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Gonçalves NPF, Almeida MM, Labrincha JA, Novais RM. Effective acid mine drainage remediation in fixed bed column using porous red mud/fly ash-containing geopolymer spheres. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 940:173633. [PMID: 38823716 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Acid mine drainage (AMD) poses a significant threat to water quality worldwide, being amongst the most problematic environmental concerns of the millennium. This work reports for the first time the remediation of real AMD, from a Portuguese abandoned mine, in fixed bed column using porous red mud/fly ash-based geopolymeric spheres. Porous waste-based spheres (2.6 ± 0.2 mm) were obtained by a suspension-solidification method through the addition of optimum foaming agent dosage. The sorbent capacity in removing cations from AMD was evaluated by targeting selected hazardous elements: Zn, Cu, Co, Pb and Ni, based on their occurrence in the effluent and potential hazard. The spheres exhibited a dual mechanism of action, simultaneously neutralizing the acidic sample while removing cations through adsorption achieving removal efficiencies between 51 % and 80 %. Other elements present in high levels, such as iron were efficiently removed (>96 %). The role of precipitation, due to the pH neutralization, and adsorption was determined. The sorbent regeneration and reusability were evaluated for up to five cycles. Moreover, the effectiveness of waste-based geopolymers treating distinct AMD waters due to seasonal variations was also evaluated, further demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed strategy to address environmental concerns stemming from mining activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno P F Gonçalves
- Dept. of Chemistry/CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Mariana M Almeida
- Dept. of Materials and Ceramic Engineering/CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - João A Labrincha
- Dept. of Materials and Ceramic Engineering/CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Rui M Novais
- Dept. of Materials and Ceramic Engineering/CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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2
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Pobłocki K, Pawlak M, Drzeżdżon J, Gawdzik B, Jacewicz D. Clean production of geopolymers as an opportunity for sustainable development of the construction industry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 928:172579. [PMID: 38641100 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Large-scale cement production generates significant amounts of carbon dioxide from the breakdown of limestone, contributing to environmental pollution. Clean production of eco-friendly three-dimensional geopolymers can be used as environmentally friendly building materials. Replacing Portland cement with eco-friendly materials correlates with reduced energy consumption, costs, and negative environmental impact. In addition, geopolymer cement has above-average physical and chemical properties, which in many cases exceed conventional Portland cement. The literature review summarizes the latest research in the production of geopolymers following the principles of green chemistry and sustainable development goals. Examples of upcycling of construction waste, industrial waste (fly ash, silica fume, slag, tailing), demolition waste, agriculture solid waste (rice husk, palm oil), and mining waste into functional geopolymer materials will be discussed. Additionally, the review focused on innovative applications and physicochemical properties of functional geopolymer materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacper Pobłocki
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Technology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Marta Pawlak
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Technology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Joanna Drzeżdżon
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Technology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Barbara Gawdzik
- Institute of Chemistry, Jan Kochanowski University, Uniwersytecka 7, 25-406 Kielce, Poland
| | - Dagmara Jacewicz
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Technology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 63, Gdansk, Poland.
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3
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González-Betancur D, Hoyos-Montilla AA, Tobón JI. Sustainable Hybrid Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Using Recycled Expanded Polystyrene. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:2368. [PMID: 38793431 PMCID: PMC11122995 DOI: 10.3390/ma17102368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Global concrete production, reaching 14×1013m3/year, raises environmental concerns due to the resource-intensive nature of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) manufacturing. Simultaneously, 32.7×109 kg/year of expanded polystyrene (EPS) waste poses ecological threats. This research explores the mechanical behavior of lightweight concrete (LWAC) using recycled EPS manufactured with a hybrid cement mixture (OPC and alkali-activated cement). These types of cement have been shown to improve the compressive strength of concrete, while recycled EPS significantly decreases concrete density. However, the impact of these two materials on the LWAC mechanical behavior is unclear. LWAC comprises 35% lightweight aggregates (LWA)-a combination of EPS and expanded clays (EC) - and 65% normal-weight aggregates. As a cementitious matrix, this LWAC employs 30% OPC and 70% alkaline-activated cement (AAC) based on fly ash (FA) and lime. Compressive strength tests after 28 curing days show a remarkable 48.8% improvement, surpassing the ACI 213R-03 standard requirement, which would allow this sustainable hybrid lightweight aggregate concrete to be used as structural lightweight concrete. Also obtained was a 21.5% reduction in density; this implies potential cost savings through downsizing structural elements and enhancing thermal and acoustic insulation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy reveal the presence of C-S-H, C-(A)-S-H, and N-A-S-H gels. However, anhydrous products in the hybrid LWAC suggest a slower reaction rate. Further investigation into activator solution dosage and curing temperature is recommended for improved mechanical performance on the 28th day of curing. This research highlights the potential for sustainable construction incorporating waste and underscores the importance of refining activation parameters for optimal performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. González-Betancur
- Materials Research Group, Construction School, Faculty of Architecture, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin 050034, Antioquia, Colombia;
| | - Ary A. Hoyos-Montilla
- Materials Research Group, Construction School, Faculty of Architecture, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin 050034, Antioquia, Colombia;
| | - Jorge I. Tobón
- Cement and Construction Materials Research Group, Materials and Minerals Department, Faculty of Mines, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin 050034, Antioquia, Colombia;
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4
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Furtos G, Prodan D, Sarosi C, Popa D, Moldovan M, Korniejenko K. The Precursors Used for Developing Geopolymer Composites for Circular Economy-A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:1696. [PMID: 38612210 PMCID: PMC11012517 DOI: 10.3390/ma17071696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Considering recent climate changes, special importance is given to any attempt to depollute and protect the environment. A circular economy seems to be the ideal solution for the valorization of mineral waste, resulting from various industrial branches, by reintroducing them in the process of obtaining alternative building materials, more friendly to the environment. Geopolymers can be considered as a promising option compared to Portland cement. Information about the influence of the composition of the precursors, the influence of the activation system on the mechanical properties or the setting time could lead to the anticipation of new formulations of geopolymers or to the improvement of some of their properties. Reinforcement components, different polymers and expansion agents can positively or negatively influence the properties of geopolymers in the short or long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Furtos
- Raluca Ripan Institute of Research in Chemistry, Babes Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj Napoca, Romania
| | - Doina Prodan
- Raluca Ripan Institute of Research in Chemistry, Babes Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj Napoca, Romania
| | - Codruta Sarosi
- Raluca Ripan Institute of Research in Chemistry, Babes Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj Napoca, Romania
| | - Dorin Popa
- Faculty of Economic Sciences, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia, 15-17 Unirii Street, 510009 Alba Iulia, Romania
| | - Marioara Moldovan
- Raluca Ripan Institute of Research in Chemistry, Babes Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele Street, 400294 Cluj Napoca, Romania
| | - Kinga Korniejenko
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, 31-864 Cracow, Poland
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Guo L, Xu X, Wang Q, Park J, Lei H, Zhou L, Wang X. Machine learning-based prediction of heavy metal immobilization rate in the solidification/stabilization of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWIFA) by geopolymers. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 467:133682. [PMID: 38341892 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Geopolymer is an environmentally friendly solidification/stabilization (S/S) binder, exhibiting significant potential for immobilizing heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWIFA). However, due to the diversity in geopolymer raw materials and heavy metal properties, predicting the heavy metal immobilization rate proves to be challenging. In order to enhance the application of geopolymers in immobilizing heavy metals in MSWIFA, a universal method is required to predict the heavy metal immobilization rate. Therefore, this study employs machine learning to predict the heavy metal immobilization rate in S/S of MSWIFA by geopolymers. A gradient boosting regression (GB) model with superior performance (R2 = 0.9214) was obtained, and a graphical user interface (GUI) software was developed to facilitate the convenient accessibility of researchers. The feature categories influencing heavy metal immobilization rate are ranked in order of importance as heavy metal properties > geopolymer raw material properties > curing conditions > alkali activator properties. This study facilitates the rapid prediction, improvement, and optimization of heavy metal immobilization in S/S of MSWIFA by geopolymers, and also provides a theoretical basis for the resource utilization of industrial solid waste, contributing to the environmental protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisheng Guo
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
| | - Xin Xu
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China.
| | - Qing Wang
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
| | - Junboum Park
- Department of Civil and Environment Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Haomin Lei
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
| | - Lu Zhou
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
| | - Xinhai Wang
- College of Construction Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China
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6
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Raza MH, Khan M, Zhong RY. Strength, porosity and life cycle analysis of geopolymer and hybrid cement mortars for sustainable construction. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167839. [PMID: 37863214 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Owing to the application of industrial wastes, geopolymers are generally regarded as a sustainable alternative to traditional construction materials. However, their lack of adoption on the industrial scale demands detailed investigations. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the compressive strength of different geopolymer and hybrid cement mortars with varying proportions of sodium hydroxide (from 5 to 25 wt%) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (from 15 to 35 wt%), respectively. The porosity of all designed mixtures was also analyzed using X-ray computed tomography (XCT) and water absorption tests. ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) method was used for the Life cycle analysis of the geopolymer and hybrid cement mortars. Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) approach was used to assess the sustainability potential of the designed mixtures based on compressive strength, porosity and overall environmental impact. Experimental results revealed that the increase in sodium hydroxide in geopolymer mortars up to 15 wt% offered its maximum compressive strength. Superior compressive strength was obtained at 35 wt% of OPC in hybrid cement mortars due to the formation of more C-S-H, C-A-S-H and N-A-S-H gels which fill up the voids and pores. Analysis of the macro and micro-porosity revealed that hybrid cement mortars yield denser structure than geopolymer mortars. Life cycle analysis based on 8 distinct impact categories showed that hybrid cement mortars outperform the geopolymers in all impact categories except 'mineral resource scarcity'. However, the overall environmental impact assessment using the 'coefficient of performance' depicts that hybrid cement mortars offer a significantly lower environmental burden than geopolymers. MCDM analysis shows that hybrid cement mortar with 5 wt% of sodium hydroxide and 35 wt% of OPC is the best choice for construction applications. This idea of sustainable hybrid cement mortar will be helpful for the construction industry to limit the environmental impact without compromising their structural performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Huzaifa Raza
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Mahram Khan
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Ray Y Zhong
- Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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7
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Zhang S, Yuan Q, Ni J, Zheng K, Xu Y, Zhang J. CO 2 utilization and sequestration in ready-mix concrete-A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:168025. [PMID: 37875204 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
CO2 utilization and sequestration in concrete have been gaining increased attention in recent years. CO2 can be injected into ready-mix concrete, which is defined as carbonation ready-mix concrete (CRC) showing a huge CO2 sequestration potential. CRC technology was comprehensively reviewed in this paper. Firstly, the methods of CRC technology in lab and industrial production were summarized. Then, special attentions were paid to the hydration reaction combined with the carbonation reaction in CRC. The factors affecting the capacity of CO2 sequestration in CRC were also discussed. Furthermore, the workability, mechanical property, and durability of CRC were evaluated. Finally, based on life cycle assessment (LCA), the CO2 footprint and carbon index of CRC were analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhui Zhang
- School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; National Engineering Research Center of High-speed Railway Construction Technology, Changsha 410075, China
| | - Qiang Yuan
- School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; National Engineering Research Center of High-speed Railway Construction Technology, Changsha 410075, China.
| | - Jun Ni
- Jiangsu Shuanglong Group Co., LTD, Nanjing 211112, China
| | - Keren Zheng
- School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China
| | - Yanqun Xu
- School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; National Engineering Research Center of High-speed Railway Construction Technology, Changsha 410075, China
| | - Jiaoling Zhang
- School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; National Engineering Research Center of High-speed Railway Construction Technology, Changsha 410075, China
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8
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Fořt J, Afolayan A, Mildner M, Hotěk P, Keppert M, Černý R. Assessment of Clayey Freshwater Sediments as Suitable Precursors for Alkaline Activation. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:175. [PMID: 38256974 PMCID: PMC10818288 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
One of the biggest challenges in the construction industry in recent times is the mitigation of the environmental impact of this sector, the reduction in dependence on primary raw materials, and the reduction in CO2 production while maintaining functional properties. Alkaline activation of a number of waste products represents a promising way to achieve the above-mentioned goals, but the availability of a number of waste products changes over time, especially in Europe. While freshwater sediments were in the past widely utilized as an agricultural fertilizer, recent precautions have significantly decreased such application, and thus new destinations must be delivered. To explore the potential of freshwater sediments, select samples from various locations were subjected to detailed characterization to verify the applicability of the material for alkali activation. As recognized, the selected sediments contain a substantial volume of desired mineralogical compounds that can serve, after 900 °C curing, as suitable precursors. Such samples have consequently activated the mixture of alkaline activators to obtain dense structures and were subjected to detailed investigation aimed at understanding the mechanical parameters. The obtained mechanical results ranging between 14.9 MPa and 36.8 MPa reveal the engineering potential of sediments for valorization through alkali activation and outline new research challenges in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Fořt
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Takurova 7, 166 29 Prague, Czech Republic; (A.A.); (M.M.); (P.H.); (M.K.); (R.Č.)
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9
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Clausi M, Savino S, Cangialosi F, Eramo G, Fornaro A, Quatraro L, Pinto D, D'Accolti L. Pollutants abatement in aqueous solutions with geopolymer catalysts: A photo fenton case. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 344:140333. [PMID: 37813246 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Environmental pollution is a serious threat to human health and the natural environment, and it has aroused widespread concern. One of the most effective processes in the removal of pollutants from wastewater is the Fenton reaction. This process is based on the production of highly reactive •OH radicals due to the rapid reaction between Iron ions and hydrogen peroxide under acidic conditions. The hydroxyl radical has a high oxidation potential of E°(•OH/H2O) = 2.8 V/SHE at acidic pH, so they are extremely reactive and non-selective oxidizing agent towards organic contaminants in wastewater. In order to avoid the drawbacks of a standard Fenton reaction, a photo Fenton reaction has been tested working at neutral pH in water in the removal of refractory pollutants. For the first time, a heterogeneous system was experimented, impregnating porous metakaolin-based geopolymers, obtained by using hydrogen peroxide and vegetable oil in different ratios, as foaming agents, with iron working as photocatalyst. The dirty wastewater as scrubber water (SCRW) and liquid fraction of digestate (LFD) were tested obtaining 40-90% abatement of Total Carbon Content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Clausi
- Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Stefano Savino
- Chemistry Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Giacomo Eramo
- Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonio Fornaro
- Lab Service Analytica S.R.L., Via Emilia, 51/C, 40011, Anzola dell'Emilia, Italy
| | - Luca Quatraro
- T & A - Tecnologia e Ambiente srl, 70017, Putignano, BA, Italy
| | - Daniela Pinto
- Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy.
| | - Lucia D'Accolti
- Chemistry Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy; CSGI -Center for Colloid and Surface Science Zona Osmannoro, Via della Lastruccia, 3, 50019, Zona Osmannoro, FI, Italy.
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10
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Ghazy MF, Abd Elaty MA, Taman MH, Mehriz AM. A comprehensive review on the performance of geopolymer concrete subjected to elevated temperature. INNOVATIVE INFRASTRUCTURE SOLUTIONS 2023; 8:194. [DOI: 10.1007/s41062-023-01158-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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11
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Refaat M, Mohsen A, Nasr ESAR, Kohail M. Utilization of optimized microwave sintering to produce safe and sustainable one-part alkali-activated materials. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4611. [PMID: 36944693 PMCID: PMC10030970 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31581-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as an alkaline activator presents a vital limitation in the mass production of alkali-activated binders due to its severe effect on users' safety. In this study, safe and sustainable one-part alkali-activated slag mixes (OP-AAS) were prepared through an efficient microwave sintering for a mixture of active amorphous ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and sodium hydroxide powder (NaOH). Different microwave-sintered powders were prepared using microwave energy of power 900 W for the mixture at different treatment periods (10, 20, and 30 min). Fresh and hardened properties of different OP-AAS mixes were studied. Moreover, the phase composition and microstructure were investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Cytotoxicity/viability testing was performed to evaluate the cell death induced by the developed materials to measure their safety for the user. According to compressive strength, cytotoxicity/viability analysis, environmental impact and cost calculation of developed OP-AAS, it is concluded that employing microwave sintering for a short duration is sufficient to produce safe binding materials with adequate mechanical properties suitable for commercial applications in the construction sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moataz Refaat
- Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, 11517, Egypt
| | - Alaa Mohsen
- Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, 11517, Egypt
| | | | - Mohamed Kohail
- Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, 11517, Egypt.
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Munir Q, Abdulkareem M, Horttanainen M, Kärki T. A comparative cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of geopolymer concrete produced from industrial side streams in comparison with traditional concrete. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 865:161230. [PMID: 36586686 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Traditional concrete production is a major contributor to global warming. Industrially produced geopolymer concrete is a viable substitute to limit the negative impacts of concrete production. Thus, this study developed novel geopolymer concrete mix designs using industrial side streams, such as bark boiler ash, construction and demolition waste (CDW), fibre waste, and mine tailings. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was conducted to evaluate the potential impacts of these different geopolymer concrete (GPC) mix designs in comparison with traditional concrete. The results showed that industrial-based geopolymer concrete with lower amounts of sodium silicate and metakaolin exhibited better environmental performance. Specifically, a 10 % reduction in metakaolin content reduces the global warming impact by 16 % compared with traditional concrete. The processing and curing of industrial waste for concrete formulations has an environmental impact of less than 1 %. From a sustainability perspective, the environmental performance of geopolymer concrete produced from industrial side streams can be further improved by increasing the concentration of recycled waste in the concrete mixes. In addition, the effective use of industrial side streams can improve the waste management, sustainability, and strength of concrete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qaisar Munir
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland.
| | - Mariam Abdulkareem
- Sustainability Science and Solutions Unit, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland.
| | - Mika Horttanainen
- Sustainability Science and Solutions Unit, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland.
| | - Timo Kärki
- Fiber Composite Laboratory, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland.
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13
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Hamdane H, Oumam M, Mhamdi HS, Bouih A, El Ghailassi T, Boulif R, Alami J, Manoun B, Hannache H. Elaboration of geopolymer package derived from uncalcined phosphate sludge and its solidification performance on nuclear grade resins loaded with 134Cs. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159313. [PMID: 36228800 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear-grade Spent Organic Resin (SOR) contains high concentrations of radioactive nuclides and metal contaminants, while phosphate sludge contains high amount of fine clayey particles and CO32-, both posing a major threat to the biosphere. In this study, a novel geopolymer package (GP) was proposed to directly solidify SOR loaded with 134Cs by incorporating uncalcined phosphate sludge (UPS) as feedstocks, activated by NaOH/KOH. The results showed that alkali-mixed reagents-activated GP is more advantageous in terms of chemical stability and mechanical properties than NaOH-activated GP, recording compressive strength values greater than the waste acceptance criteria and OPC. The 28-day compressive strength of solidified packages can exceed 31 MPa at the highest amount of 42 wt% UPS. The addition of NaF powder into the solidified packages generates more hybrid type gels, which are more conducive to partial dissolution and bonding UPS particles, thereby producing stable and stronger GP. Leaching results of solidified GP in presence of up to 13 wt% SORs showed that only 0.15 % of total 134Cs was leached, even under aggressive solutions. Solidification mechanism revealed that activation of UPS-MK blend forms N,K-A-S-H, (N,K,C)-A-S-H/C-S-H gels coexisting with unreacted particles, thereby solidify/stabilize metal contaminants and Cs+ by a synergetic immobilization action of hydration products via substitution and encapsulation. This study provides a promising paradigm for effective solidification of nuclear-grade resins and synergetic harmless treatment of industrial/phosphate mine solid wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasna Hamdane
- Laboratory of Engineering and Materials, Faculty of Science Ben M'Sick, Hassan II University of Casablanca, B.P.7955 Casablanca, Morocco; National Center of Sciences, Technology and Nuclear Energy, B.P.1382 Rabat, Morocco.
| | - Mina Oumam
- Laboratory of Engineering and Materials, Faculty of Science Ben M'Sick, Hassan II University of Casablanca, B.P.7955 Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Hicham Si Mhamdi
- Laboratory of Applied Geology, Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques Errachidia, Moulay Ismail University of Meknes, Morocco
| | - Abderrahim Bouih
- National Center of Sciences, Technology and Nuclear Energy, B.P.1382 Rabat, Morocco
| | - Touria El Ghailassi
- National Center of Sciences, Technology and Nuclear Energy, B.P.1382 Rabat, Morocco
| | - Rachid Boulif
- Chemical and Biochemical Sciences Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, 43150 Benguerir, Morocco
| | - Jones Alami
- Materials Science and Nano-Engineering Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, 43150 Benguerir, Morocco
| | - Bouchaib Manoun
- Materials Science and Nano-Engineering Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, 43150 Benguerir, Morocco; Univ Hassan(1er), Rayonnement-Matière et Instrumentation, S3M, Faculty of science and Technology, 26000, FST, Settat, Morocco
| | - Hassan Hannache
- Laboratory of Engineering and Materials, Faculty of Science Ben M'Sick, Hassan II University of Casablanca, B.P.7955 Casablanca, Morocco; Materials Science and Nano-Engineering Department, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, 43150 Benguerir, Morocco
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Alkali-Activated Binary Binders with Carbonate-Rich Illitic Clay. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15020362. [PMID: 36679243 PMCID: PMC9866063 DOI: 10.3390/polym15020362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This work deals with the investigation of alkaline binders obtained from binary mixtures of carbonate-rich illitic clay from deposits in southern Italy and two industrial by-products with very different total composition and calcium content, i.e., blast furnace slag and type F fly ash, respectively. To improve the reactivity, the selected clay was ground in a ball miller and heated to 700 °C. The binary mixtures were alkali activated with NaOH solution at 4 M and 8 M, and the activated pastes were cured at room temperature and relative humidity >90% in a climatic chamber. Heat flow, total heat and compressive strength (2, 7 and 28 days) were determined. The hardened pastes were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX). Results show that the main reaction product in all samples is a gel or mixture of C-A-S-H/(N, C)-A-S-H type gel depending on the calcium content in the precursors. The paste, made up of a 1:1 weight proportion of carbonate-rich illitic clay and blast furnace slag, showed the formation of a more compact matrix than that observed in each individually activated component, achieving the considerable mechanical strength value of 45 MPa after 28 days, which suggests a very positive interaction between the two calcium-rich solid precursors. The binary mixture of carbonate-rich illitic clay and F fly ash showed relatively low compressive strength (below 15 MPa), which has been related to the poor reaction potential of fly ash regarding the alkali activation at room temperature. The modification of curing parameters is expected to improve the reaction of carbonate-rich illitic clay/fly ash blend. The clay activation method used in this study has been demonstrated to be suitable for larger scale industrial pre-treatment set-ups.
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15
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Fan X, Liu X, Wang Y. Low-cost and resource-efficient monolithic photocatalyst with enhanced solar light utilization for the photocatalytic treatment of organic wastewater. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 312:137052. [PMID: 36343729 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Developing low-cost, well-performing, and resource-efficient photocatalysts with enhanced solar light utilization can contribute to the practicability of photocatalytic techniques in organic wastewater treatment. This study fabricated and characterized a novel sunlight-driven BiOBr- and acetylene black (AB)-loaded monolithic photocatalyst. The fly ash-based geopolymer acts as photocatalyst support that can also provide adsorption sites and semiconductor metal oxide (Fe2O3). A conductive network in the geopolymer structure formed by AB can promote the separation of e--h+ pairs generated by active sites (BiOBr and Fe2O3). Moreover, the photothermal effect induced by AB can assist the photocatalytic reaction at the microinterface of the photocatalyst. This photocatalyst was suspended on the surface of an aqueous solution for sufficient contact with oxygen from the air and is thus beneficial for producing 1O2 and ·OH as the main active species. Within 30 min, it exhibited higher photothermal-photocatalytic activity with 96% removal efficiency of the target pollutant methylene blue (MB), which occurred at an initial concentration of 20 mg L-1. The demethylation and hydroxylation process induced by the active species constituted the primary degradation pathway for MB by Bi/AB/MFGP. Overall, this study provides a valuable reference for developing economical, effective, and practical photocatalysts and applying geopolymers in photocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Fan
- The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, PR China
| | - Xianjing Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, PR China
| | - Ying Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, PR China.
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16
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Yang W, Cao X, Zhang Q, Ma R, Fang L, Liu S. Coupled microwave hydrothermal dechlorination and geopolymer preparation for the solidification/stabilization of heavy metals and chlorine in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158563. [PMID: 36087669 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
To improve the degradation efficiency of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWIFA), as well as to overcome the difficulties of subsequent hydrothermal liquid and hydrothermal slag treatment, a two-step treatment strategy of microwave hydrothermal degradation coupled with geopolymer immobilization was proposed. Results showed that the optimal process parameters for microwave hydrothermal dechlorination were a temperature of 220 °C, a time of 1 h, and NaOH addition of 10 wt%. Microwaves accelerated the OH- mediated hydrolysis reactions and promoted the breaking of CCl bonds, leading to dechlorination. The compressive strength of the 20 % MSWIFA-based geopolymers reached 75.79 MPa, and the immobilization rate of the heavy metals (HMs) and Cl- surpassed 90 %. Alkaline environment provided by microwave hydrothermal promoted the formation of Ca(OH)2, which subsequently formed Friedel's salt (3CaO•Al2O3•CaCl2•10H2O) with Cl- in the geopolymer. The charge density difference and density of states (DOS) of Friedel's salt were analyzed by first-principles calculations, confirming that the existence of strong interactions between Ca-s, Al-p, O-p, and Cl-p states was the chemical mechanism of Cl- immobilization. The Friedel's salt and HMs were encapsulated by geopolymers with dense silica-alumina tetrahedral frameworks, achieving the solidification/stabilization (S/S) of HMs and Cl-. This work provided a new approach for the environmentally sound and resourceful treatment of MSWIFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weichen Yang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xing Cao
- Shenzhen Engineering Lab of Flexible Transparent Conductive Films, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qiushi Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Rui Ma
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China.
| | - Lin Fang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Shiwei Liu
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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17
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Solid–Waste–Derived Geopolymer–Type Zeolite–like High Functional Catalytic Materials Catalyze Efficient Hydrogenation of Levulinic Acid. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12111361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Three common solid wastes (waste incineration fly ash, sewage sludge, and polluted soil) were the raw materials used in the synthesis of a geopolymer–type zeolite–like product, which was then used as a catalyst carrier to prepare a nickel hydrogenation catalyst for the catalytic hydrogenation of levulinic acid to γ–valerolactone. Under optimum synthesis conditions, the synthesized geopolymer zeolite has excellent structure and performance. The characterization results show that the composites have a three–dimensional network structure, and the pore structure is homogeneous mesoporous or microporous. In this work, the results of catalytic hydrogenation show that the yield of γ–valerolactone can achieve up to 94% using the synthesized catalyst, which is comparable to that of commercial catalysts and the concentrations of typical polluting heavy metals of Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd in the reaction solution were all below the emission concentration limit (Class I standard) after five cycles of reaction. In summary, this geopolymer–type zeolite–like catalyst is cheap and has excellent performance; it is, therefore, expected to be widely used in catalysis instead of commercial carriers.
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18
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Hashim MFA, Faris MA, Mydin MAO, Ghazali CMR, Daud YM, Abdullah MMAB, Zainal FF, Saloma, Mohd Tahir MF, Yong HC, Khorami M. Interaction of Geopolymer Filler and Alkali Molarity Concentration towards the Fire Properties of Glass-Reinforced Epoxy Composites Fabricated Using Filament Winding Technique. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:6495. [PMID: 36143805 PMCID: PMC9502346 DOI: 10.3390/ma15186495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
This paper aims to find out the effect of different weight percentages of geopolymer filler in glass-reinforced epoxy pipe, and which can achieve the best mechanical properties and adhesion between high calcium pozzolanic-based geopolymer matrices. Different weight percentages and molarities of epoxy hardener resin and high calcium pozzolanic-based geopolymer were injected into the glass fiber. By manually winding filaments, composite samples were produced, and they were then allowed to cure at room temperature. To determine how well the geopolymer matrices adhere to the fiber reinforcement, the microstructure of the composites' surfaces and perpendicular sections were examined. Maximum values of compressive strength and compressive modulus were 94.64 MPa and 2373.58 MPa, respectively, for the sample with a weight percentage of filler loading of 30 wt% for an alkali concentration of 12 M. This is a relatively wide range of geopolymer weight percentage of filler loading from 10 wt% to 40 wt%, at which we can obtain high compressive properties. By referring to microstructural analysis, adhesion, and interaction of the geopolymer matrix to glass fiber, it shows that the filler is well-dispersed and embedded at the fiber glass, and it was difficult to determine the differences within the range of optimal geopolymer filler content. By determining the optimum weight percent of 30 wt% of geopolymer filler and microstructural analysis, the maximum parameter has been achieved via analysis of high calcium pozzolanic-based geopolymer filler. Fire or elevated temperature represents one of the extreme ambient conditions that any structure may be exposed to during its service life. The heat resistance or thermal analysis between glass-reinforced epoxy (GRE) pipe and glass-reinforced epoxy pipe filled with high calcium pozzolanic-based geopolymer filler was studied by investigating burning tests on the samples, which shows that the addition of high calcium pozzolanic-based geopolymer filler results in a significant reduction of the melted epoxy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Firdaus Abu Hashim
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kampus Tetap Pauh Putra, Perlis 02600, Malaysia
| | - Meor Ahmad Faris
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kampus Tetap Pauh Putra, Perlis 02600, Malaysia
| | - Md Azree Othuman Mydin
- School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Che Mohd Ruzaidi Ghazali
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatic, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu 21030, Malaysia
| | - Yusrina Mat Daud
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
| | - Farah Farhana Zainal
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
| | - Saloma
- Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Sriwijaya University, Indralaya 30662, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Faheem Mohd Tahir
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
| | - Heah Cheng Yong
- Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology (CEGeoGTech), Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kampus Tetap Pauh Putra, Perlis 02600, Malaysia
| | - Morteza Khorami
- Department of the Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering & Computing, Sir John Laing Building, Coventry University, Coventry CV1 5FB, UK
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Xu J, Li M, Zhao D, Zhong G, Sun Y, Hu X, Sun J, Li X, Zhu W, Li M, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Zhao L, Zheng C, Sun X. Research and Application Progress of Geopolymers in Adsorption: A Review. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:3002. [PMID: 36080037 PMCID: PMC9457617 DOI: 10.3390/nano12173002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Geopolymer is a porous inorganic material with a three-dimensional mesh structure, good mechanical properties, a simple preparation process (no sintering) and a low economic cost, and it is environmentally friendly. Geopolymer concrete has been widely used in the construction field, and many other studies have revealed that geopolymer will become one of the most promising inorganic materials with unique structure and properties. This paper provides a review of the development and current status of geopolymers and briefly explains the effects of material proportioning, experimental factors and activators on geopolymer performance. Because of the advantages of high specific surface area and high porosity, geopolymers could be used as adsorbent materials. This paper summarizes the research progresses of the adsorption of metal cations, anions, dyes, and gases by geopolymers, which emphasizes the geopolymer membranes in adsorption, and discusses the challenges and opportunities for the development of more efficient, sustainable and practical adsorption protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyun Xu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Minjing Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Guoqiang Zhong
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Yu Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Xudong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology of the Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jiefang Sun
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Xiaoyun Li
- Advanced Materials Research Laboratory, CNOOC Tianjin Chemical Research and Design Institute, Tianjin 300131, China
| | - Wenju Zhu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Ming Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Ziqi Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Liping Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Chunming Zheng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Technology and Process Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Separation Membrane and Membrane Processes, School of Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Xiaohong Sun
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology of the Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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20
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Shehata N, Mohamed OA, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA, Olabi AG. Geopolymer concrete as green building materials: Recent applications, sustainable development and circular economy potentials. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 836:155577. [PMID: 35500705 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Environmental degradation and increased greenhouse gas emissions force communities to achieve sustainable green building and construction materials. The environmental and financial aspects of sustainable development and circular economy strongly depend on the recycling of wastes into new products. Geopolymers gained increasing attention because of their eco-friendly and superior mechanical characteristics and their ability to utilize numerous wastes as precursors. Although there are numerous studies on geopolymer, little attention was focused on geopolymer concrete (GeoC). Hence, This review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) investigated in detail GeoC. The first part of this study explores the recent synthesis processes, different precursors, and applications of geopolymer concrete (GeoC) in numerous sectors as well as the mechanical, microstructural, and physical related characteristics of GeoC developed from various wastes. The second part discusses in detail the contributions of GeoC to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) stated by the United Nations. The last part discusses the implementation of different wastes to develop GeoC-based circular economy to provide recommendations and prospects for GeoC science and technology. An eco-friendly, sustainable, structurally sound GeoC matrixes can be developed from numerous industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes. Such GeoC is a good candidate to traditional concrete and some other building materials. GeoC is strongly contribute into 12 SDGs of the main 17 SDGs. Optimizing the elements of GeoC would decrease its cost and thus promote a green circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabila Shehata
- Environmental Science and Industrial Development Department, Faculty of Postgraduate Studies for Advanced Sciences, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - O A Mohamed
- Environmental Science and Industrial Development Department, Faculty of Postgraduate Studies for Advanced Sciences, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Enas Taha Sayed
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt
| | - Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt; Dept. of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
| | - A G Olabi
- Dept. of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Mechanical Engineering and Design, Aston University, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK
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21
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Abdel-Gawwad HA, Tawfik TA, Sikora P, Abd Elrahman M. Preparation and characterization of a novel alkali-activated magnesite cement. CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS 2022; 345:128384. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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22
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Panitsa OA, Kioupis D, Kakali G. Thermal and microwave synthesis of silica fume-based solid activator for the one-part geopolymerization of fly ash. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:59513-59523. [PMID: 35381929 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-20081-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper tests the development of a silica fume-based material, capable to be used as a solid activator for the one-part geopolymerization of fly ash. Through a simple procedure, a mixture of silica fume, an amorphous and silicon-rich by-product, sodium hydroxide and water, is converted, after a low-temperature treatment, to a new powder product mainly containing sodium silicate (Na2SiO3). Two different treatment methods are tested for the synthesis of the solid activator: heat and microwave treatment. Microwave processing is more sustainable and more efficient than thermal treatment, since purer products are produced with less energy consumption. The use of these low embodied energy products, as the only solid activator of fly ash, leads to geopolymers with comparable mechanical performance to those prepared with commercial products revealing their potential successful addition in the geopolymer market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Andriana Panitsa
- School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou St., 15773, Athens, Greece.
| | - Dimitrios Kioupis
- School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou St., 15773, Athens, Greece
- Engineering School, Merchant Marine Academy of Crete, 73200, Chania, Greece
| | - Glikeria Kakali
- School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou St., 15773, Athens, Greece
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23
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Geopolymer Concrete: A Material for Sustainable Development in Indian Construction Industries. CRYSTALS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst12040514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a new material in the construction industry, with different chemical compositions and reactions involved in a binding material. The pozzolanic materials (industrial waste like fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), and rice husk ash), which contain high silica and alumina, work as binding materials in the mix. Geopolymer concrete is economical, low energy consumption, thermally stable, easily workable, eco-friendly, cementless, and durable. GPC reduces carbon footprints by using industrial solid waste like slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash. Around one tonne of carbon dioxide emissions produced one tonne of cement that directly polluted the environment and increased the world’s temperature by increasing greenhouse gas production. For sustainable construction, GPC reduces the use of cement and finds the alternative of cement for the material’s binding property. So, the geopolymer concrete is an alternative to Portland cement concrete and it is a potential material having large commercial value and for sustainable development in Indian construction industries. The comprehensive survey of the literature shows that geopolymer concrete is a perfect alternative to Portland cement concrete because it has better physical, mechanical, and durable properties. Geopolymer concrete is highly resistant to acid, sulphate, and salt attack. Geopolymer concrete plays a vital role in the construction industry through its use in bridge construction, high-rise buildings, highways, tunnels, dams, and hydraulic structures, because of its high performance. It can be concluded from the review that sustainable development is achieved by employing geopolymers in Indian construction industries, because it results in lower CO2 emissions, optimum utilization of natural resources, utilization of waste materials, is more cost-effective in long life infrastructure construction, and, socially, in financial benefits and employment generation.
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Geopolymers and Functionalization Strategies for the Development of Sustainable Materials in Construction Industry and Cultural Heritage Applications: A Review. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15051725. [PMID: 35268955 PMCID: PMC8910959 DOI: 10.3390/ma15051725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, new synthetic hybrid materials, with an inorganic and organic nature, have been developed to promote their application as protective coatings and/or structural consolidants for several substrates in the construction industry and cultural heritage field. In this context, the scientific community paid attention to geopolymers and their new hybrid functional derivatives to design and develop innovative and sustainable composites with better chemical resistance, durability and mechanical characteristics. This review offers an overview of the latest progress in geopolymer-based hybrid nanofunctional materials and their use to treat and restore cultural heritage, as well as their employment in the building and architectural engineering field. In addition, it discusses the influence of some parameters, such as the chemical and physical characteristics of the substrates, the dosage of the alkaline activator, and the curing treatment, which affect their synthesis and performance.
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25
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Olabi V, Wilberforce T, Elsaid K, Sayed ET, Abdelkareem MA. Impact of COVID‐19 on Renewable Energy Sector and Mitigation Strategies. Chem Eng Technol 2022; 45:558-571. [PMID: 35465220 PMCID: PMC9015258 DOI: 10.1002/ceat.202100504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
This review explores the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on the renewable energy (RE) sector, especially in countries with the highest RE capacities, e.g., the USA, China, India, and the EU. It highlights stimulus packages put in place by governments worldwide and their sustainability to cushion the RE sector. Commissioning of RE projects has stalled due to lack of funding allocation and interruptions in the supply of equipment and components due to lockdown measures. Despite the need to fund COVID‐19 vaccination programs and other related health services, the world must not neglect other sectors of the economy, creating more problems, such as worsening the climate change situation in the long run. This review aims to present the information needed to sustain future energy during the COVID‐19 global pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tabbi Wilberforce
- Mechanical Engineering and Design School of Engineering and Applied Science Aston University Birmingham B4 7ET UK
| | - Khaled Elsaid
- Chemical Engineering Program Texas A& M University at Qatar Doha 23874 Qatar
| | - Enas Taha Sayed
- Centre for advanced materials research University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Chemical Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering Minia University Egypt
| | - Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem
- Centre for advanced materials research University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
- Chemical Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering Minia University Egypt
- Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering University of Sharjah Sharjah 27272 United Arab Emirates
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Surface Cracking and Fractal Characteristics of Bending Fractured Polypropylene Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Mortar. FRACTAL AND FRACTIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/fractalfract5040142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fiber is effective in restricting cracks and improving the toughness of geopolymer composites, but few studies have focused on the surface crack characteristics of fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites. In this paper, after flexural tests of polypropylene fiber-reinforced geopolymer mortar, the surface cracking image was collected by a digital camera and cracking information was extract by deep learning. Finally, the cracking and fractal characteristics were specifically discussed. The semantic segmentation network can accurately extract surface cracks for calculating various parameters. The results showed that the mean intersection over union (mIoU) and mean pixel accuracy (mPA) of the cracks are 0.8451 and 0.9213, respectively. Generally, the crack length, width, area, and fractal dimension of the specimen are all increased with the increase in the fiber volume fraction. These crack parameters grow rapidly when the fiber content is small, and the growth of the crack parameters gradually slows down as the fiber volume fraction increases to approximately 1.5%. The highest crack parameter values were found in the geopolymer mortar, with a 0.48 water–binder ratio and 12 mm fiber length. The variation of the bottom crack length and the side crack fractal dimension can be used to represent the overall crack variation patterns. Meanwhile, the crack parameters increase with the increased fiber factor in a quadratic function. Based on these crack parameters, the critical fiber factor and dense fiber factor of polypropylene fiber-reinforced geopolymer mortar were 200 and 550, respectively. They are greater than those of fiber-reinforced Portland cementitious composites. The influence of various crack parameters on the flexural strength is in the order of the crack area, width, length, and fractal dimension.
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Vavouraki AI, Gounaki I, Venieri D. Properties of Inorganic Polymers Based on Ground Waste Concrete Containing CuO and ZnO Nanoparticles. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13172871. [PMID: 34502911 PMCID: PMC8433799 DOI: 10.3390/polym13172871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of copper oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles (NPs) on the mechanical and thermal properties of ground waste concrete inorganic polymers (GWC IPs) has been investigated. NPs are added to GWC IPs at loadings of 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2% w/w. The phase composition and microstructure of NPs GWC IPs have also been examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscope (SEM/EDS) techniques. Results show that the mechanical properties of GWC IPs are improved (23 MPa) due to addition of NPs (1% ZnO). In particular, GWC IPs embedded with 0.5% CuO and 1% ZnO NPs exhibited relatively improved compressive strength. The addition of NPs decreases the macroporosity and increases the mesoporosity of IPs matrix and decreases relatively the ability of IPs matrix to water absorption. The antimicrobial activity of GWC IPs doped with 0.5 and 1% CuO NPs against E. coli was also determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini I. Vavouraki
- School of Mineral Resources Engineering, University Campus, Technical University of Crete, GR-73100 Chania, Greece
- Department of Agriculture, School of Agricultural Science, Hellenic Mediterranean University, GR-71004 Heraklion, Greece
- Correspondence:
| | - Iosifina Gounaki
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University Campus, Technical University of Crete, GR-73100 Chania, Greece; (I.G.); (D.V.)
| | - Danae Venieri
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University Campus, Technical University of Crete, GR-73100 Chania, Greece; (I.G.); (D.V.)
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Zhang J, Liu B, Zhang S. A review of glass ceramic foams prepared from solid wastes: Processing, heavy-metal solidification and volatilization, applications. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 781:146727. [PMID: 33812111 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The safe utilization of solid wastes containing heavy metals plays a crucial role in environmental preservation. As an efficient technology to achieve this goal, the preparation of glass ceramic foams from solid wastes can produce an excellent solidification effect on heavy metals. At present, there have been plenty of efforts made to achieve an excellent combination of such characteristics as mechanical strength, bulk density, thermal conductivity and so on, with the purpose to ensure the application in various high value-added fields. Due to the concentration on their application in the construction sector such as the use of thermal and acoustic insulation materials, some researchers seek to expand the scope of their applications. In this paper, a review is conducted into the methods used to prepare solid waste-based glass ceramic foams. Depending on the exact processing route, these methods can be categorized into two classes, which are powder sintering and inorganic gel casting. Not only heavy metals hinder the application of solid waste, they can also cause irreversible pollution to the wider environment. Solidification and volatilization represent the two routes associated with heavy-metal migration during the preparation of glass ceramic foams. Both traditional and innovative applications are indicated in this review. Furthermore, a discussion is conducted about the prospects and challenges facing different processing strategies, heavy-metal migration and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Zhang
- Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Bo Liu
- Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, PR China.
| | - Shengen Zhang
- Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, PR China.
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Xiong L, Fan B, Wan Z, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Shi P. Study on the Mechanical Properties of Fly-Ash-Based Light-Weighted Porous Geopolymer and Its Utilization in Roof-Adaptive End Filling Technology. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26154450. [PMID: 34361603 PMCID: PMC8348976 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper aims to study the porous structure and the mechanical properties of fly-ash-based light-weighted porous geopolymer (FBLPG), exploring the feasibility of using it in roof-adaptive end filling technology based on its in-situ foaming characteristics and plastic yielding performance. A porous structure model of FBLPG during both the slurry and solid period was established to study their influence factor. In addition, this study also built a planar structure model in the shape of a honeycomb with bore walls, proving that the bore walls possess the characteristics of isotropic force. FBLPG shows a peculiar plastic yielding performance in the experiment where its stress stays stable with the gradual increase of the deformation, which can guarantee the stability of a filling body under the cycled load from the roof. At the same time, the in-situ foaming process combined with the unique filling technique can make the FBLPG filling body fully in contact with the irregular roof. This roof-adaptive end filling technology makes it a successful application in plugging the 1305 working face, which avoids problems of the low tight-connection ratio and secondary air-leakage channel resulted from the traditional filling technology, effectively improving coal production in terms of safety and high efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luchang Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Bowen Fan
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Zhijun Wan
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
- Correspondence: (Z.W.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Zhaoyang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
- Correspondence: (Z.W.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Peng Shi
- Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining (CUMT), Ministry of Education of China, Xuzhou 221116, China; (L.X.); (B.F.); (Z.Z.); (P.S.)
- School of Mines, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
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Abstract
This study reports the effect of natural dolomite addition to fly ash and the mechanical activation of this blend on the geopolymerization process. Dolomite was replaced with fly ash at 1, 3, 5, and 10 wt.%. Geopolymers were synthesized at ambient temperature using NaOH solution as an alkaline agent. The geopolymerization process, reactivity of the raw material, compressive strength, and microstructure were studied using X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetry, and scanning electron microscopy. It was shown that blending fly ash with dolomite and mechanical activation improved the geopolymer strength, especially during the early age of curing. For geopolymers prepared using a 90% fly ash + 10% dolomite blend cured for 7 d, the strengths were 8.2-, 2.3-, and 1.4-fold higher than those for geopolymers prepared using 100% FA for 30 s, 180 s, and 400 s milling times, respectively. A simple method for evaluating the increments of mechanical activation, carbonate additives, and the synergistic effect in the increase in the compressive strength of the composite geopolymer is proposed.
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Geopolymers and Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Composites in Civil Engineering. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13132099. [PMID: 34202211 PMCID: PMC8272018 DOI: 10.3390/polym13132099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper discusses the influence of fiber reinforcement on the properties of geopolymer concrete composites, based on fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and metakaolin. Traditional concrete composites are brittle in nature due to low tensile strength. The inclusion of fibrous material alters brittle behavior of concrete along with a significant improvement in mechanical properties i.e., toughness, strain and flexural strength. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is mainly used as a binding agent in concrete composites. However, current environmental awareness promotes the use of alternative binders i.e., geopolymers, to replace OPC because in OPC production, significant quantity of CO2 is released that creates environmental pollution. Geopolymer concrete composites have been characterized using a wide range of analytical tools including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental detection X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Insight into the physicochemical behavior of geopolymers, their constituents and reinforcement with natural polymeric fibers for the making of concrete composites has been gained. Focus has been given to the use of sisal, jute, basalt and glass fibers.
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Abstract
This review presents a detailed summary of the latest technologies used in flywheel energy storage systems (FESS). This paper covers the types of technologies and systems employed within FESS, the range of materials used in the production of FESS, and the reasons for the use of these materials. Furthermore, this paper provides an overview of the types of uses of FESS, covering vehicles and the transport industry, grid leveling and power storage for domestic and industrial electricity providers, their use in motorsport, and applications for space, satellites, and spacecraft. Different types of machines for flywheel energy storage systems are also discussed. This serves to analyse which implementations reduce the cost of permanent magnet synchronous machines. As well as this, further investigations need to be carried out to determine the ideal temperature range of operation. Induction machines are currently stoutly designed with lower manufacturing cost, making them unsuitable for high-speed operations. Brushless direct current machines, the Homolar machines, and permanent magnet synchronous machines should also be considered for future research activities to improve their performance in a flywheel energy storage system. An active magnetic bearing can also be used alongside mechanical bearings to reduce the control systems’ complications, thereby making the entire system cost-effective.
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