finnish Environment Institute, Latokartanonkaari 11, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sari Kauppi
- Finnish Environment Institute, Latokartanonkaari 11, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Mlelwa R, Rother HA. Reviewing the current state of legacy POP-brominated flame retardants in plastic childcare products and toys: a scoping review protocol. Syst Rev 2024; 13:148. [PMID: 38831309 PMCID: PMC11149179 DOI: 10.1186/s13643-024-02524-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to their adverse environmental and health impacts, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are listed in Annex A of the Stockholm Convention for global elimination of production and use. Their health impacts include endocrine disruption, cancer, reproductive effects, and neurobehavioral and developmental disorders in children. Emerging literature suggests that legacy POP-BFRs are increasingly found in consumer products, including those used for and by children. The presence of legacy POP-BFRs in children's products is a big concern. Children are more vulnerable to chemical exposure risks than adults because their bodies are still developing and fragile. The rising problem is contributed to by the global push towards a circular economy that encourages responsible production and consumption by practising the recycling of waste materials. Waste materials such as electronic and electrical equipment plastics often contain POP-BFRs. POP-BFRs in waste materials are transferred into new products through recycling. The recycled products have become a potential source of exposure to legacy POP-BFRs for vulnerable populations, particularly children. Our scoping review aims to map and summarise the emerging literature. This information is needed to inform evidence-based policies to protect children from toxic exposures. METHODS Our scoping review will follow a methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley. Peer-reviewed and grey literature on the topic will be retrieved from electronic databases and other relevant sites. Two reviewers will screen titles and abstracts, followed by a full-text review of studies for eligibility based on the established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data will be extracted, and findings will be mapped in a table according to study settings, types of children's products tested, and concentration of legacy POP-BFRs in contaminated products. A map chart will be created to display how contaminated products are spread globally. DISCUSSION Because of their unique vulnerabilities, children continue to suffer disproportionate exposures to toxic chemicals compared to adults. Information on potential exposures, particularly for children, is crucial to make evidence-based policies. We intend to map and summarise the emerging literature on legacy POP-BFRs in children's products. Findings will be disseminated to relevant stakeholders through publishing in a peer-reviewed scientific journal and policy briefs. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION The protocol is registered with the Open Science Framework ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7KDE5 ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Mlelwa
- Environmental Health Division and Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
| | - Hanna-Andrea Rother
- Environmental Health Division and Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Research, School of Public Health, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa.
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3
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Bisinella V, Schmidt S, Varling AS, Laner D, Christensen TH. Waste LCA and the future. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 174:53-75. [PMID: 38016265 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Life cycle assessment (LCA) models quantifying the environmental aspects of waste management have become an integral part of waste management decision-making over the last two decades and have provided ample knowledge on both environmental benefits and drawbacks in the way we handle waste. Waste management and LCA modelling of waste management systems will soon be challenged by profound changes necessary in our societies and sectors to meet sustainable development goals. Foreseen changes in energy, material, and nutrient provision will directly and indirectly affect waste management in terms of its operation and goals. This study reflects on anticipated changes in society and industrial sectors and how these changes may affect waste management and LCA modelling of waste management systems in terms of waste input, the modelling of technologies and systems and exchanges of energy, materials, and nutrients, as well as how it may affect impact assessment and the interpretation of results. The study provides practical recommendations for LCA modelling of future waste management systems, which will hopefully lead to robust assessments that can support decision-making in an evolving society subject to great changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Bisinella
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet 115, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - S Schmidt
- Research Center for Resource Management and Solid Waste Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Kassel, Mönchebergstraße 7, 34125 Kassel, Germany
| | - A S Varling
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet 115, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - D Laner
- Research Center for Resource Management and Solid Waste Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Kassel, Mönchebergstraße 7, 34125 Kassel, Germany
| | - T H Christensen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet 115, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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4
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de Boer J, Harrad S, Sharkey M. The European Regulatory Strategy for flame retardants - The right direction but still a risk of getting lost. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 347:140638. [PMID: 37981017 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Flame retardants (FRs) are a major group of chemicals used to protect against fast developing fires and comply with fire regulations. Many of them have a negative impact on the environment and human health. Some have been phased out, but the vast majority remain on the market including a substantial number of harmful ones. The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) presented a strategy to phase out harmful flame retardants, based on a group approach. While this approach will help to finally overcome the loop of banning individual chemicals, which are then replaced by similar ones, which need to be banned again, the proposed strategy also contains several flaws, which may inadvertently weaken the strategy. A stronger grouping system is discussed and proposed, in which additional criteria for the evaluation of FRs as groups are included, e.g., more attention for toxic effects, mobility, recyclability and waste production. This discussion paper is intended to contribute to a sustainable approach as proposed in the European Chemicals Sustainability Strategy. It should also help create a truly circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob de Boer
- Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Sharkey
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Galway, University Road, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
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5
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Fadaei A. An investigation into the present levels of contamination in children's toys and jewelry in different countries: a systematic review. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2023; 38:601-611. [PMID: 35778924 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Contamination by heavy metals and toxic elements in children's toys and jewelry is an ongoing challenge in different countries. These contaminants can enter the children's body via oral, dermal, and respiratory routes, leading to adverse health effects. This study aimed to investigate the present levels of contamination in children's toys and jewelry in 15 countries, including UK, Saudi Arabia, Cambodia, China, Kosovo, Nigeria, North American, Kazakhstan, UAE, Pakistan, Iraq, Israel, West Bank/Palestine, Czech Republic, and Turkey. In this review, the legislation and recommendation of the United States (U.S.), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Turkish Standards Institute (TSE), Canada, and the European Union (E.U.) on toxic elements in toys and jewelry are introduced. Plastic or metallic toys and children's jewelry still have the most severe toxic elements pollution and the existence of lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), barium (Ba), Zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, azo dyes, and flame retardants has been regarded as an ongoing challenge in these articles. Finally, this review offers benchmarking of the concentrations of toxic elements in all types of children's toys and jewelry in different nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdolmajid Fadaei
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
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6
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Dueñas Mas MJ, de Dios-Pérez C, Ballesteros-Gómez A, Rubio S. Supramolecular solvent extraction and ambient mass spectrometry for the determination of organic contaminants in food packaging material. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 324:138359. [PMID: 36907494 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A rapid method based on a fast sample treatment with supramolecular solvents (SUPRASs) and ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) analysis was developed for the screening and quantification of organic contaminants in food packaging materials (FCMs). The suitability of SUPRASs made up of medium chain alcohols in ethanol:water mixtures was investigated, given their low toxicity, proven capacity for multi-residue analysis (since they provide a wide variety of interactions and multiple binding sites) and restricted access properties for simultaneous sample extraction and clean-up. Two families of emerging organic pollutants, bisphenols and organophosphate flame retardants, were targeted as representative compounds. The methodology was applied to 40 FCMs. Target compounds were quantitated using ASAP (atmospheric solids analysis probe)-low resolution MS and a broad-spectrum screening of contaminants was performed through spectral library search using direct injection probe (DIP) and high resolution MS (HRMS). The results showed the ubiquity of bisphenols and of some flame retardants, as well as the presence of other additives and unknown compounds in about half of the analyzed samples, which highlight the complex composition of FCMs and the possible associated health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Dueñas Mas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry for Energy and the Environment, Marie Curie Building (Annex), Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Cristina de Dios-Pérez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry for Energy and the Environment, Marie Curie Building (Annex), Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Anad Ballesteros-Gómez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry for Energy and the Environment, Marie Curie Building (Annex), Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Soledad Rubio
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry for Energy and the Environment, Marie Curie Building (Annex), Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071, Córdoba, Spain
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7
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Funari V, Toller S, Vitale L, Santos RM, Gomes HI. Urban mining of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) residues with emphasis on bioleaching technologies: a critical review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:59128-59150. [PMID: 37041362 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26790-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Metals are essential in our daily lives and have a finite supply, being simultaneously contaminants of concern. The current carbon emissions and environmental impact of mining are untenable. We need to reclaim metals sustainably from secondary resources, like waste. Biotechnology can be applied in metal recovery from waste streams like fly ashes and bottom ashes of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI). They represent substantial substance flows, with roughly 46 million tons of MSWI ashes produced annually globally, equivalent in elemental richness to low-grade ores for metal recovery. Next-generation methods for resource recovery, as in particular bioleaching, give the opportunity to recover critical materials and metals, appropriately purified for noble applications, in waste treatment chains inspired by circular economy thinking. In this critical review, we can identify three main lines of discussion: (1) MSWI material characterization and related environmental issues; (2) currently available processes for recycling and metal recovery; and (3) microbially assisted processes for potential recycling and metal recovery. Research trends are chiefly oriented to the potential exploitation of bioprocesses in the industry. Biotechnology for resource recovery shows increasing effectiveness especially downstream the production chains, i.e., in the waste management sector. Therefore, this critical discussion will help assessing the industrial potential of biotechnology for urban mining of municipal, post-combustion waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Funari
- Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR-CNR), Department of Earth System Sciences and Environmental Technologies, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Bologna Research Area, 40129, Bologna, Italy.
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn (SZN), Via Ammiraglio F. Acton 55, 80133, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Simone Toller
- Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR-CNR), Department of Earth System Sciences and Environmental Technologies, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Bologna Research Area, 40129, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Chemical, Life and Environmental Sustainability Sciences (SCVSA), University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze, 17/A, Parma, Italy
| | - Laura Vitale
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn (SZN), Via Ammiraglio F. Acton 55, 80133, Napoli, Italy
| | - Rafael M Santos
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Thornbrough Building, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Helena I Gomes
- Food, Water, Waste Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
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8
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Zafiu C, Binner E, Beigl P, Vay B, Ebmer J, Huber-Humer M. The dynamics of macro- and microplastic quantity and size changes during the composting process. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 162:18-26. [PMID: 36921437 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The quantity and type of macro- and microplastics was investigated in rotting material during the composting process of two state-of-the-art composting plants in Austria. Microplastics >0.2 mm, were found already after the first turning event in both facilities. The generation of microplastics was more extensive in the plant that used shorter turning intervals during the first four weeks and generated approx. 21 particles per week and kg-1 DM. After 4 weeks of operation less microplastic particles were detected, which suggested that particles were fractionated to smaller sizes during processing. In addition, a total of nine composts from three different facilities that were operated in various settlement structures were compared. 7 to 232 macro- and microplastic particles per kg DM were found, whereas the highest plastic burden was observed in the composts made from biowaste that originated from the most densely populated area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Zafiu
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Erwin Binner
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Beigl
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Vay
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jürgen Ebmer
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Huber-Humer
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management and Circularity, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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9
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de Jonker M, Leonards PEG, Lamoree MH, Brandsma SH. A Rapid Screening Method for the Detection of Additives in Electronics and Plastic Consumer Products Using AP-MALDI-qTOF-MS. TOXICS 2023; 11:108. [PMID: 36850984 PMCID: PMC9960555 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11020108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A novel method was developed and optimized for the fast-screening analysis of additives in electronics and plastic consumer products using atmospheric pressure matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (AP-MALDI) coupled with a high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight (qTOF) mass spectrometer (MS). To simplify sample preparation and increase sample throughput, an innovative 48 well graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) doped AP-MALDI target plate was developed. The GNP incorporated in the target plate fulfilled the role of the MALDI matrix and, therefore, sample extracts could be directly transferred to the AP-MALDI 48 well target plate and analyzed without a subsequent matrix addition. The homogeneously dispersed and immobilized GNP target plates also provided increased signal intensity and reproducibility. Furthermore, analytical standards of various plastic additives and plastic products with known concentrations of additives were studied to assess the AP-MALDI ionization mechanisms and method capability. The analysis time was 15 s per measurement using an automated sequence. The GNP-doped target plates exhibited high desorption/ionization of low molecular weight molecules (<1000 Da) and can be used in both positive and negative ionization modes. The AP-MALDI-qTOF-MS method was applied to screen for additives in various electronics and plastic consumer products. Suspect screening was performed using a database containing 1366 compounds. A total of 56 additives including antioxidants, flame retardants, plasticizers, UV-stabilizers, and UV-filters were identified (confidence level 4). Identification of certain plastic additives in plastic children's toys may indicate that they are recycled from waste electronic and electronic equipment (WEEE).
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10
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Sharkey M, Drage D, Harrad S, Stubbings W, Rosa AH, Coggins M, Berresheim H. POP-BFRs in consumer products: Evolution of the efficacy of XRF screening for legislative compliance over a 5-year interval and future trends. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158614. [PMID: 36089035 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In 2015-16, a study of approximately 500 waste plastic articles showed that portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was up to 95 % effective in screening for compliance with low persistent organic pollutant (POP) concentration limits (LPCLs) on brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in waste. The present study conducted in 2019-20 mirrors that conducted five years prior on a similar number and range of articles, testing the hypothesis that increased use of alternative BFRs as replacements for POP-BFRs will reduce the effectiveness of XRF as a tool for monitoring compliance with LPCLs. In comparing the results, the overall screening efficacy for LPCL compliance reduced from ~95 % to ~88 %, due in part to decreased prevalence of POP-BFRs and potentially increased presence of alternative flame retardants, particularly in goods with shorter lifecycles such as electronics. We additionally examined the impacts of a number of modifications to the XRF measurement protocol on its efficacy, including: using elemental Sb as a qualifier in detecting POP-BFRs in hard plastics; reduced XRF analysis time; and the elimination of background interference using a test stand. The rate at which hard plastics from electronic waste may be analysed by XRF can be substantially improved by reducing analysis time to 5 s, with minimal increase in false exceedances of the LPCL. Monitoring Sb does not appear an effective qualifier for the presence of POP-BFRs, as Sb seems to be used with a range of BFRs. Use of the test stand, while reducing interference, appeared to reduce accuracy when screening low density and thin samples. Despite a seeming increased use of alternative BFRs, screening of waste for compliance with LPCLs using rapid and low-cost screening methods such as portable XRF is still necessary as methods such as GC-MS cannot be scaled up to match the quantities of waste requiring screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Sharkey
- Physics Unit, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway City H91 CF50, Ireland.
| | - Daniel Drage
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, West Midlands B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4103, Australia
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, West Midlands B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - William Stubbings
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, West Midlands B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - André Henrique Rosa
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, West Midlands B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Institute of Science and Technology, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Av. Três de Março 511, Alto da Boa Vista, Soracaba, SP 18087-180, Brazil
| | - Marie Coggins
- Physics Unit, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway City H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Harald Berresheim
- Physics Unit, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway City H91 CF50, Ireland
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11
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Wu S, Wu X, Li H, Li D, Zheng J, Lin Q, Nerín C, Zhong H, Dong B. The characterization and influence factors of semi-volatile compounds from mechanically recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) by combining GC×GC-TOFMS and chemometrics. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 439:129583. [PMID: 35872450 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A non-targeted method was developed for screening the semi-volatile compounds of different mechanically recycled PET intended for food contact materials. The data was further analyzed by multiple chemometrics methods to obtain the difference level, and the potential influence factors were investigated. The results showed that total dissolution with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry was more effective than other reported methods. Based on the difference level, 97 compounds were characterized into 4 levels. 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone originating from organic solvent was recognized as level IV and could be determined as the primary difference indicator. The contaminant is mainly attributed to the residuum derived from non-food consumer products. The specific types of contaminants and process parameters of the recycling, such as moisture content, properties of rPET, and temperature, were the potential key factors affecting the presence of semi-volatile compounds of mechanically recycled rPET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siliang Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Xuefeng Wu
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Hanke Li
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Dan Li
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Jianguo Zheng
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Qinbao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Product Packaging and Logistics, Packaging Engineering Institute, Jinan University, Zhuhai 519070, China
| | - Cristina Nerín
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, GUIA Group, I3A, EINA, University of Zaragoza, María de Luna 3, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Huaining Zhong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China.
| | - Ben Dong
- National Reference Laboratory for Food Contact Material (Guangdong), Guangzhou Customs Technology Center, Guangzhou 510075, China.
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12
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Lestido-Cardama A, Paseiro-Cerrato R, Ackerman L, Sendón R, de Quirós ARB. Determination of BFRs in food contact articles: An analytical approach using DART-HRMS, XFR and HPLC-MS/MS. Food Packag Shelf Life 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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13
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Lahtela V, Hamod H, Kärki T. Assessment of critical factors in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) plastics on the recyclability: A case study in Finland. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 830:155627. [PMID: 35508235 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Excessive waste is continually accumulating owing to increased consumption, and an excellent example is the consumption of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), which are eventually transformed into waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). WEEE is an interesting material stream because it includes various valuable materials that have great potential for recycling and reutilization. To maximize recycling and utilization potential, all fractions in WEEE must be reviewed from a sustainable perspective. Several WEEE contain plastic, which comprises approximately one-third of the total WEEE composition; thus, this plastic content is a good target for recycling purposes. However, the recycling of WEEE plastics might include some challenges, such as the treatment of harmful substances in the material, which can prevent effective and high-quality material recycling. This study investigates the polymer composition and critical elements of the material stream of WEEE polymer. These polymers were identified using portable near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) at an elemental level. The results showed that among various other polymers, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) was the main polymer identified in WEEE. The proportion of unidentified polymers was alarmingly large; specifically, when the presence of bromine was positively correlated with the presence of an unidentified WEEE polymer. This study also corroborated that bromine is actually not present in bromine-free plastics, demonstrating that industrial classification works with WEEE polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ville Lahtela
- SCI-MAT Research Platform & Fiber Composite Laboratory, School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Yliopistonkatu 34, FI-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland.
| | - Haruna Hamod
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Yliopistonkatu 34, FI-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland
| | - Timo Kärki
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Yliopistonkatu 34, FI-53851 Lappeenranta, Finland
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Han Y, Cheng J, An D, He Y, Tang Z. Occurrence, potential release and health risks of heavy metals in popular take-out food containers from China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 206:112265. [PMID: 34699759 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Global consumption of take-out food increased rapidly and the chemicals in their containers become a potential source of human exposure. However, available information on heavy metals in the containers is extremely limited and the associated health risks remain poorly understood. We investigated Cd, Cr, Pb, Sb, Mn, Ni and Co in the popular take-out food containers from China and found the concentrations of these metals were moderate in comparison to the concentrations reported in other food contact materials. The metal concentrations in sampled containers by material type differed significantly, and higher concentrations of Cd, Pb, Sb, Mn and Co were observed in expanded polystyrene samples. The metals in the containers likely originated from intentional addition and/or contamination of materials. The potential release of the metals from containers was simulated and found the median leaching rates of Cd, Pb, Sb, Ni and Co in the range of 0.36-4.80% under typical conditions, which depended largely on the material types. Based on the observed leaching rates, we estimated that the summed carcinogenic risks of Cd, Pb, Ni and Co were unacceptable under specific exposure frequency, although the total non-carcinogenic risks from metal intake were low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Han
- Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment in Minority Areas (Minzu University of China), National Ethnic Affairs Commission, Beijing, 100081, China; College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, 100081, China; Environmental Research Institute/School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Jiali Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Trace Element Nutrition of the National Health Commission, National Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Di An
- Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment in Minority Areas (Minzu University of China), National Ethnic Affairs Commission, Beijing, 100081, China; College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Ying He
- Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment in Minority Areas (Minzu University of China), National Ethnic Affairs Commission, Beijing, 100081, China; College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Zhenwu Tang
- Key Laboratory of Ecology and Environment in Minority Areas (Minzu University of China), National Ethnic Affairs Commission, Beijing, 100081, China; College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing, 100081, China.
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15
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Kajiwara N, Matsukami H, Malarvannan G, Chakraborty P, Covaci A, Takigami H. Recycling plastics containing decabromodiphenyl ether into new consumer products including children's toys purchased in Japan and seventeen other countries. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 289:133179. [PMID: 34875294 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame retardants widely used to manufacture several commercial plastic products. The major homologue in commercial PBDE mixtures are listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and are scheduled for global elimination. Hence, to understand more about unintentional contamination of plastic recycling stream by restricted PBDEs, we examined 540 small plastic consumer products (1139 components after dismantling), including children's toys, purchased in 18 countries (mainly Japan) between 2015 and 2019. Handheld X-ray fluorescence analysis revealed that 219 plastic components (19% of the total samples) contained bromine at a concentration of ≥30 mg kg-1. Chemical analysis of these bromine-positive components revealed that 109 pieces (9.6% of the total), mainly those made of black-colored plastic, contained PBDEs at concentrations ranging between 35 and 10,000 mg kg-1, with the maximum contribution from decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE). These PBDE concentrations were insufficient to impart flame retardancy, suggesting that the recycled plastic used to manufacture these consumer products probably originated from electronic waste, the manufacture of which was the primary use of commercial decaBDE mixtures. PBDEs were also found in secondary raw plastic materials and their final products obtained in India in 2019, demonstrating that plastics containing decaBDE end up in products where they serve no functional purpose. To contribute to the circular economy, the recycling of plastic waste in end-of-life products should be promoted. However, urgent action is needed to prevent plastic additives of concern, including PBDEs, from entering new products used in daily lives, particularly those used by children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuko Kajiwara
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8506, Japan.
| | - Hidenori Matsukami
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8506, Japan
| | - Govindan Malarvannan
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Paromita Chakraborty
- Environmental Science and Technology Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, 603203, India
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Hidetaka Takigami
- Material Cycles Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8506, Japan
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16
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Recycling Plastics from WEEE: A Review of the Environmental and Human Health Challenges Associated with Brominated Flame Retardants. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19020766. [PMID: 35055588 PMCID: PMC8775953 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19020766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) presents the dual characteristic of containing both hazardous substances and valuable recoverable materials. Mainly found in WEEE plastics, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are a component of particular interest. Several actions have been taken worldwide to regulate their use and disposal, however, in countries where no regulation is in place, the recovery of highly valuable materials has promoted the development of informal treatment facilities, with serious consequences for the environment and the health of the workers and communities involved. Hence, in this review we examine a wide spectrum of aspects related to WEEE plastic management. A search of legislation and the literature was made to determine the current legal framework by region/country. Additionally, we focused on identifying the most relevant methods of existing industrial processes for determining BFRs and their challenges. BFR occurrence and substitution by novel BFRs (NBFRs) was reviewed. An emphasis was given to review the health and environmental impacts associated with BFR/NBFR presence in waste, consumer products, and WEEE recycling facilities. Knowledge and research gaps of this topic were highlighted. Finally, the discussion on current trends and proposals to attend to this relevant issue were outlined.
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17
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Young AS, Herkert N, Stapleton HM, Cedeño Laurent JG, Jones ER, MacNaughton P, Coull BA, James-Todd T, Hauser R, Luna ML, Chung YS, Allen JG. Chemical contaminant exposures assessed using silicone wristbands among occupants in office buildings in the USA, UK, China, and India. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 156:106727. [PMID: 34425641 PMCID: PMC8409466 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about chemical contaminant exposures of office workers in buildings globally. Complex mixtures of harmful chemicals accumulate indoors from building materials, building maintenance, personal products, and outdoor pollution. We evaluated exposures to 99 chemicals in urban office buildings in the USA, UK, China, and India using silicone wristbands worn by 251 participants while they were at work. Here, we report concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and other brominated flame retardants (BFRs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), phthalates and phthalate alternatives, pesticides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). First, we found major differences in office worker chemical exposures by country, some of which can be explained by regulations and use patterns. For example, exposures to several pesticides were substantially higher in India where there were fewer restrictions and unique malaria challenges, and exposures to flame retardants tended to be higher in the USA and UK where there were historic, stringent furniture flammability standards. Higher exposures to PAHs in China and India could be due to high levels of outdoor air pollution that penetrates indoors. Second, some office workers were still exposed to legacy PCBs, PBDEs, and pesticides, even decades after bans or phase-outs. Third, we identified exposure to a contemporary PCB that is not covered under legacy PCB bans due to its presence as an unintentional byproduct in materials. Fourth, exposures to novel BFRs, OPEs, and other chemicals commonly used as substitutes to previously phased-out chemicals were ubiquitous. Fifth, some exposures were influenced by individual factors, not just countries and buildings. Phthalate exposures, for example, were related to personal care product use, country restrictions, and building materials. Overall, we found substantial country differences in chemical exposures and continued exposures to legacy phased-out chemicals and their substitutes in buildings. These findings warrant further research on the role of chemicals in office buildings on worker health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Young
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | | | | | | | - Emily R Jones
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Brent A Coull
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Russ Hauser
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Marianne Lahaie Luna
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; University of Toronto Dalla Lana School of Public Health, Toronto, Canada
| | - Yu Shan Chung
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph G Allen
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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18
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Turner A, Filella M. Hazardous metal additives in plastics and their environmental impacts. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 156:106622. [PMID: 34030075 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Historically, many additives and catalysts used in plastics were based on compounds of toxic metals (and metalloids), like arsenic, cadmium, chromium(VI), and lead. Despite subsequent restrictions, hazardous additives remain in plastics in societal circulation because of the pervasiveness of many products and the more general contamination of recycled goods. However, little is understood about their presence and impacts in the environment, with most studies focusing on the role of plastics in acquiring metals from their surroundings through, for example, adsorption. Accordingly, this paper provides a review of the uses of hazardous, metal-based additives in plastics, the relevant European regulations that have been introduced to restrict or prohibit usage in various sectors, and the likely environmental impacts of hazardous additives once plastics are lost in nature. Examination of the literature reveals widespread occurrence of hazardous metals in environmental plastics, with impacts ranging from contamination of the waste stream to increasing the density and settling rates of material in aquatic systems. A potential concern from an ecotoxicological perspective is the diffusion of metals from the matrix of micro- and nanoplastics under certain physico-chemical conditions, and especially favorable here are the acidic environments encountered in the digestive tract of many animals (birds, fish, mammals) that inadvertently consume plastics. For instance, in vitro studies have shown that the mobilization of Cd and Pb from historical microplastics can greatly exceed concentrations deemed to be safe according to migration limits specified by the current European Toy Safety Directive (17 mg kg-1 and 23 mg kg-1, respectively). When compared with concentrations of metals typically adsorbed to plastics from the environment, the risks from pervasive, historical additives are far more significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Montserrat Filella
- Department F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
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19
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Turner A, Filella M. Polyvinyl chloride in consumer and environmental plastics, with a particular focus on metal-based additives. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:1376-1384. [PMID: 34368828 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00213a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the most widely used thermoplastics but is also a material of concern because of the generation and release of harmful chemicals during its life cycle. Amongst the chemicals added to PVC are metal-based stabilisers and Sb-based halogenated flame retardant synergists. However, very little quantitative information exists on these additives, and in particular in PVC lost to the environment. In this study, the distribution of PVC amongst consumer plastics in societal circulation and plastics retrieved from marine and lacustrine beaches and agricultural soils are compared, along with the presence and concentrations of Ba, Cd, Pb, Sb, Sn and Zn as proxies for common metal-based additives and determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. About 10% of consumer plastics and 2% of environmental plastics were constructed of PVC, with the discrepancy attributed to the long service lives and managed disposal of PVC used in the construction sector and the propensity of the plastic to sink in aquatic systems and evade detection. Metal-based additives, defined as having a metal concentration >1000 mg kg-1, were present in about 75% of consumer and environmental PVC, with Ba and Pb most abundant and Cd and Zn least abundant in both types of sample, and median concentrations statistically different only for Ba. Metals also appeared to be present as contaminants (defined as concentrations <1000 mg kg-1) arising from manufacturing or recycling. Metals in PVC are believed to pose little risk when the material is in use, but experimental evidence in the literature suggests that significant mobilisation and exposure may occur from PVC microplastics when ingested by wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Montserrat Filella
- Department F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
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20
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Lowe CN, Phillips KA, Favela KA, Yau AY, Wambaugh JF, Sobus JR, Williams AJ, Pfirrman AJ, Isaacs KK. Chemical Characterization of Recycled Consumer Products Using Suspect Screening Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:11375-11387. [PMID: 34347456 PMCID: PMC8475772 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Recycled materials are found in many consumer products as part of a circular economy; however, the chemical content of recycled products is generally uncharacterized. A suspect screening analysis using two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOFMS) was applied to 210 products (154 recycled, 56 virgin) across seven categories. Chemicals in products were tentatively identified using a standard spectral library or confirmed using chemical standards. A total of 918 probable chemical structures identified (112 of which were confirmed) in recycled materials versus 587 (110 confirmed) in virgin materials. Identified chemicals were characterized in terms of their functional use and structural class. Recycled paper products and construction materials contained greater numbers of chemicals than virgin products; 733 identified chemicals had greater occurrence in recycled compared to virgin materials. Products made from recycled materials contained greater numbers of fragrances, flame retardants, solvents, biocides, and dyes. The results were clustered to identify groups of chemicals potentially associated with unique chemical sources, and identified chemicals were prioritized for further study using high-throughput hazard and exposure information. While occurrence is not necessarily indicative of risk, these results can be used to inform the expansion of existing models or identify exposure pathways currently neglected in exposure assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles N. Lowe
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831, United States
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
| | - Katherine A. Phillips
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
| | - Kristin A. Favela
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, 78759, United States
| | - Alice Y. Yau
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, 78759, United States
| | - John F. Wambaugh
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
| | - Jon R. Sobus
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
| | - Antony J. Williams
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
| | - Ashley J. Pfirrman
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37831, United States
| | - Kristin K. Isaacs
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709, United States
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21
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Abstract
The presence of different pollutants in recycled plastics is reviewed in this article. The desirable circular economy of plastics should be linked to the availability of clean recycled plastics with a non-significant and small to nil amount of substances of concern. Different researchers found polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs), pesticides, dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs and PBDD/Fs) in plastic recyclates. This represents an added difficulty to the effective recycling process of plastics that reduces the demand for energy and materials, in addition to posing a great environmental danger since they represent a vector of accumulation of the contaminants that will finally appear in the most unexpected products. Life Cycle Analysis of the plastic wastes recycling process indicates a great saving of energy, water and CO2 emissions.
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22
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Young AS, Hauser R, James-Todd TM, Coull BA, Zhu H, Kannan K, Specht AJ, Bliss MS, Allen JG. Impact of "healthier" materials interventions on dust concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and organophosphate esters. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 150:106151. [PMID: 33092866 PMCID: PMC7940547 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and organophosphate esters (OPEs) are found in building materials and associated with thyroid disease, infertility, and impaired development. This study's objectives were to (1) compare levels of PFAS, PBDEs, and OPEs in dust from spaces with conventional versus "healthier" furniture and carpet, and (2) identify other product sources of flame retardants in situ. We measured 15 PFAS, 8 PBDEs, and 19 OPEs in dust from offices, common areas, and classrooms having undergone either no intervention (conventional rooms in older buildings meeting strict fire codes; n = 12), full "healthier" materials interventions (rooms with "healthier" materials in buildings constructed more recently or gut-renovated; n = 7), or partial interventions (other rooms with at least "healthier" foam furniture but more potential building contamination; n = 28). We also scanned all materials for bromine and phosphorus as surrogates of PBDEs and OPEs respectively, using x-ray fluorescence. In multilevel regression models, rooms with full "healthier" materials interventions had 78% lower dust levels of PFAS than rooms with no intervention (p < 0.01). Rooms with full "healthier" interventions also had 65% lower OPE levels in dust than rooms with no intervention (p < 0.01) and 45% lower PBDEs than rooms with only partial interventions (p < 0.10), adjusted for covariates related to insulation, electronics, and furniture. Bromine loadings from electronics in rooms were associated with PBDE concentrations in dust (p < 0.05), and the presence of exposed insulation was associated with OPE dust concentrations (p < 0.001). Full "healthier" materials renovations successfully reduced chemical classes in dust. Future interventions should address electronics, insulation, and building cross-contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Young
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Population Health Sciences, Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Russ Hauser
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tamarra M James-Todd
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brent A Coull
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hongkai Zhu
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aaron J Specht
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maya S Bliss
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joseph G Allen
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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23
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Cloud point extraction coupled with ultrasound-assisted back-extraction for determination of trace legacy and emerging brominated flame retardants in water using isotopic dilution high-performance liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 2021; 224:121713. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Turner A, Filella M. Lead in plastics - Recycling of legacy material and appropriateness of current regulations. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 404:124131. [PMID: 33049630 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry has been employed to measure Pb in a wide range of consumer and environmental plastics, including food-packaging material, household goods, electronic casings, beach litter and agricultural waste. Results reveal high concentrations of Pb (>1000 mg kg-1) in historical items that are still in use or circulation (e.g. toys, construction plastics, wiring insulation) and variable, but generally lower concentrations in more recently manufactured articles. Analysis of Br, Cl and Cr, proxies for brominated flame retardants, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and chromate pigments, respectively, suggests that as historical material is recycled, Pb from electronic plastics and pigments, but not PVC, is dispersed into a variety of newer products. Although most cases in the consumer sector comply with relevant EU Directives, some products that are non-compliant highlight shortfalls in regulations where recycling is involved and potential problems arising from the direct fashioning of industrial plastics into new consumer goods through attempts to be environmentally positive. The uncontrolled loss of historical and recycled plastics has also resulted in Pb contamination of the environment. Here, it is proposed that litter can be classified as hazardous depending on its Pb content and according to existing regulations that embrace consumer plastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Montserrat Filella
- Department F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
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25
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Paseiro-Cerrato R, Ackerman L, de Jager L, Begley T. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in contaminated food contact articles: identification using DART-HRMS and GC-MS. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:350-359. [PMID: 33406001 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1853250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Any food contact material (FCM) must be approved by the US FDA as being compliant with Title 21 of the Code of Federal regulations Parts 170-199, and/or obtain a non-objection letter through the Food Contact Notification Process, before being placed into the United States market. In the past years, several scientific articles identified FCM or more specifically, food contact articles (FCAs), which were contaminated with brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in the European Union. Prior research has suggested the source of BFR contamination was likely poorly recycled plastics containing waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). We conducted a retail survey to evaluate the presence of BFR-contaminated reusable FCA in the US market. Using a Direct Analysis in Real Time ionisation High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (DART-HRMS) screening technique and extraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmation we were able to identify BFRs present in retail FCAs. Among non-targeted retail samples, 4 of 49 reusable FCAs contained 1-4 BFRs each. The identified BFRs, found in greatest estimated concentrations, were 2,4,6-tribromophenol (TBP), 3,3',5,5'-tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) and decabromodiphenylether (BDE-209). A second targeted FCA sampling (n = 28) confirmed these BFRs persisted in similar articles. Combined sample sets (n = 77) estimated DART false-positive/negative incidences of 5% & 4%, respectively, for BFR screening of FCAs. Because the presence of BFRs in some contaminated FCAs has been demonstrated and since these compounds are possible migrants into food, further studies are warranted. In order to estimate the potential exposure of the identified BFRs and conduct corresponding risk assessments, the next and logical step will be to study the mass transfer of BFRs from the contaminated FCM into food simulants and food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Paseiro-Cerrato
- US FDA, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, USA.,Joint Institute for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (JIFSAN), University of Maryland , College Park, MD, USA
| | - Luke Ackerman
- US FDA, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Lowri de Jager
- US FDA, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Timothy Begley
- US FDA, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD, USA
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26
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Sharkey M, Harrad S, Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M, Drage DS, Berresheim H. Phasing-out of legacy brominated flame retardants: The UNEP Stockholm Convention and other legislative action worldwide. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 144:106041. [PMID: 32822924 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Due to their toxicity and persistence, several families of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been listed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Stockholm Convention, a multilateral treaty overseen by the United Nations Environment Programme. This treaty mandates that parties who have signed must take administrative and legislative actions to prevent the environmental impacts that POPs pose, both within their jurisdictions and in the global environment. The specific BFRs listed in the Stockholm Convention are Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), and Hexabromobiphenyl (HBB), chemicals which must therefore be heavily restricted within the jurisdictions of the signatories. As an example, within the EU, hexabromobiphenyl (HBB), the PBDE commercial mixtures, and HBCDD are almost entirely prohibited in terms of both production and use in commercial goods. Waste articles containing excess concentrations of these BFRs are similarly restricted and must be disposed of in a manner that destroys or irreversible transforms the BFR in question. In some cases, specific exemptions for these limits are defined by the Convention for certain parties: for example, Penta- and Octa-BDE can be present in waste materials for recycling until 2030, while Deca-BDE can be applied to some aviation and automotive applications until 2036. However, in such cases, very specific criteria and guidelines apply for their use and/or production. Worldwide, China, Japan, India, and the United States of America have made significant advances in the regulation of POPs, in line with the provisions of the Stockholm Convention. China has established concentration limits for Penta- and Octa-BDEs in electronic goods. It is also currently availing of an exemption to allow for the use of HBCDD and has not yet ratified the Convention with regards to Deca-BDE. Japan meanwhile has classified HBB and Penta-/Octa-BDE compounds as Class I Specified Chemical Substances which virtually prohibits the manufacture, import, and use of these chemicals in all applications. India has banned the manufacture, trade, import, and use of HBB, HBCDD and some PBDEs, and has established concentration limits for all PBDEs in certain electrical goods. Finally, the United States has no federal mandate for the restriction of POPs and has not ratified the annexes to the Convention requiring them to do so. However, thirteen states have implemented their own state-wide concentration limits on a variety of flame retarding chemicals in various commercial applications. Though these limits worldwide are a very positive step for the removal of POP-BFRs from the environment, the increased use of replacement flame retardants renders such legislation only partially effective. The lack of effective screening mechanisms in waste management facilities means that BFR-treated plastics can be inadvertently recycled and remain in circulation. The rise in the use of novel BFRs (NBFRs) can furthermore hinder screening methods currently being developed and the additives themselves may pose similar issues to their predecessors owing to their similar chemical properties. Thus, restrictions on current BFRs will result in the use of new flame retardants, which may in turn be banned and replaced once again. Further research into and development of methods to screen for hazardous chemicals in end of life materials is therefore of the utmost importance. This must be coupled with pro-active legislation that eliminates the need for using such persistent and potentially harmful chemicals in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Sharkey
- School of Physics, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland.
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assuit University, 72516 Assuit, Egypt
| | - Daniel S Drage
- School of Geography, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Harald Berresheim
- School of Physics, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
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Purchase D, Abbasi G, Bisschop L, Chatterjee D, Ekberg C, Ermolin M, Fedotov P, Garelick H, Isimekhai K, Kandile NG, Lundström M, Matharu A, Miller BW, Pineda A, Popoola OE, Retegan T, Ruedel H, Serpe A, Sheva Y, Surati KR, Walsh F, Wilson BP, Wong MH. Global occurrence, chemical properties, and ecological impacts of e-wastes (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2019-0502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The waste stream of obsolete electronic equipment grows exponentially, creating a worldwide pollution and resource problem. Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) comprises a heterogeneous mix of glass, plastics (including flame retardants and other additives), metals (including rare Earth elements), and metalloids. The e-waste issue is complex and multi-faceted. In examining the different aspects of e-waste, informal recycling in developing countries has been identified as a primary concern, due to widespread illegal shipments; weak environmental, as well as health and safety, regulations; lack of technology; and inadequate waste treatment structure. For example, Nigeria, Ghana, India, Pakistan, and China have all been identified as hotspots for the disposal of e-waste. This article presents a critical examination on the chemical nature of e-waste and the resulting environmental impacts on, for example, microbial biodiversity, flora, and fauna in e-waste recycling sites around the world. It highlights the different types of risk assessment approaches required when evaluating the ecological impact of e-waste. Additionally, it presents examples of chemistry playing a role in potential solutions. The information presented here will be informative to relevant stakeholders seeking to devise integrated management strategies to tackle this global environmental concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Purchase
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology , Middlesex University , The Burroughs , London NW4 4BT , UK
| | | | - Lieselot Bisschop
- Erasmus Initiative on Dynamics of Inclusive Prosperity & Erasmus School of Law , Erasmus University Rotterdam , P.O. Box 1738 – 3000 DR , Rotterdam , Netherlands
| | - Debashish Chatterjee
- Faculty of Analytical Chemistry , University of Kalyani , Kalyani , Nadia , 741235 , India
| | - Christian Ekberg
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling , Chalmers University of Technology , SE-41296 , Göteborg , Sweden
| | - Mikhail Ermolin
- National University of Science and Technology “MISiS” , 4 Leninsky Prospect , Moscow , 119049 , Russia
| | - Petr Fedotov
- V.I. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry , Russian Academy of Sciences , 19 Kosygin Street , Moscow , 119991 , Russia
| | - Hemda Garelick
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology , Middlesex University , The Burroughs , London NW4 4BT , UK
| | - Khadijah Isimekhai
- Ateda Ventures Limited , P.P. Box 13394 , Benin City , Edo State , Nigeria
| | - Nadia G. Kandile
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Women , Ain Shams University , Heliopolis , 11757 , Cairo , Egypt
| | - Mari Lundström
- Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering (CMET), School of Chemical Engineering , Aalto University , P.O. Box 16200 , AALTO , Finland
| | - Avtar Matharu
- Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence, Department of Chemistry , University of York , York , YO10 5DD , UK
| | | | - Antonio Pineda
- Departamento de Química Orgánica , Universidad de Córdoba, Edificio Marie Curie (C-3), Ctra Nnal IVa, Km 396 , Córdoba , E-14014 , Spain
| | - Oluseun E. Popoola
- Department of Chemical Science , Yaba College of Technology , Lagos , Nigeria
| | - Teodora Retegan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling , Chalmers University of Technology , SE-41296 , Göteborg , Sweden
| | - Heinz Ruedel
- Department Environmental Specimen Bank and Elemental Analysis , Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (Fraunhofer IME) , Schmallenberg , 57392 , Germany
| | - Angela Serpe
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICAAR) and INSTM Unit , University of Cagliari and Environmental Geology and Geoengineering Institute of the National Research Council (IGAG-CNR) , Via Marengo 2 , Cagliari , 09123 , Italy
| | | | - Kiran R. Surati
- Department of Chemistry , Sardar Patel University , Vallabh Vidyanagar , Anand , Gujarat , 388120 , India
| | - Fiona Walsh
- Maynooth University , Maynooth , Co Kildare , Ireland
| | - Benjamin P. Wilson
- Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering (CMET), School of Chemical Engineering , Aalto University , P.O. Box 16200 , AALTO , Finland
| | - Ming Hung Wong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Soil and Groundwater Pollution Control and State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control , Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China; Consortium on Health, Environment, Education and Research (CHEER), Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong , Tai Po , Hong Kong , China
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Mao S, Gu W, Bai J, Dong B, Huang Q, Zhao J, Zhuang X, Zhang C, Yuan W, Wang J. Migration characteristics of heavy metals during simulated use of secondary products made from recycled e-waste plastic. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 266:110577. [PMID: 32310119 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Recycling of plastics from e-waste can conserve resources, however, aging during the use of plastic products can cause the migration of heavy metals in additives. This study presents a methodology for evaluating the risks of heavy metals in waste plastic secondary products during long term use associated with heavy metal migration. The study processes were investigated by: (1) recycling waste plastics and producing secondary products; (2) thermal aging of secondary products; and (3) toxic leaching used to quantitatively analyse the dissolution of heavy metals. Combined with the changes in mechanical properties and microstructure, the effect of aging on the migration of heavy metals was observed. The results showed that the polymer appeared to delaminate, the adhesion of waste plastics to additives decreased, and the mechanical properties clearly decreased after the thermal aging experiment. Leaching experiments showed that the leached concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Sb in the three types waste plastic products increased over time. After 8 d of aging, the leached concentrations of Ni, Sb, and Pb exceeded the third, fourth, and third class of the groundwater quality standard, respectively. Specifically, the concentrations of Sb were 141, 289, and 21.1 times higher than the maximum permissible level. Therefore, management hierarchy and safe environmental recycling methods should be developed to reduce the risk of heavy metals in waste plastic secondary products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Mao
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Weihua Gu
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Jianfeng Bai
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China.
| | - Bin Dong
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Qing Huang
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Xuning Zhuang
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Chenglong Zhang
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Wenyi Yuan
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
| | - Jingwei Wang
- WEEE Research Centre of Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China; Research Center of Resource Recycling Science and Engineering, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, 201209, China
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Filella M, Hennebert P, Okkenhaug G, Turner A. Occurrence and fate of antimony in plastics. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 390:121764. [PMID: 32061422 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Antimony (Sb) is a technology critical element whose presence is ubiquitous in manufactured products, and in particular in plastics where it is used extensively as a flame retardant synergist for brominated compounds, as a catalyst for polyethylene terephthalate production, and as a pigment for colour. This study reviews the usage, regulations and fate of Sb in plastics by examining primary data on its production, applications, contents in and migration from manufactured objects, and presence in and release from waste, including the disposal and recycling routes for this material (i.e., non-controlled disposal, incineration, landfilling and recycling). Consumption of Sb and the relative apportioning of the metalloid between different uses in plastics change continuously and are largely driven by dynamic economic factors; accordingly, reference to secondary data or sources can be misleading. Since Sb is not recovered from plastics, its fate is entirely linked to the fate of plastics themselves which, as far as disposal and recycling are concerned, might be dictated by the presence of co-associated regulated substances such as brominated flame retardants. Significantly, because of the high leachability of Sb from bottom incineration ashes, the EU considers the metalloid as the most problematic substance regarding the potential reuse of this material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Montserrat Filella
- Department F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Pierre Hennebert
- INERIS (National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks), BP 2, F-60550, Verneuil-en-Halatte, France
| | - Gudny Okkenhaug
- Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), P.O. Box 3930 Ullevål Stadion, N-0806, Oslo, Norway; Norwegian University of Life Science (NMBU), Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway
| | - Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
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30
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Jandric A, Part F, Fink N, Cocco V, Mouillard F, Huber-Humer M, Salhofer S, Zafiu C. Investigation of the heterogeneity of bromine in plastic components as an indicator for brominated flame retardants in waste electrical and electronic equipment with regard to recyclability. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 390:121899. [PMID: 31879115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) can contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs) that pose a threat to human health and the environment. In addition, Br-containing plastics reduce the recycling potential of WEEE. In order to gain a better insight into the distribution of Br in plastics from WEEE, the total concentration of Br was measured on the level of device types and plastic components using handheld X-ray fluorescence (hXRF). In 35 % of the sample size (882 components from 369 different devices, which originate from 6 device types) Br was detected, 5 % exceeded the RoHS limit. Only few and older devices contained high Br concentrations, while the majority were below the RoHS limit and could be recycled. In addition, 18 different plastic types were identified by infrared spectroscopy, with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene being the most abundant (44 % of all samples). Manual dismantling of devices into individual plastic components enabled us to examine Br hotspots and the variety of plastic types in WEEE. Based on this analytical procedure, WEEE recyclers could exclude certain equipment or plastic components (e.g. power supplies or PC housings) directly on-site prior to WEEE recycling and shredding in order to produce high-quality recycled products and avoid cross-contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jandric
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - F Part
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria; Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute for Synthetic Bioarchitectures, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 11/II, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - N Fink
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - V Cocco
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
| | - F Mouillard
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - M Huber-Humer
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - S Salhofer
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - C Zafiu
- Department of Water-Atmosphere-Environment, Institute of Waste Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 107, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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31
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Guo J, Luo X, Tan S, Ogunseitan OA, Xu Z. Thermal degradation and pollutant emission from waste printed circuit boards mounted with electronic components. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 382:121038. [PMID: 31450210 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Waste printed circuit boards mounted with electronic components (WPCB-ECs) are generated from electronic waste dismantling and recycling process. Air-borne pollutants, including particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), can be released during thermal treatment of WPCB-CEs. In this study, organic substances from WPCB-ECs were pyrolyzed by both thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and in a quartz tube furnace. We discovered that board resin and solder coating were degraded in a one-stage process, whereas capacitor scarfskin and wire jacket had two degradation stages. Debromination of brominated flame retardants occurred, and HBr and phenol were the main products during TGA processing of board resin. Dehydrochlorination occurred, and HCl, benzene and toluene were detected during the pyrolysis of capacitor scarfskin. Benzene formation was found only in the first degradation stage (272-372 °C), while toluene was formed both in the two degradation stages. PM with bimodal mass size distributions at diameters of 0.45-0.5 and 4-5 μm were emitted during heating WPCB-ECs. The PM number concentrations were highest in the size ranges of 0.3-0.35 μm and 1.6-2 μm. The research produced new data on pollutant emissions during thermal treatment of WPCB-ECs, and information on strategies to prevent toxic exposures that compromise the health of recyclers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Guo
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China; Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomei Luo
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Shufei Tan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Oladele A Ogunseitan
- Department of Population Health and Disease Prevention & School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697-3957, USA
| | - Zhenming Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China.
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Turner A, Wallerstein C, Arnold R, Webb D. Marine pollution from pyroplastics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 694:133610. [PMID: 31398639 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Items of marine plastic litter are conventionally classified as primary or secondary, depending on whether they are distinct objects or angular fragments, respectively. "Pyroplastic" is an additional type of plastic litter that is described here, based on observations made on beached samples from south west England. Pyroplastics are derived from the informal or more organised burning of manufactured plastics and may be angular "plastiglomerates", comprising pieces of plastic debris within a matrix, or rounded plastic "pebbles", where agglomerated material has been weathered and smoothed into more brittle and neutrally-coloured geogenic-looking clasts. Beached pyroplastics are usually positively buoyant because of a polyethylene or polypropylene matrix, and exhibit a bimodal mass distribution attributed to the breakage of larger clasts (>20 mm) into smaller fragments (<5 mm). XRF analysis reveals variable quantities of Pb in the matrix (up to 7500 μg g-1), often in the presence of Cr, implying that material in many samples pre-dates restrictions on the use of lead chromate. Low concentrations of Br and Sb relative to pieces of manufactured plastics in the marine environment suggest that pyroplastics are not directly or indirectly derived from electronic plastic. Calcareous worm tubes on the surfaces of pyroplastics dense enough to be temporarily submerged in the circalittoral zone are enriched in Pb, suggesting that constituents within the matrix are partly bioavailable. Evading ready detection due to their striking visual similarity to geogenic material, pyroplastics may contribute to an underestimation of the stock of beached plastics in many cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Claire Wallerstein
- Rame Peninsula Beach Care, 56 Fore Street, Kingsand, Torpoint PL10 1NA, UK
| | - Rob Arnold
- Rame Peninsula Beach Care, 56 Fore Street, Kingsand, Torpoint PL10 1NA, UK
| | - Delia Webb
- Friends of Portheras Cove, Village Community Centre, Pendeen TR19 7SE, UK
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Shaw EJ, Turner A. Recycled electronic plastic and marine litter. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 694:133644. [PMID: 31756839 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Black consumer plastics are often contaminated with hazardous chemicals because of technological constraints on sorting dark plastic during recycling of municipal waste coupled with the convenience of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as a secondary source of black plastic. In this study, samples of beached plastic litter (n = 524) from southwest England were categorised according to origin, appearance and colour (black versus non-black) before being analysed by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry for elements that are characteristic of EEE. The small number of items of WEEE retrieved (n = 36) were largely restricted to wiring insulation and constructed of lead-stabilised polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Among the remaining samples, Br, Cd, Cr and Pb were commonly detected in all categories of black plastics (n = 264) with maximum concentrations of 43,400 mg kg-1, 2080 mg kg-1, 662 mg kg-1 and 23,800 mg kg-1, respectively. Moreover, concentrations of Br were significantly correlated with concentrations of the flame retardant synergist, Sb (n = 22), and 35 samples were potentially non-compliant with regard to limits defined by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive. For plastics of other colours (n = 224), Br and Pb were detected in fewer samples and Br was co-associated with Sb in only two cases, with occasional high concentrations Cd, Cr and Pb largely attributed to the historical use of cadmium sulphide and lead chromate pigments. An avian physiologically-based extraction test applied to selected samples cut to mm-dimensions revealed bioaccessibilities ranging from <0.1% for Cr in a green fragment to about 2.4% (or about 580 mg kg-1) for Pb in black PVC. The recycling of WEEE into consumer, industrial and marine (e.g. fishing) plastics that are mainly coloured black appears to be an important vehicle for the introduction of hazardous chemicals into the environment and a source of their exposure to wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma J Shaw
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Salam M, Varma A. Bacterial community structure in soils contaminated with electronic waste pollutants from Delhi NCR, India. ELECTRON J BIOTECHN 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2019.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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Turner A, Wallerstein C, Arnold R. Identification, origin and characteristics of bio-bead microplastics from beaches in western Europe. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 664:938-947. [PMID: 30769317 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Primary microplastics have been collected from 17 beaches along the Atlantic, English Channel and southern North Sea coasts of western Europe. Based on visual characteristics, these plastics were differentiated as either relatively smooth, lentil- or disc-shaped pre-production pellets (or nurdles), which were usually a few mm in diameter and were mainly white to off-white, or rougher and more irregular pellets that were slightly larger and usually black. The latter appeared to be bio-beads, or plastics that are specifically manufactured for use as biomedia in certain sewage water treatment (SWT) plants and, possibly, in other industrial wastewater treatment applications. Identification of bio-beads was confirmed following the acquisition of identical samples from a SWT plant in southwest England and a French supplier of bio-beads. Infrared and x-ray fluorescence analysis revealed that bio-beads have, at least historically, been constructed of plasticised polyethylene and, unlike pre-production pellets, contained variable quantities of potentially toxic elements: Br, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb and Sb; with a distinctive Br to Sb ratio indicative of brominated flame retardants and antimony-based retardant synergists. It is asserted that bio-beads have been manufactured from a heterogeneous mix of recycled polyethylene and end-of-life electrical and electronic plastic, with concentrations of Br, Cd, Cr or Pb in about 50 bio-beads (out of 497 analysed) non-compliant or potentially non-compliant with respect to current regulations on hazardous plastic waste. Concentrations of Br, Cd, Cr, Pb and Sb extracted from individual bio-beads by a simulated avian digestive fluid were variable, with maximum values of about 14, 0.8, 1.3, 20 and 1.4 μg g-1, respectively. The presence and, in many cases, dominance of bio-beads among beached primary microplastics is discussed with regard to the classification of microplastics and potential impacts on wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Claire Wallerstein
- Rame Peninsula Beach Care, 56 Fore Street, Kingsand, Torpoint PL10 1NA, UK
| | - Rob Arnold
- Rame Peninsula Beach Care, 56 Fore Street, Kingsand, Torpoint PL10 1NA, UK
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Turner A. Cadmium pigments in consumer products and their health risks. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 657:1409-1418. [PMID: 30677907 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal that has been increasingly regulated over the past few decades. The main exposure routes for the general public are the consumption of certain foods and the inhalation of cigarette smoke. However, additional exposure may occur through the current and historical use of the metal in consumer products. In this paper, the uses of Cd in consumer goods are reviewed, with the focus on brightly-coloured Cd sulphide and sulphoselenide pigments, and measurements of Cd in historical and contemporary products ascertained by XRF are reported. Cadmium is encountered across a wide range of contemporary plastic products, mainly because of the unregulated recycling of electronic waste and polyvinyl chloride. However, concentrations are generally low (<100 μg g-1), conforming with current limits and posing minimal risk to consumers. Of greater concern is high concentrations of pigmented Cd (up to 2% by weight) in old products, and in particular children's toys that remain in circulation. Here, tests conducted suggest that Cd migration in some products exceeds the Toy Safety Directive limit of 17 μg g-1 by an order of magnitude. The principal current use of Cd pigments is in ceramic products where the metal is encapsulated and overglazed. Leaching tests on new and secondhand items of hollowware indicate compliance with respect to the current Cd limit of 300 μg L-1, but that non-compliance could occur for items of earthenware or damaged articles should a proposed limit of 5 μg L-1 be introduced. The greatest consumer risk identified is the use of Cd pigments in the enamels of decorated drinking glasses. Thus, while décor is restricted to the exterior, any enamel within the lip area is subject to ready attack from acidic beverages because the pigments are neither encapsulated nor overglazed. Glass bottles decorated with Cd-based enamel do not appear to represent a direct health hazard but have the propensity to contaminate recycled glass products. It is recommended that decorated glassware is better regulated and that old, brightly-coloured toys are treated cautiously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Cao Z, Chen Q, Li X, Zhang Y, Ren M, Sun L, Wang M, Liu X, Yu G. The non-negligible environmental risk of recycling halogenated flame retardants associated with plastic regeneration in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 646:1090-1096. [PMID: 30235595 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To investigate halogenated flame retardant (HFR) contents in recycled plastic materials, 23 recycled plastic samples manufactured in five Chinese provinces were randomly purchased online, and the ∑12HFR concentrations of these samples (including 8 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs, BDE 28, 47, 99, 100, 154, 153, 183 and 209), decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), and 2 dechlorane plus isomers (DP, syn-DP and anti-DP)) varied from ND to 169,000 ng g-1 (mean ± SD, 46,900 ± 44,700 ng g-1). BDE 209 and DBDPE were the dominant components and their concentration ranges were from ND to 106,000 ng g-1 and ND to 81,900 ng g-1, respectively. Generally, the HFR content and plastic variety closely correlate, and the ∑HFR concentrations in the polyvinyl chloride (PVC, N = 5), polypropylene (PP, N = 9), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS, N = 5), polystyrene (PS, N = 1) and polyethylene (PE, N = 3) samples were 65,300 ± 42,400, 36,700 ± 56,000, 30,000 ± 25,200, 24,300 and 4330 ± 7500 ng g-1, respectively. The HFR abundance in plastic from Guangdong (76,000 ± 56,400 ng g-1, N = 7) and Hebei (37,500 ± 11,500 ng g-1, N = 4) was much higher than that for other provinces/cities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiguo Cao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Qiaoying Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Yacai Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Meihui Ren
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Lifang Sun
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Mengmeng Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, China
| | - Xiaotu Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China.
| | - Gang Yu
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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Yang C, Harris SA, Jantunen LM, Siddique S, Kubwabo C, Tsirlin D, Latifovic L, Fraser B, St-Jean M, De La Campa R, You H, Kulka R, Diamond ML. Are cell phones an indicator of personal exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers? ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 122:104-116. [PMID: 30522823 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to organophosphate ester (OPE) flame retardants and plasticizers is widespread and is of concern due to their toxicity. OBJECTIVES To investigate relationships between and within OPE concentrations in air, dust, hands, electronic product wipes and urinary metabolites with the goal of identifying product sources and exposure pathways. METHODS Women in Toronto and Ottawa, Canada, provided a urine sample, two sets of hand wipes, access to their homes for air and dust sampling, and completed a questionnaire. OPE concentrations were obtained for air and floor dust in the bedroom (n = 51) and most used room (n = 26), hand wipes (n = 204), and surface wipes of handheld (n = 74) and non-handheld electronic devices (n = 125). All air, dust and wipe samples were analyzed for 23 OPE compounds; urine samples (n = 44) were analyzed for 8 OPE metabolites. RESULTS Five-8 OPEs were detected in >80% of samples depending on the sample type. OPE median concentrations in hand wipes taken 3 weeks apart were not significantly different. Palms had higher concentrations than the back of hands; both were significantly correlated. Concentrations of 9 OPEs were significantly higher in surface wipes of handheld than non-handheld electronic devices. Six OPEs in hand wipes were significantly correlated with cell phone wipes, with two to four OPEs significantly correlated with tablet, laptop and television wipes. Multiple regression models using hand wipes, cell phone wipes and dust explained 8-33% of the variation in creatinine-adjusted urinary metabolites; air concentrations did not have explanatory power. OPEs in cell phone wipes explained the greatest variation in urinary metabolites. CONCLUSIONS Handheld electronic devices, notably cell phones, may either be sources or indicators of OPE exposure through hand-to-mouth and/or dermal uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congqiao Yang
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shelley A Harris
- Population Health and Prevention, Prevention and Cancer Control, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Occupational Cancer Research Centre, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Liisa M Jantunen
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Egbert, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shabana Siddique
- Exposure and Biomonitoring Division, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cariton Kubwabo
- Exposure and Biomonitoring Division, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dina Tsirlin
- Population Health and Prevention, Prevention and Cancer Control, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lidija Latifovic
- Population Health and Prevention, Prevention and Cancer Control, Cancer Care Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bruce Fraser
- Exposure Assessment Section, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Melissa St-Jean
- Exposure Assessment Section, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Regina De La Campa
- Exposure Assessment Section, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hongyu You
- Exposure Assessment Section, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ryan Kulka
- Exposure Assessment Section, Water and Air Quality Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Dong S, Lou Q, Huang G, Guo J, Wang X, Huang T. Dispersive solid-phase extraction based on MoS2/carbon dot composite combined with HPLC to determine brominated flame retardants in water. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:7337-7346. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1342-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Gravel S, Lavoué J, Labrèche F. Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in American and Canadian workers: Biomonitoring data from two national surveys. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 631-632:1465-1471. [PMID: 29727970 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame retardants commonly found in many household and industrial products. They can be detected in the serum of the general population, and in even higher concentrations in workers of certain industries, due to an additional occupational exposure. The purpose of this analysis is to determine background exposure levels of PBDEs in the general working population, using national surveys where working status was self-reported. Participants aged 20-65 were selected from the 2003-2004 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (n=1141) and the 2007-2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey (n=1337). Only four congeners were detected in at least 25% of samples for both surveys: BDE47, 99, 100 and 153. NHANES workers had a geometric mean (GM [95% C.I.]) BDE47 concentration of 20.9ng/g lipids [19.3, 22.7], and CHMS workers, 11.4ng/g lipids [10.8, 12.1]. PBDE levels were not statistically significantly different between workers and non-workers, except for BDE153 in CHMS. Among workers, women had a significantly lower concentration of BDE153 than men in both surveys (% change [95% C.I.] with 1ng/g lipid increase: -33.4% [-49.0, -12.9] in NHANES, -18.8% [-27.5, - 8.9] in CHMS), in regressions adjusted for age, body mass index, smoking status, ethnicity and education. CHMS workers in the Information, finance, real-estate, and education industry group had significantly higher BDE47 concentrations than non-workers. These results indicate a high exposure to PBDEs in two North American countries, compared to data from other national surveys. The heterogeneity of the data did not permit a clear-cut distinction between workers and non-workers. Sex differences noted with BDE153 are consistent with those reported in other human exposure assessments and animal studies. Overall, industry-specific concentrations showed no particular pattern across both surveys. Despite some limitations, these data provide a useful estimate of the background exposure to PBDEs in American and Canadian workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Gravel
- School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - Jérôme Lavoué
- School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de recherche du centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - France Labrèche
- School of Public Health, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Institut de recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en sécurité du travail, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Turner A. Black plastics: Linear and circular economies, hazardous additives and marine pollution. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 117:308-318. [PMID: 29778831 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Black products constitute about 15% of the domestic plastic waste stream, of which the majority is single-use packaging and trays for food. This material is not, however, readily recycled owing to the low sensitivity of black pigments to near infrared radiation used in conventional plastic sorting facilities. Accordingly, there is mounting evidence that the demand for black plastics in consumer products is partly met by sourcing material from the plastic housings of end-of-life waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE). Inefficiently sorted WEEE plastic has the potential to introduce restricted and hazardous substances into the recyclate, including brominated flame retardants (BFRs), Sb, a flame retardant synergist, and the heavy metals, Cd, Cr, Hg and Pb. The current paper examines the life cycles of single-use black food packaging and black plastic WEEE in the context of current international regulations and directives and best practices for sorting, disposal and recycling. The discussion is supported by published and unpublished measurements of restricted substances (including Br as a proxy for BFRs) in food packaging, EEE plastic goods and non-EEE plastic products. Specifically, measurements confirm the linear economy of plastic food packaging and demonstrate a complex quasi-circular economy for WEEE plastic that results in significant and widespread contamination of black consumer goods ranging from thermos cups and cutlery to tool handles and grips, and from toys and games to spectacle frames and jewellery. The environmental impacts and human exposure routes arising from WEEE plastic recycling and contamination of consumer goods are described, including those associated with marine pollution. Regarding the latter, a compilation of elemental data on black plastic litter collected from beaches of southwest England reveals a similar chemical signature to that of contaminated consumer goods and blended plastic WEEE recyclate, exemplifying the pervasiveness of the problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Hennebert P, Filella M. WEEE plastic sorting for bromine essential to enforce EU regulation. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2018; 71:390-399. [PMID: 29030119 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The plastics of waste of electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) are improved for fire safety by flame retardants, and particularly brominated flame retardants (BFR). As waste, the management of these plastic fractions must comply with the update of the regulation of waste hazard classification (2014, 2017), the publication of a technical standard on management of WEEE (2015), and a restriction of use for decabromodiphenylether in the product regulation (2017). Data of bromine (n=4283) and BFR concentrations (n=98) in plastics from electric and electronic equipment (EEE), and from WEEE processing facilities before and after sorting for bromine in four sites in France have been studied for chemical composition and for regulatory classification. The WEEE was analysed by handheld X-ray fluorescence, and the waste was sorted after shredding, by on-line X-ray transmission for total bromine content (< or > 2000 mg/kg) in small household appliances (SHA), cathode ray tubes (CRT) and flat screens plastics. In equipment (n=347), 15% of the equipment items have no bromine, while 46% have at least one part with bromine, and 39% have all parts brominated. The bromine concentration in plastics is very heterogeneous, found in high concentrations in large household appliance (LHA) plastics, and also found in unexpected product categories, as observed by other authors. Clearly, an unwanted global loop of brominated substances occurs via the international recycling of plastic scrap. In waste (n=65), polybromobiphenyls, polybromodiphenylethers (PBDE), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecane were analysed. The most concentrated BFRs are decaBDE (3000 mg/kg) and TBBPA (8000 mg/kg). The bromine concentration of regulated brominated substances was identified in 2014 and 2015 to be up to 86% of total bromine in "old" waste (SHA, CRT), 30-50% in "younger" waste (Flat screens), and a mean of only 8% in recent products (2009-2013). Regulated substances are a minority of all the brominated substances and the only practical way to sort is to measure total bromine on-line. The sorting reduces the mean bromine concentration in the "Low Br" fraction in all sites, and reduces the decaBDE concentration to levels below the restricted use limit. After sorting, the concentration in the "High Br" fractions exceeds all present or future regulatory limits. In conclusion, sorting of small household appliances, cathode ray tubes and flat screen plastics is necessary to avoid uncontrolled dispersion of regulated substances in recycled raw material. Other categories (large household appliances, electric and electronic tools, lighting equipment) should also be considered, since their total bromine content (unweighted mean concentration) is high for some of these products. A European campaign consisting of 7 countries and 35 sites will begin in 2017, directed by WEEE Forum, the European association speaking for thirty-one not-for-profit e-waste producer responsibility organisations, to assess the mean bromine content of plastics from large household appliances after shredding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Hennebert
- INERIS (National Institute for Industrial Environment and Risks), BP 2, F-60550 Verneuil-en-Halatte, France.
| | - Montserrat Filella
- Institute F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland
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