Integration of five groups of POPs into one multi-analyte method for human blood serum analysis: An innovative approach within biomonitoring studies

Evaluation of the Body Burden of Short- and Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in the Blood Serum of Residents of the Czech Republic

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs) are environmental contaminants known for their persistence and bioaccumulation in fatty tissues. SCCPs are considered potential carcinogens and endocrine disruptors, with similar effects expected for MCCPs. This study investigated the body burden of SCCPs and MCCPs in residents of two regions of the Czech Republic with different levels of industrial pollution. Blood serum samples from 62 individuals in Ceske Budejovice (control area) and Ostrava (industrial area) were analysed. The results showed higher concentrations of SCCPs (<120-650 ng/g lipid weight (lw)) and MCCPs (<240-1530 ng/g lw) in Ostrava compared to Ceske Budejovice (SCCPs: <120-210 ng/g lw, MCCPs: <240-340 ng/g lw). The statistical analysis revealed no significant correlations between chemical concentrations and demographic variables such as age, BMI, or gender. The findings are consistent with European and Australian studies but significantly lower than levels reported in China. This is the first comprehensive survey of SCCPs and MCCPs in human blood serum in the Czech Republic and the second study in Europe. The data collected in this study are essential for assessing SCCPs and MCCPs. They will contribute to a better understanding the potential health risks associated with exposure to these chemicals.

PBDEs and dechlorane plus contamination in community e-waste recycling: Environmental and health implications in Northeastern Thailand

Electronic waste (e-waste) poses significant environmental and health risks in Thailand due to both domestic production and international imports. A notable portion of this waste is processed in small-scale, community-based workshops, often located in poorer regions, where safety regulations are improperly enforced or entirely ignored. This study focuses on the Kalasin province in Northern Thailand, a region with numerous such workshops, where no comprehensive analysis of exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and dechlorane plus (DP) has been conducted. The study's objective was to quantify these toxic substances in environmental and biological samples to assess its contamination and human health risks. Environmental samples, including soil, dust, sediment, ash, eggs, crabs, snails, fish, and rice, were collected from e-waste processing sites and compared with control areas. Blood samples from e-waste workers and a control group were also analysed. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry operated in negative ion chemical ionization (GC-NCI-MS) was used to quantify PBDEs and DP isomers. Results showed significantly higher concentrations of these toxic compounds in e-waste sites compared to control areas. E-waste workers also had elevated levels of these substances in their blood, suggesting exposure through contaminated dust and food. These findings underscore the severe environmental contamination and health risks associated with improper e-waste management, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory measures and improved recycling practices to safeguard both environmental and public health.

Suspect and non-target screening of chemicals of emerging Arctic concern in biota, air and human serum

Contaminants of emerging concern receive increasing attention in the Arctic environment. The aim of this study was to screen for chemicals of emerging Arctic concern (CEACs) in different types of Arctic samples including biota, air and human serum. We used a combination of gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) with high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for suspect and non-target screening (NTS). Suspect screening of 25 CEACs was based on published in-silico approaches for the identification of CEACs and revealed tetrabromophthalic anhydride (TBPA) in pilot whale and air, albeit with low detection frequencies (17 and 33%, respectively). An NTS workflow detected 49, 42, 31 and 30 compounds in pilot whale, ringed seal, air, and human serum, respectively, at confidence level 2 and 3. Although legacy POPs still dominated the samples, 64 CEACs were tentatively identified and further assessed for persistence (P), bioaccumulation (B), mobility (M), toxicity (T), and long-range transport potential (LRTP). While four PBT compounds were identified, 37 PMT substances dominated among these 64 compounds. Our study indicated that many chemicals of potential risk might be present in Arctic samples and would benefit from confirmation and further studies of their transport to and accumulation in the Arctic environment.

An exposome atlas of serum reveals the risk of chronic diseases in the Chinese population

Although adverse environmental exposures are considered a major cause of chronic diseases, current studies provide limited information on real-world chemical exposures and related risks. For this study, we collected serum samples from 5696 healthy people and patients, including those with 12 chronic diseases, in China and completed serum biomonitoring including 267 chemicals via gas and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Seventy-four highly frequently detected exposures were used for exposure characterization and risk analysis. The results show that region is the most critical factor influencing human exposure levels, followed by age. Organochlorine pesticides and perfluoroalkyl substances are associated with multiple chronic diseases, and some of them exceed safe ranges. Multi-exposure models reveal significant risk effects of exposure on hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome and hyperuricemia. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive human serum exposome atlas and disease risk information, which can guide subsequent in-depth cause-and-effect studies between environmental exposures and human health.

Update of the risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2011 risk assessment on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food, focusing on 10 congeners: BDE-28, -47, -49, -99, -100, -138, -153, -154, -183 and ‑209. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the neurodevelopmental effects on behaviour and reproductive/developmental effects are the critical effects in rodent studies. For four congeners (BDE-47, -99, -153, -209) the Panel derived Reference Points, i.e. benchmark doses and corresponding lower 95% confidence limits (BMDLs), for endpoint-specific benchmark responses. Since repeated exposure to PBDEs results in accumulation of these chemicals in the body, the Panel estimated the body burden at the BMDL in rodents, and the chronic intake that would lead to the same body burden in humans. For the remaining six congeners no studies were available to identify Reference Points. The Panel concluded that there is scientific basis for inclusion of all 10 congeners in a common assessment group and performed a combined risk assessment. The Panel concluded that the combined margin of exposure (MOET) approach was the most appropriate risk metric and applied a tiered approach to the risk characterisation. Over 84,000 analytical results for the 10 congeners in food were used to estimate the exposure across dietary surveys and age groups of the European population. The most important contributors to the chronic dietary Lower Bound exposure to PBDEs were meat and meat products and fish and seafood. Taking into account the uncertainties affecting the assessment, the Panel concluded that it is likely that current dietary exposure to PBDEs in the European population raises a health concern.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) metabolites exposure with lung function alternation in the Chinese general adults

Exposure of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) pesticide was suggested to be associated with adverse effects on the respiratory system. However, the effects of DDT exposure on lung function remain unclear. Our objectives were to investigate the potential associations of internal levels of DDT and its metabolites including dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) with lung function. Serum DDT, DDE, and DDD concentrations and lung function were measured among 3968 general adults from the Wuhan-Zhuhai cohort. The cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of serum DDT and its metabolites with lung function were assessed using linear mixed models. The results showed negative dose-response relationships of serum DDT, DDE, and DDD levels with forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1). In the cross-sectional analyses, each 1-unit increase in natural log-transformed values of p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDE, or p,p'-DDD was significantly associated with a 25.77-, 44.84-, 51.13-, or 43.44-mL decrease in FVC, respectively. Each 1-unit increase in natural log-transformed values of o,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDD, or p,p'-DDD was significantly associated with a 35.72-, 31.87-, 29.54-, or 36.80-mL decrease in FEV1, respectively. In the three-year longitudinal analyses, each 1-unit increase in natural log-transformed serum p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE was significantly associated with a 35.10 mL and 36.38 mL decrease in FVC, and a 26.32 mL and 32.37 mL decrease in FEV1, respectively. In conclusion, DDT and its metabolites exposure were associated with lung function decline in the general Chinese adult population.

Validation of a Method Scope Extension for Simple Biomonitoring of 353 Pollutants in Serum Samples

Animals and humans are exposed to various residues that can have a detrimental impact on health, including carcinogenic potential, endocrine disruption, or fatal toxicity. The toxic burden can be evaluated in several biological samples, with serum being one of the preferred and most convenient options. In this study, we have applied and validated a method for detecting several hundred toxins in serum samples. This technique involved a single-step QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) extraction followed by analysis using gas and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. With this methodology, we could detect and quantify up to 353 compounds, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and rodenticides, using just 250 µL of serum. Among them, 92% could be measured at concentrations below 1.25 ng/mL, making it ideal for biomonitoring. We applied this method to samples collected from camels (n = 40) and humans (n = 25). We detected naproxen, ketoprofen, paracetamol, levamisole, and some POPs in these samples. This study validated the ability to simultaneously detect a broad range of compounds in small volumes of serum.

Screening strategy for 1210 exogenous chemicals in serum by two-dimensional liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Humans are at risk of exogenous exposure to exogenous chemicals. Challenges exist for the comprehensive monitoring of residues with different physical and chemical properties in serum. Here, an on-line two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) - high resolution mass spectrometry system (HRMS) was developed, expanding the range of the partition coefficient in octanol/water of the residue analysis from -8 to 12. A high-coverage serum residue screening strategy was further designed by integrating 2D-LC system with HRMS full MS/data independent acquisition and automatic spectral library searching. This strategy enables to simultaneously screen 1210 pesticides, veterinary/human drugs, other chemical pollutants and their metabolites in serum with a single analysis. Method validation showed 92% and 81% of 1022 residues spiked in serum could be detected at 50 ng/mL and 5 ng/mL, respectively. The developed method was applied to the analysis of 24 separately pooled serum samples, 58 suspect residues were found, some of them were detected at high frequencies over than 50%. Among them, 4,6-Dinitro-O-cresol and probable carcinogenic folpet are highly toxic, and cimaterol is banned in China. Collectively, this study developed a 2D-LC-HRMS -based screening strategy for screening pesticides, veterinary/human drugs, and other chemical pollutants in serum, it is helpful for studying the effect of exogenous exposures on human health.

Ant nest-like hierarchical porous imprinted resin-dispersive solid-phase extraction for selective extraction and determination of polychlorinated biphenyls in milk

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent toxic, organic chemicals that tend to accumulate in the food chain. This study reports the rapid and selective extraction and determination of PCBs (PCB81, 153, 105, 126, and 157) in milk samples by a dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE) coupled with gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). An ionic liquid-molecularly imprinted porous resin (IL-MIPPR) as a DSPE adsorbent was synthesized from m-aminophenol, formaldehyde, and 2,2'-benzidinedisulfonic acid as the monomer, crosslinker, and virtual template, respectively. The IL-MIPPR had a fast mass transfer (1.0 min) and good selectivity (imprinting factors of 1.8-3.0). The IL-MIPPR - DSPE - GC-MS/MS method exhibited good linearity (R² ≥ 0.9995), the limit of detections (LODs) < 0.6 pg/g, and the recoveries ranged from 82.8 % to 106 % with relative standard deviations ≤ 6.6 %. This method is thus better than previously reported methods in terms of the LOD, the adsorbent dosage, and the extraction time.

Exposure to Novel Brominated Flame Retardants and Organophosphate Esters and Associations with Thyroid Cancer Risk: A Case-Control Study in Eastern China

Novel brominated flame retardant (NBFR) and organophosphate ester (OPE) exposure may engender adverse effects on human health. However, present epidemiological information regarding the effects of such exposure is limited and controversial. In this case-control study, 481 serum samples were collected from patients with thyroid cancer (n = 242) and healthy controls (n = 239) in Shandong Province, eastern China. The levels of NBFRs and OPEs, thyroid hormones, and serum lipid parameters were measured in all the participants. Pentabromotoluene, 2,3-dibromopropyl 2,4,6 tribromophenyl ether, decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) were widely detected (detection frequency > 60%) in all the participants. A significantly high risk association was found between exposure of NBFRs and OPEs (namely 1,2,3,4,5-pentabromobenzene, DBDPE, tri-n-propyl phosphate, tri[(2R)-1-chloro-2-propyl] phosphate, tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate, and tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate) and thyroid cancer in both males and females. In the females of the control group, TCEP levels exhibited a significantly positive association with thyroid-stimulating hormone and a negative association with triiodothyronine (T3), free triiodothyronine (FT3), and free thyroxine (FT4) levels. Weighted quantile sum regression evaluated the mixed effects of the compounds on thyroid hormones levels and thyroid cancer. As a result, TPP accounted for the majority of the T3, thyroxine, and FT3 amounts. Our results suggest that NBFR and OPE exposure contributes to alterations in thyroid function, thereby increasing thyroid cancer risk.

Methods for the analysis of endocrine disrupting chemicals in selected environmental matrixes

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are heterogenous in structure, chemical and physical properties, and their capacity to partition into various environmental matrixes. In many cases, these chemicals can disrupt the endocrine systems of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms when present at very low concentrations. Therefore, sensitive and varied analytical methods are required to detect these compounds in the environment. This review summarizes the analytical methods and instruments that are most used to monitor for EDCs in selected environmental matrixes. Only those matrixes for which there is a clear link between exposures and endocrine effects are included in this review. Also discussed are emerging methods for sample preparation and advanced analytical instruments that provide greater selectivity and sensitivity.

Critical review of analytical methods for the determination of flame retardants in human matrices

Human biomonitoring is a powerful approach in assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Flame retardants (FRs) are of particular concern due to their wide distribution in the environment and adverse health effects. This article reviews studies published in 2009-2020 on the chemical analysis of FRs in a variety of human samples and discusses the characteristics of the analytical methods applied to different FR biomarkers of exposure, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), novel halogenated flame retardants (NHFRs), bromophenols, incl. tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and organophosphorous flame retardants (PFRs). Among the extraction techniques, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE) were used most frequently due to the good efficiencies in the isolation of the majority of the FR biomarkers, but with challenges for highly lipophilic FRs. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is mainly applied in the instrumental analysis of PBDEs and most NHFRs, with recent inclusions of GC-MS/MS and high resolution MS techniques. Liquid chromatography-MS/MS is mainly applied to HBCD, bromophenols, incl. TBBPA, and PFRs (including metabolites), however, GC-based analysis following derivatization has also been used for phenolic compounds and PFR metabolites. Developments are noticed towards more universal analytical methods, which enable widening method scopes in the human biomonitoring of FRs. Challenges exist with regard to sensitivity required for the low concentrations of FRs in the general population and limited sample material for some human matrices. A strong focus on quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) measures is required in the analysis of FR biomarkers in human samples, related to their variety of physical-chemical properties, low levels in most human samples and the risk of contamination.

Application of 96-well plate SPE method for analysis of persistent organic pollutants in low volume blood serum samples

Though many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are closely regulated the human population is still exposed to these ubiquitous chemicals from the environment and diet. Safe management and human biomonitoring of POPs is necessary to understand the risk of exposure. Within human biomonitoring the mass of sample is often limited, therefore robust methods using smaller sample amounts are necessary. This study developed a 96-well plate solid phase extraction (SPE) method for determination of selected POPs: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and non-persistent novel flame retardants (NFRs) in low volume blood serum. Non-destructive clean-up coupling Oasis HLB extraction plate with Phree phospholipid removal plate was employed. Extraction efficiency was determined at low and high concentrations in certified reference materials NIST SRM 1957 and 1958, respectively. Target compounds deviated from certified values on average by 15% and 21% for SRM 1957 and SRM 1958, respectively. Observed limit of detections (LODs) ranged from 0.36 pg/mL (PCB 180) to 66.07 pg/mL (δ-HCH). The applicability for real samples is demonstrated on 48 samples from pregnant women enrolled in the pilot phase of the CELSPAC: TNG study. In total, 30 target compounds were detected in at least one sample. The method developed here provides a fast and reliable analysis of human blood serum with possibility to introduce automation for the sample preparation procedure.

Biomonitoring of 89 POPs in blood serum samples of Czech city policemen

In this biomonitoring study, we evaluated the concentrations of 8 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 11 organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs), 33 brominated flame retardants (BFRs), 7 novel brominated and chlorinated flame retardants (novel FRs) and 30 per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) in human serum samples (n = 274). A total of 89 persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were measured in blood serum samples of city policemen living in three large cities and their adjacent areas (Ostrava, Prague, and Ceske Budejovice) in the Czech Republic. All samples were collected during the year 2019 in two sampling periods (spring and autumn). The identification/quantification of PCBs, OCPs, BFRs, novel FRs and PFAS was performed by means of gas chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry (GC-MS/(MS)) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The most frequently detected pollutants were perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), 2,2',3,4,4',5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB 138), 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB 153), 2,2',3,3',4,4',5-heptachlorobiphenyl (CB 170), 2,2',3,4,4',5,5'-heptachlorobiphenyl (CB 180), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) quantified in 100% of serum samples. In the serum samples, the concentrations of determined POPs were in the range of 0.108-900 ng g^-1 lipid weight (lw) for PCBs, 0.106-1016 ng g^-1 lw for OCPs, <0.1-618 ng g^-1 lw for FRs and <0.01-18.3 ng mL^-1 for PFAS, respectively. Locality, sampling season, and age were significantly associated with several POP concentrations. One of the important conclusions was that within the spring sampling period, statistically significant higher concentrations of CB 170 and CB 180 were observed in the samples from Ostrava (industrial area) compared to Prague and Ceske Budejovice. Older policemen had higher concentrations of five PCBs and two OCPs in blood serum.

Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the quantitation of 30 legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in human plasma, including HFPO-DA, DONA, and cC6O4

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) include persistent organic pollutants whose spread is still ubiquitous. Efforts to substitute substances of high concern with fluorinated alternatives, such as HFPO-DA (GenX), DONA (ADONA), and cC6O4, have been made. The aim of this work was to develop and validate an isotopic dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method suitable to quantify 30 PFASs in human plasma. Analytes included legacy PFASs (PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS), fluorinated alternatives (PFBA, PFBS, 6:2 FTSA, HFPO-DA, DONA, and cC6O4), and newly identified compounds (F-53B and PFECHS). The sample preparation was rapid and consisted of simple protein precipitation and centrifugation. Calibration standards and quality control solutions were prepared with a human pooled plasma containing relatively low background levels of the considered analytes. A complete validation was carried out: the lower limits of quantitation (LLOQs) ranged from 0.009 to 0.245 µg/L; suitable linearity (determination coefficients, R² 0.989–0.999), precision (2.0–19.5%, relative standard deviation), and accuracy (87.9–113.1% of theoretical) were obtained for considered concentration ranges. No significant variations of analyte responses were recorded under investigated storage conditions and during matrix effect tests. The external verification confirmed the accuracy of the method, although limited to 12 analytes. The method was also applied to 38 human plasma samples to confirm its applicability. The developed assay is suitable for large-scale analyses of a wide range of legacy and emerging PFASs in human plasma. To our knowledge, this is the first published method including cC6O4 for human biomonitoring.

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in human blood serum of Czech population

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs; MCCPs) are widespread environmental pollutants with bioaccumulation potential and adverse effects on human health. The analysis of blood serum is an important strategy to assess the human exposure to various contaminants, including SCCPs and MCCPs. Lately, the information about the exposure of Chinese population has been reported; nevertheless, data on human exposure to SCCPs and MCCPs outside East Asia are still very limited. In this pilot study, SCCPs and MCCPs were determined in 27 serum samples obtained from Czech adults. The samples were extracted by a three-step extraction (repeated with a clean solvent) by a mixture of n-hexane:diethyl ether (9:1, v/v) with subsequent clean-up on Florisil® solid phase extraction column. Gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry operated in negative chemical ionisation was employed for the instrumental analysis. The method recoveries ranged from 71 to 89% with repeatabilities of <20% (expressed as relative standard deviation). In the samples, SCCP concentrations were in the range of <150-2600 ng/g lipid weight, lw (median 370 ng/g lw) and the MCCP concentrations were in the range of <200-2110 ng/g lw (median 360 ng/g lw), respectively. To the best of our knowledge, our reported results are the first data about chlorinated paraffins in human blood serum in Europe, showing exposure to these compounds with yet to be studied effects on human health.

Interlaboratory comparison investigations (ICIs) and external quality assurance schemes (EQUASs) for flame retardant analysis in biological matrices: Results from the HBM4EU project

The European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU) is coordinating and advancing human biomonitoring (HBM). For this purpose, a network of laboratories delivering reliable analytical data on human exposure is fundamental. The analytical comparability and accuracy of laboratories analysing flame retardants (FRs) in serum and urine were investigated by a quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) scheme comprising interlaboratory comparison investigations (ICIs) and external quality assurance schemes (EQUASs). This paper presents the evaluation process and discusses the results of four ICI/EQUAS rounds performed from 2018 to 2020 for the determination of ten halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) represented by three congeners of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (BDE-47, BDE-153 and BDE-209), two isomers of hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCD and γ-HBCD), two dechloranes (anti-DP and syn-DP), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), and 2,4,6-tribromophenol (2,4,6-TBP) in serum, and four metabolites of organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in urine, at two concentration levels. The number of satisfactory results reported by laboratories increased during the four rounds. In the case of HFRs, the scope of the participating laboratories varied substantially (from two to ten) and in most cases did not cover the entire target spectrum of chemicals. The highest participation rate was reached for BDE-47 and BDE-153. The majority of participants achieved more than 70% satisfactory results for these two compounds over all rounds. For other HFRs, the percentage of successful laboratories varied from 44 to 100%. The evaluation of TBBPA, DBDPE, and 2,4,6-TBP was not possible because the number of participating laboratories was too small. Only seven laboratories participated in the ICI/EQUAS scheme for OPFR metabolites and five of them were successful for at least two biomarkers. Nevertheless, the evaluation of laboratory performance using Z-scores in the first three rounds required an alternative approach compared to HFRs because of the small number of participants and the high variability of experts' results. The obtained results within the ICI/EQUAS programme showed a significant core network of comparable European laboratories for HBM of BDE-47, BDE-153, BDE-209, α-HBCD, γ-HBCD, anti-DP, and syn-DP. On the other hand, the data revealed a critically low analytical capacity in Europe for HBM of TBBPA, DBDPE, and 2,4,6-TBP as well as for the OPFR biomarkers.

Scopes of Bioanalytical Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

The areas of application of modern bioanalytical chromatography–mass spectrometry are so extensive that any attempt to systematize them becomes subjective. It would be more correct to say that there is no such area of biology and medicine where chromatography–mass spectrometry would not find application. This article focuses on the areas of application of this technique that are either relatively new or insufficiently covered in recent reviews. State-of-the-art bioanalytical techniques have become multitargeted in terms of analytes and standardized in terms of matrices. The ability to detect trace concentrations of analytes in the presence of a huge number of biomatrix macrocomponents using chromatography–mass spectrometry is especially important for bioanalytical chemistry. In the target-oriented determination of persistent organic pollutants by chromatography–mass spectrometry, the main problem is the expansion of the list of analytes, including isomers. In the detection of exposures to unstable toxicants, the fragmented adducts of xenobiotics with biomolecules become target biomarkers along with hydrolytic metabolites. The exposome reflects the general exposure of a human being to total xenobiotics and the metabolic status reflects the physiological state of the body. Chromatography–mass spectrometry is a key technique in metabolomics. Metabolomics is currently used to solve the problems of clinical diagnostics and anti-doping control. Biological sample preparation procedures for instrumental analysis are being simplified and developed toward increasing versatility. Proteomic technologies with the use of various versions of mass spectrometry have found application in the development of new methods for diagnosing coronavirus infections.

Multiresidue analysis of 85 persistent organic pollutants in small human serum samples by modified QuEChERS preparation with different ionization sources in mass spectrometry

In this study, a multiresidue analytical method was developed, validated, and applied for quantifying 85 persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including 38 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 23 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and 24 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) from 200 μL of human serum. A modified QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) method was applied to minimize the required sample amount and optimize various conditions including the extraction solvent and the number of extractions. The extraction efficiency was optimized using double extraction with an ethyl acetate/hexane/acetone mixture. Gas chromatography coupled with triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry was used for analysis, and two different ionization sources, electron impact ionization (EI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), were used to compare their sensitivity. The APCI source employed soft ionization at atmospheric pressure, producing abundant molecular ion formation with minimal fragmentation, in contrast to extensive fragmentation caused by EI. Of the 85 POPs analyzed, 59 target compounds (69.4%) showed lower limits of detection that were two- to fifty-fold lower in APCI than those determined using EI. The developed method was validated for its detection limit (0.5-10 pg/mL for PCBs, 2-20 pg/mL for PBDEs, and 2-40 pg/mL for OCPs), precision (0.8%-34.3% of coefficient of variation), recovery (49.6%-77.1%), matrix effect (46.7%-156.9%), and accuracy (81.2%-113.1% for PCBs, 85.8%-112.2% for PBDEs, and 55.2%-113.9% for OCPs). Its linearity was R² > 0.99 for 84 compounds, and 96% average accuracy (for APCI) was obtained using the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standard reference materials (NIST 1957 and 1958). These ionization methods were compared by analyzing 25 real human serum samples. The observed species were 1.1-24.6 pg/mL of 28 PCBs, 2.5 pg/mL of BDE-47, and 6.5-195.1 pg/mL of 6 organochlorine pesticides (median concentration for each species), and only 11 compounds were detected with APCI owing to its enhanced sensitivity.