The potential of aerial insectivores for monitoring microplastics in terrestrial environments

The heart of plastic: utilizing the Drosophila model to investigate the effects of micro/nanoplastics on heart function

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have increasingly been found in the environment. Until recently, most MPs/NPs toxicological research has been done in aquatic systems resulting in a gap in knowledge regarding terrestrial systems. Plastics have been shown to enter the circulatory system of humans, and can accumulate within organs, little is known about the effect this has on health. Heart disease is the leading cause of death globally, so it's critical to understand the possible impacts MPs/NPs have on the heart. The Drosophila model has been growing in popularity within the toxicology field, it allows for affordable and rapid research on the impacts of a variety of toxins, including plastics. Some research has examined toxicological effects of plastics on the fly, evaluating the effects on mortality, fecundity, development, and locomotion. However, no one has studied the effects on the Drosophila heart. We utilize the Drosophila model to identify the potential effects of oral exposure to polystyrene MPs (1 µm in diameter) and NPs (0.05 µm in diameter) particles on heart function. Flies were exposed to 1.4 × 1011 particles/d/kg of larvae for MPs and 1.2 × 1018 particles/d/kg of larvae for NPs from egg to pupal eclosion. Heart function was then analyzed utilizing semi-intact dissections and Semi-automatic Optic Heartbeat Analysis software (SOHA). Following exposure to MPs and NPs we see sexually dimorphic changes to heart size and function. This study highlights the importance of additional Drosophila MPs/NPs research to identify the molecular mechanisms behind these changes.

Assessment of anthropogenic particles content in commercial beverages

Microplastic (MPs) pollution is a current global concern that is affecting all environmental compartments and food sources. In this work, anthropogenic particles occurrence (MPs and natural and synthetic cellulosic particles), have been determined in 73 beverages packed in different containers. Overall, 1521 anthropogenic particles were found, being the lowest occurrence in water samples (7.2 ± 10.1 items·L-1) while beer had the highest (95.5 ± 91.8 items·L-1). Colourless/white particles were the most detected followed by blue and red colours. The highest mean size was 783 ± 715 μm in soft drinks. Cellulosic, both natural and semisynthetic particles, were the composition mostly found but regarding plastic polymers, it was polyester. Phenoxy resin particles from the can coatings were also identified in all metal containers which indicates that leaching from the packaging may be happening. The total estimated daily intake were 0.077 and 0.159 items·kg-1 body weight (b.w.)·day-1 for children and adult population, respectively.

Ants avoid food contaminated with micro- and nanoplastics

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNP) have recently received particular attention in freshwater and marine ecosystems, but less is known about their impact on terrestrial species. Ants can be used as biological indicators for many types of pollutants and are therefore a good candidate to explore the effects of MNP pollution. In the present study, we investigated the ability of workers from seven colonies of the acrobat ant Crematogaster scutellaris to detect MNP in their food. After two days of starvation, groups of ten ants were tested for their preference toward control and polyethylene-treated solutions. Every 5 min over a total 20 min period, the number of workers feeding on either solution was counted. The results showed that C. scutellaris workers could detect and avoid contaminated food, feeding more often on the uncontaminated solution in the first 10 min. However, after 10 min the food preference was no longer significant between the groups, likely owing to feeding satiation. We then assessed whether this feeding behaviour is sufficient to cause the accumulation of MNP in the ant. We thereby provided a solution containing fluorescent MNP (fMNP) at the same concentration as in the previous experiments. Observation of the ants' mouthparts using fluorescent light microscopy showed that after 10 min dense aggregations of fMNP were visible. Further investigations are needed to understand the mechanisms of detection of MNP by ants, and the accumulation dynamics in ants' bodies. Moreover, the effects of MNP on the integrity and fitness of ant colonies, as well as the potential transfer across terrestrial trophic chains should be explored.

Microfibers in the Diet of a Highly Aerial Bird, the Common Swift Apus apus

Microplastic pollution is a pervasive global issue affecting various ecosystems. Despite the escalating production and well-documented contamination in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, the research focused on airborne microplastics and their interaction with terrestrial birds remains limited. In this study, we collected fecal sacs from Common swifts (Apus apus) to investigate their diet and to evaluate the potential ingestion of microplastics by both adults and nestlings. The diet was mainly composed of Hymenoptera and Coleoptera and did not differ among sexes and age classes. The 33% of nestlings' and 52% of adults' fecal sacs contained anthropogenic items, the totality of which was in the shape form of fibers. The 19.4% of the anthropogenic items were chemically characterized as microplastics, either polyethylene terephthalate (PET; two microfibers) or cellophane (four microfibers). Airborne anthropogenic items, including microplastic, might be passively ingested during the Common swift aerial feeding. In addition, our findings suggest that these ingested microparticles have the potential to be transferred to the offspring through food. While further research is essential to elucidate the pathways of microplastic ingestion, our results reinforce the evidence of the transfer of anthropogenic items from the atmosphere to the biota.

Microplastic in an apex predator: evidence from Barn owl (Tyto alba) pellets in two sites with different levels of anthropization

Plastic pollution in terrestrial and freshwater environments and its accumulation along food chains has been poorly studied in birds. The Barn owl (Tyto alba) is an opportunistic and nocturnal apex predator feeding mostly on small mammals. In this note, we reported evidence of microplastics (MPs) contamination in Barn owl pellets collected, for the first time, in two sites with different levels of anthropization (low: natural landscape mosaic vs. high extensive croplands). The following polymers have been recorded: polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), expanded polyester (EPS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyester (PL), viscose, and starch-based biopolymer. We found significant higher MPs frequency in the most anthropized site. Our results suggest that pellet' analysis may represent a cost-effective method for monitoring MP contamination along food chains in terrestrial ecosystems.

Birds as bioindicators of plastic pollution in terrestrial and freshwater environments: A 30-year review

Plastic pollution is a global concern that has grown ever more acute in recent years. Most research has focused on the impact of plastic pollution in marine environments. However, plastic is increasingly being detected in terrestrial and freshwater environments with key inland sources including landfills, where it is accessible to a wide range of organisms. Birds are effective bioindicators of pollutants for many reasons, including their high mobility and high intra- and interspecific variation in trophic levels. Freshwater and terrestrial bird species are under-represented in plastic pollution research compared to marine species. We reviewed 106 studies (spanning from 1994 onwards) that have detected plastics in bird species dwelling in freshwater and/or terrestrial habitats, identifying knowledge gaps. Seventy-two studies focused solely on macroplastics (fragments >5 mm), compared to 22 microplastic (fragments <5 mm) studies. A further 12 studies identified plastics as both microplastics and macroplastics. No study investigated nanoplastic (particles <100 nm) exposure. Research to date has geographical and species' biases while ignoring nanoplastic sequestration in free-living freshwater, terrestrial and marine bird species. Building on the baseline search presented here, we urge researchers to develop and validate standardised field sampling techniques and laboratory analytical protocols such as Raman spectroscopy to allow for the quantification and identification of micro- and nanoplastics in terrestrial and freshwater environments and the species therein. Future studies should consistently report the internalised and background concentrations, types, sizes and forms of plastics. This will enable a better understanding of the sources of plastic pollution and their routes of exposure to birds of terrestrial and freshwater environments, providing a more comprehensive insight into the potential impacts on birds.

White Stork Pellets: Non-Invasive Solution to Monitor Anthropogenic Particle Pollution

The present study applied a non-invasive method to analyse anthropogenic particles and prey items in white stork (Ciconia ciconia) pellets. Pellets (n = 20) were obtained from white stork nests during the 2020 breeding season from two sites in Croatia. In total, 7869 anthropogenic particles were isolated. The majority of particles were fragments, while previous studies on other birds often reported fibres. An ATR-FTIR polymer analysis detected glass and construction and building materials, as well as several compounds associated with plastic masses. Polymer investigation revealed the presence of dotriacontane and octacosane, which are by-products of polyethylene (PE) degradation and transformation. Additionally, the detection of vinylidene chloride (VDC) highlights the historical contribution of polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) to plastic pollution. Significant variation in particle quantity and size between the sampling sites was detected, with larger particles found at sites associated with the metal mechanical engineering industry and agriculture. Prey assessment revealed chitin remains of large insects such as Orthoptera and Coleoptera. This research confirms the potential of pellet analysis as a valuable tool for assessing the presence of anthropogenic particles in the environment. However, further research is needed to fully understand the extent of particle ingestion, particle sources and potential impact.

Accumulation of microplastics in predatory birds near a densely populated urban area

The pollution due to plastic and other anthropogenic particles has steadily increased over the last few decades, presenting a significant threat to the environment and organisms, including avian species. This research aimed to investigate the occurrence of anthropogenic pollutants in the digestive and respiratory systems of four birds of prey: Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), and Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). The results revealed widespread contamination in all species with microplastics (MPs) and cellulosic anthropogenic fibers (AFs), with an average of 7.9 MPs and 9.2 AFs per specimen. Every digestive system contained at least one MP, while 65 % of specimens exhibited MPs in their respiratory systems. This is the work reporting a high incidence of MPs in the respiratory system of birds, clearly indicating inhalation as a pathway for exposure to plastic pollution. The content of MPs and AFs varied significantly when comparing specimens collected from central Madrid with those recovered from other parts of the region, including rural environments, suburban areas, or less populated cities. This result aligns with the assumption that anthropogenic particles disperse from urban centers to surrounding areas. Additionally, the dominant particle shape consisted of small-sized fibers (> 98 %), primarily composed of polyester, polyethylene, acrylic materials, and cellulose fibers exhibiting indicators of industrial treatment. These findings emphasize the necessity for further research on the impact of plastic and other anthropogenic material contamination in avian species, calling for effective strategies to mitigate plastic pollution.

A review on methods for extracting and quantifying microplastic in biological tissues

Literature about the occurrence of microplastic in biological tissues has increased over the last few years. This review aims to synthesis the evidence on the preparation of biological tissues, chemical identification of microplastic and accumulation in tissues. Several microplastic's extraction approaches from biological tissues emerged (i.e., alkaline, acids, oxidizing and enzymatic). However, criteria used for the selection of the extraction method have yet to be clarified. Similarly, analytical methodologies for chemical identification often does not align with the size of particles. Furthermore, sizes of microplastics found in biological tissues are likely to be biologically implausible, due to the size of the biological barriers. From this review, it emerged that further assessment are required to determine whether microplastic particles were truly internalized, were in the vasculature serving these organs, or were an artefact of the methodological process. The importance of a standardisation of quality control/quality assurance emerged. Findings arose from this review could have a broad implication, and could be used as a basis for further investigations, to reduce artifact results and clearly assess the fate of microplastics in biological tissues.

Diet analysis and the assessment of plastic and other indigestible anthropogenic litter in the white stork pellets

Pollution by anthropogenic litter is a major threat to global ecosystems. Seabirds are frequently used as environmental monitors of litter ingestion, but similar research is rare for terrestrial birds. Here, we focused on pellet analysis from 117 nests of an iconic bird of the Western Palearctic, the white stork (Ciconia ciconia), breeding in southern and southwestern Poland in a farmland landscape, far away from large dumps and landfills. We found that most prey items in the diet of white storks were invertebrates (particularly from orders Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera) but vertebrate prey comprised most of the biomass. Further analysis revealed that anthropogenic litter was found in 22.7% of pellets (34.2% of breeding pairs) with plastic (8.4%) and cigarette filters (6.9%) being most prevalent. This study represents the first assessment through pellet analysis of the ingestion of anthropogenic litter by live wild storks in Poland and also by a migratory population of white storks. Our study indicates a potentially significant transfer of plastic and other anthropogenic material through terrestrial food webs.

Characterizing the Movement of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in an Avian Aquatic-Terrestrial Food Web

The movement of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) through linked aquatic-terrestrial food webs is not well understood. Tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) in such systems may be exposed to PFAS from multiple abiotic and/or biotic compartments. We show from fatty acid signatures and carbon stable isotopes that tree swallow nestlings in southwestern Ontario fed on both terrestrial and aquatic macroinvertebrates. The PFAS profiles of air, terrestrial invertebrates, and swallows were dominated by perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). Short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) were largely restricted to air, surface water, and sediment, and long-chain PFAAs were mainly found in aquatic invertebrates and tree swallows. PFOS, multiple long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids [perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorotridecanoic acid (PFTrDA)] and perfluorooctane sulfonamide precursors were estimated to bioaccumulate from air to tree swallows. PFOS bioaccumulated from air to terrestrial invertebrates, and PFOS, PFDA, and perfluorooctane sulfonamidoacetic acids (FOSAAs) bioaccumulated from water to aquatic invertebrates. PFOS showed biomagnification from both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates to tree swallows, and PFDA and FOSAAs were also biomagnified from aquatic invertebrates to tree swallows. The movement of PFAS through aquatic-terrestrial food webs appears congener- and compartment-specific, challenging the understanding of PFAS exposure routes for multiple species involved in these food webs.

The influence of environmental and ecological factors on the accumulation and distribution of short- and long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids in a mid-trophic avian insectivore

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) include perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorodecane sulfonic acid (PFDS), as well as increasingly used alternative short-chain perfluorosulfonic acids (PFSAs) and short- and long-chain (≥C₉) perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs). In the present study, tissues of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) from two sites in southern Ontario, Canada, were analyzed for 17 individual PFAAs and showed egg and nestling tissue (liver, carcass) profiles dominated by PFOS (57-66%). The remaining PFAAs contributed ≤7% each, although collectively the long-chain PFCAs comprised 21-29% of the PFAAs. The short-chain PFSAs and PFCAs were among the lowest concentrations, suggesting that despite increased production and use of these alternative PFAAs, they are not accumulated to the same extent as the long-chain PFSAs and PFCAs. PFOS, PFDS, and some long-chain PFCAs were significantly higher in eggs than in livers and carcasses, whereas PFOA and the two short-chain PFCAs were significantly higher in nestling tissues than in eggs. For the two short-chain PFSAs, concentrations were similar among tissues. Tree swallow tissues at the site near a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) outfall showed higher concentrations of PFOS, PFDS, PFHxS, and some long-chain PFCAs than tree swallows sampled at the nearby reference site; however, the influence of the WWTP was more equivocal for PFOA, other long-chain PFCAs, and short-chain PFSAs and PFCAs. Carbon stable isotopes (δ¹³C) and fatty acid signatures indicated that the diets of the WWTP swallows were more terrestrial than the reference swallows. Nonetheless, models considering environmental and ecological variables indicated that site was often the primary driver of PFAA variation among the swallows, with less or no influence of dietary patterns, or sex or body condition, revealing that of WWTP effluent can be an important environmental source of the major PFAAs in tree swallows.

Review of research on migration, distribution, biological effects, and analytical methods of microfibers in the environment

Microplastics have been proven to be one of the critical environmental pollution issues. Moreover, microfibers, the most prominent form of microplastics in the environment, have likewise attracted the attention of various countries. With the increase in global population and industrialization, the production and use of fibers continue to increase yearly. As a result, a large number of microfibers are formed. If fiber products are not used or handled correctly, it will cause direct/indirect severe microfiber environmental pollution. Microfibers will be further broken into smaller fiber fragments when they enter the natural environment. Presently, researchers have conducted extensive research in the identification of microfibers, laying the foundation for further resourcefulness research. This work used bibliometric analysis to review the microfiber contamination researches systematically. First, the primary sources of microfibers and the influencing factors are analyzed. We aim to summarize the influence of the clothing fiber preparation and care processes on microfiber formation. Then, this work elaborated on the migration in/between water, atmosphere, and terrestrial environments. We also discussed the effects of microfiber on ecosystems. Finally, microfibers' current and foreseeable effective treatment, disposal, and resource utilization methods were explained. This paper will provide a structured reference for future microfiber research.

Thrushes (Aves: Passeriformes) as indicators of microplastic pollution in terrestrial environments

Microplastic pollution is one of the leading global conservation issues. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tracts of Common Blackbirds Turdus merula (N = 16) and Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos (N = 18), songbirds with exceptionally terrestrial lifestyles and a wide distribution range. We searched for microplastics of over 100 μm in size and assessed whether their contamination differed regarding the age of the birds and the time of year. We used birds that had died as a result of collision with anthropogenic infrastructure, which were sampled during wildlife monitoring of anthropogenic infrastructures and citizen science projects in north-eastern Poland. We found that all the analysed individuals contained microplastic in their gastrointestinal tracts, which were classified as fibers, fragments, films and pellets. A total number of 1073 microplastics were observed, mostly consisting of fibers (84 %) and films (10 %) below 1 mm in size. The dominant colours of microplastics were transparent (75 %) and brown (14 %). The species average microplastic concentration was higher in Song Thrushes (40.1) than Common Blackbirds (21.9), however the difference was not statistically significant. Moreover, we found no seasonal or age-related differences in microplastic ingestion in either species. While our results show a ubiquity of microplastics in terrestrial environments, they also indicate that thrushes have the potential to be used as indicators of microplastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems.

Microplastic contamination in terrestrial ecosystems: A study using barn owl (Tyto alba) pellets

Microplastics (MPs) are recognised as an emerging environmental problem that needs to be carefully monitored. So far, MPs have been widely recorded in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Still, few studies have focused on MP occurrence in terrestrial ecosystems, although soils are suspected to be one of the main MP reservoirs. To test a non-invasive method for assessing MP contamination in terrestrial ecosystems, we analysed the pellets of a top terrestrial predator, the barn owl (Tyto alba). Sixty pellets were collected from three agricultural areas (20 pellets each) and analysed to assess both barn owl diet and MP content. Thirty-four MPs were confirmed by micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (μ-FTIR) analysis in 33% of the pellets (min-max 1-5 MPs per pellet). Most of the detected items were microfibres (88.2%). Polyethylene terephthalate, polyacrylonitrile and polyamide were the most abundant polymers. One of the three sites was significantly less contaminated. In the two sites with the highest MP occurrences, barn owl diet was characterised by predation on synanthropic rodents, particularly brown rats (Rattus norvegicus), which may indicate habitat degradation and increased exposure to MPs. Analyses also suggest that Savi's pine vole (Microtus savii) is the prey least at risk of MP contamination, probably due to its strictly herbivorous diet. We argue that the analysis of barn owl pellets may represent a cost-effective method for monitoring MP contamination in terrestrial ecosystems.

Microplastic accumulation in the gastrointestinal tracts of nestling and adult migratory birds

This study examines the abundance and types of microplastic (MP) content in the digestive system of different bird species to help us better understand MP transfer to birds from their environments. The lower GI tracts of six bird species (Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla), Dark-eyed Junco (Junco hyemalis), Hermit Thrush (Catharus guttatus), Tennessee Warbler (Leiothlypis peregrine), White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)) were collected for MP analysis. Tree Swallows were collected from nine locations along three drainages in the Milwaukee area and at a remote lake in Wisconsin, USA and consisted of nestlings not yet fledged. The five other bird species were adult migratory bird fatalities from window strikes at the Loyola University Chicago's Lake Shore Campus. Results of plastic analysis showed that the lower GI tracts of all bird species contained different types of MPs (i.e., fibers, fragment, beads). Fiber was the most dominant, followed by fragment and beads. Microplastics were polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, nylon, and polyvinyl base materials. There was no statistically significant difference in the site average MP concentration for nestling Tree Swallows or in the species average concentration for adult migratory birds. However, except for Ovenbird, species of adult migratory birds had a species average MP concentration (20.1) that was statistically higher than the site-average MP concentration for Tree Swallow nestlings (5.9). The presence of MPs in the lower GI tracts of unfledged swallows could suggest that MPs had been transferred to the birds from the environment via their diet, such as flying insects-the food source of the birds. Further study should be conducted to investigate the potential transfer of MPs from aquatic insects to birds.

Microplastics aging in wastewater treatment plants: Focusing on physicochemical characteristics changes and corresponding environmental risks

Microplastics (MPs) have been frequently detected in effluent wastewater and sludge in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), the discharge and agricultural application of which represent a primary source of environmental MPs contamination. As important as quantitative removal is, changes of physicochemical characteristics of MPs (e.g., shapes, sizes, density, crystallinity) in WWTPs are crucial to their environmental behaviors and risks and have not been put enough attention yet. This review is therefore to provide a current overview on the changes of physicochemical characteristics of MPs in WWTPs and their corresponding environmental risks. The changes of physicochemical characteristics as well as the underlying mechanisms of MPs in different successional wastewater and sludge treatment stages that mainly driven by mechanical (e.g., mixing, pumping, filtering), chemical (e.g., flocculation, advanced oxidation, ultraviolet radiation, thermal hydrolysis, incineration and lime stabilization), biological (e.g., activated sludge process, anaerobic digestion, composition) and their combination effects were first recapitulated. Then, the inevitable correlations between physicochemical characteristics of MPs and their environmental behaviors (e.g., migration, adsorption) and risks (e.g., animals, plants, microbes), are comprehensively discussed with particular emphasis on the leaching of additives and physicochemical characteristics that affect the co-exist pollutants behavior of MPs in WWTPs on environmental risks. Finally, knowing the summarized above, some relating unanswered questions and concerns that need to be unveiled in the future are prospected. The physicochemical properties of MPs change after passing through WWTP, leading to subsequent changes in co-contaminant adsorption, migration, and toxicity. This could threaten our ecosystems and human health and must be worth investigating.

Enrichment and dissemination of bacterial pathogens by microplastics in the aquatic environment

Microplastic pollution and associated impacts in the aquatic environment are spreading at an alarming rate worldwide. Plastic waste is increasing in the environment, and microplastics (MPs) are becoming a growing issue because they serve as vectors for pathogen transmission. This is the first comprehensive review that specifically addresses MPs as a source and vector of pathogenic bacteria, mainly associated with genera Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and so on, which are discovered to be more abundant on the aquatic plastisphere than that in the surrounding wastewater, freshwater, and marine water ecosystems. The horizontal gene transfer, chemotaxis, and co-selection and cross-selection could be the potential mechanism involved in the enrichment and dissemination of bacterial pathogens through the aquatic plastisphere. Further, bacterial pathogens through aquatic plastisphere can cause various ecological and human health impacts such as disrupted food chain, oxidative stress, tissue damages, disease transmission, microbial dysbiosis, metabolic disorders, among others. Last but not least, future research directions are also described to find answers to the challenging questions about bacterial pathogens in the aquatic plastisphere to ensure the integrity and safety of ecological and human health.