Occurrence of viruses in sewage sludge: A systematic review

Membrane modification in enhancement of virus removal: A critical review

Many waterborne diseases are related with viruses, and COVID-19 worldwide has raised the concern of virus security in water into the public horizon. Compared to other conventional water treatment processes, membrane technology can achieve satisfactory virus removal with fewer chemicals, and prevent the outbreaks of viruses to a maximal extent. Researchers developed new modification methods to improve membrane performance. This review focused on the membrane modifications that enhance the performance in virus removal. The characteristics of viruses and their removal by membrane filtration were briefly generalized, and membrane modifications were systematically discussed through different virus removal mechanisms, including size exclusion, hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions, electronic interactions, and inactivation. Advanced functional materials for membrane modification were summarized based on their nature. Furthermore, it is suggested that membranes should be enhanced through different mechanisms mainly based on their ranks of pore size. The current review provided theoretical support regarding membrane modifications in the enhancement of virus removal and avenues for practical application.

Assessing infectivity of emerging enveloped viruses in wastewater and sewage sludge: Relevance and procedures

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has heightened the need to evaluate the detection of enveloped viruses in the environment, particularly in wastewater, within the context of wastewater-based epidemiology. The studies published over the past 80 years focused primarily on non-enveloped viruses due to their ability to survive longer in environmental matrices such as wastewater or sludge compared to enveloped viruses. However, different enveloped viruses survive in the environment for different lengths of time. Therefore, it is crucial to be prepared to assess the potential infectious risk that may arise from future emerging enveloped viruses. This will require appropriate tools, notably suitable viral concentration methods that do not compromise virus infectivity. This review has a dual purpose: first, to gather all the available literature on the survival of infectious enveloped viruses, specifically at different pH and temperature conditions, and in contact with detergents; second, to select suitable concentration methods for evaluating the infectivity of these viruses in wastewater and sludge. The methodology used in this data collection review followed the systematic approach outlined in the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. Concentration methods cited in the data gathered are more tailored towards detecting the enveloped viruses' genome. There is a lack of suitable methods for detecting infectious enveloped viruses in wastewater and sludge. Ultrafiltration, ultracentrifugation, and polyethylene glycol precipitation methods, under specific/defined conditions, appear to be relevant approaches. Further studies are necessary to validate reliable concentration methods for detecting infectious enveloped viruses. The choice of culture system is also crucial for detection sensitivity. The data also show that the survival of infectious enveloped viruses, though lower than that of non-enveloped ones, may enable environmental transmission. Experimental data on a wide range of enveloped viruses is required due to the variability in virus persistence in the environment.

Exploring adenovirus in water environments: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Adenoviruses (AdVs) have a significant impact in both medical and environmental contexts. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of AdV in different water types, such as untreated and treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and other water matrices. A total of 239 articles were included in this meta-analysis. Adenoviruses were detected in various waters worldwide. The overall prevalence in water was found to be 59.2%, with the highest prevalence in untreated wastewater (83.1%) and treated wastewater (75.3%), followed by "other water matrices" (53.4%), surface water (49.5%) drinking water (22.7%), and groundwater (18.5%). Most of the studies did not assess the viability of the viruses, leading to weak links between water contamination and risk. Both human and animal AdV were found in water environments. The findings suggest that water, including drinking water, could be a significant route of AdV transmission in both developed and developing economies.

Epidemiology of Rotavirus in Humans, Animals, and the Environment in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Globally, rotavirus infections are the most common cause of diarrhea-related deaths, especially among children under 5 years of age. This virus can be transmitted through the fecal-oral route, although zoonotic and environmental contributions to transmission are poorly defined. The purpose of this study is to determine the epidemiology of rotavirus in humans, animals, and the environment in Africa, as well as the impact of vaccination.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Africa Index Medicus, and African Journal Online, identifying 240 prevalence data points from 224 articles between 2009 and 2022.

RESULTS

Human rotavirus prevalence among patients with gastroenteritis was 29.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 28.1%-31.5%; 238 710 participants), with similar estimates in children under 5 years of age, and an estimated case fatality rate of 1.2% (95% CI, .7%-2.0%; 10 440 participants). Prevalence was estimated to be 15.4% and 6.1% in patients with nongastroenteritis illnesses and apparently healthy individuals, respectively. Among animals, prevalence was 9.3% (95% CI, 5.7%-13.7%; 6115 animals), and in the environmental water sources, prevalence was 31.4% (95% CI, 17.7%-46.9%; 2530 samples).

DISCUSSION

Our findings highlight the significant burden of rotavirus infection in Africa, and underscore the need for a One Health approach to limiting the spread of this disease.

Activated sludge and UV-C254 for Sapovirus, Aichivirus, Astrovirus, and Adenovirus processing

In this study, the detection rates of four enteric viruses, Human Astrovirus (HAstVs), Aichivirus (AiVs), Human Adenovirus (HAdVs), and Sapovirus (SaVs) are carried out to assess the virological quality of the treated wastewater. A total of 140 samples was collected from wastewater treatment plant WWTP of Tunis-City. Real-time RT-PCR and conventional RT-PCR results showed high frequencies of detection of the four enteric viruses investigated at the entry and exit of the biological activated sludge procedure and a significant reduction in viral titers after tertiary treatment with UV-C254 irradiation. These results revealed the ineffectiveness of the biological activated sludge treatment in removing viruses and the poor quality of the treated wastewater intended for recycling, agricultural reuse, and safe discharge into the natural environment. The UV-C254 irradiation, selected while considering the non-release of known disinfection by-products because of eventual reactions with the large organic and mineral load commonly present in the wastewater.

Human viral pathogens in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum: Evidence, health risks, and lessons for future outbreaks in low-income settings

Human viral pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2 continue to attract public and research attention due to their disruption of society, global health, and the economy. Several earlier reviews have investigated the occurrence and fate of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater, and the potential to use such data in wastewater-based epidemiology. However, comprehensive reviews tracking SARS-CoV-2 and other viral pathogens in the wastewater-water-drinking water continuum and the associated risk assessment are still lacking. Therefore, to address this gap, the present paper makes the following contributions: (1) critically examines the early empirical results to highlight the occurrence and stability of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (2) discusses the anthropogenic and hydro(geo)logical processes controlling the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (3) discusses the risky behaviour, drivers and high-risk settings in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (4) uses the available empirical data on SARS-CoV-2 occurrence in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum to discuss human health risks from multiple exposure pathways, gendered aspects of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via shared on-site sanitation systems, and (5) develops and risk mitigation strategy based on the available empirical evidence and quantitative human risk assessment data. Finally, it presents a comprehensive research agenda on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 to guide the mitigation of future similar outbreaks in low-income settings.

Adapted methods for monitoring influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus in sludge and wastewater

Wastewater-based surveillance constitutes a valuable methodology for the continuous monitoring of viral circulation, with the capacity to function as an early warning system. It holds particular significance in scenarios where respiratory viruses exhibit overlapping clinical presentations, as occurs with SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus (IV), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and allows seasonal virus outbreaks to be distinguished from COVID-19 peaks. Furthermore, sewage sludge, given it harbors concentrated human waste from a large population, serves as a substantial reservoir for pathogen detection. To effectively integrate wastewater-based epidemiology into infectious disease surveillance, the detection methods employed in wastewater samples must be adapted to the distinct characteristics of sludge matrices. In this study, we adapted and applied protocols for the detection of IV and RSV in sewage sludge, comparing their performance with the results obtained in wastewater. To assess the efficiency of these protocols, sludge and wastewater samples were spiked with IV and RSV RNA, either free or incorporated in lentiviral particles. Samples were concentrated using the aluminum hydroxide adsorption-precipitation method before viral RNA extraction. Absolute virus quantification was carried out by RT-qPCR, including an internal control to monitor potential inhibitory factors. Recovery efficiencies for both free IV and RSV RNA were 60 % in sludge, and 75 % and 71 % respectively in wastewater, whereas the values for IV and RSV RNA in lentiviral particles were 16 % and 10 % in sludge and 21 % and 17 % in wastewater respectively. Additionally, the protocol enabled the quantification of naturally occurring IV and RSV in wastewater and sludge samples collected from two wastewater treatment plants during the winter months, thus affirming the efficacy of the employed methodologies.

Co-composting of sewage sludge as an effective technology for the production of substrates with reduced content of pharmaceutical residues

Sewage sludge is a valuable source of elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen. At the same time, heavy metals, emerging organic compounds, micropollutants (pharmaceuticals, pesticides, PCPs, microplastics), or some potentially dangerous bacteria can be present. In this study, the sewage sludge was aerobically treated by composting with other materials (co-composted), and the resulting substrate was tested for suitability of its use in agriculture. Closer attention was focused on the pharmaceuticals (non-steroidal antiphlogistics, sartanes, antiepileptics, caffeine, and nicotine metabolites) content and ecotoxicity of the resulting substrates in the individual phases of sludge co-composting. It has been verified that during co-composting there is a potential for reduction of the content of pharmaceutical in the substrates up to 90 %. The course of the temperature in the thermophilic phase is decisive. Growth and ecotoxicity experiments demonstrated that with a suitable co-composting procedure, the resulting stabilized matter is suitable as a substrate for use in plant production, and the risk of using sewage sludge on agricultural land is substantially reduced.

Assessment of Gastroenteric Viruses in Marketed Bivalve Mollusks in the Tourist Cities of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2022

This study investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of gastroenteric viruses in mussels and oysters in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. One hundred and thirty-four marketed bivalve samples were obtained between January and December 2022. The viral analysis was performed according to ISO/TS 15216, and the screening revealed the detection of norovirus GII/GI (40.3%), sapovirus (SaV; 12.7%), human mastadenovirus (7.5%), and rotavirus A (RVA; 5.9%). In total, 44.8% (60) of shellfish samples tested positive for one or more viruses, 46.7% (28/60) of the positive samples tested positive for a single viral agent, 26.7% (16) tested positive for two viral agents, 8.3% (5) for three viral agents, and 13.3% (8) for four viral agents. Additionally, three mussel samples were contaminated with the five investigated viruses (5%, 3/60). Norovirus GII showed the highest mean viral load (3.4 × 105 GC/g), followed by SaV (1.4 × 104 GC/g), RVA (1.1 × 104 GC/g), human mastadenovirus (3.9 × 103 GC/g), and norovirus GI (6.7 × 102 GC/g). Molecular characterization revealed that the recovered norovirus strains belonged to genotypes GII.2, GII.6, GII.9, GII.17, and GII.27; SaV belonged to genotypes GI.1 and GIV.1; RVA to genotypes G6, G8, P[8]-III, and human mastadenovirus to types F40 and F41. The GII.27 norovirus characterized in this study is the only strain of this genotype reported in Brazil. This study highlights the dissemination and diversity of gastroenteric viruses present in commercialized bivalves in a touristic area, indicating the potential risk to human health and the contribution of bivalves in the propagation of emerging pathogens.

Novel multiplexed alkali enzyme lysis coupled with EDTA pretreatment for RNA virus extraction from wastewater sludge: Optimization, recovery, and detection

RNA viruses are readily enriched in wastewater sludge owing to adsorption by extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) during wastewater treatment, causing pathogenicity. However, conventional wastewater extraction methods often fail to fully extract these viruses from sludge. In this study, three methods: enzymatic (ENP), alkaline (ALP), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) pretreatments were applied to sludges and promote the RNA virus extraction from sludge. Our results show that the total recovery rate of RNA viruses increased by 87.73% after ENP pretreatment, whereas ALP pretreatment inhibited virus extraction. The highest recovery rate of viruses from sludge, reaching 296.80%, was achieved with EDTA pretreatment (EDP) coupled with ENP. Notably, the most significant increase was observed in the abundance of Astroviruses, which increased from 7.60 × 107 to 7.86 × 108 copies/g TSS after EDP + ENP treatment. Our investigations revealed that virus extraction was affected by a class of short-wavelength protein substances, as opposed to tryptophan or tyrosine, which were eluted by proteins with beef paste buffer by substitution after EDP + ENP treatment. The results of this study provide essential insights for sludge-based epidemiology with the required sensitivity for managing the extraction of RNA epidemic viruses to control viral transmission.

Circulation of adenovirus and other viruses in urban drainage channels: an environmental surveillance in Belém, Amazon region, Brazil

Urban channels in amazon cities are very polluted, with garbage and sewage disposal in these aquatic environments, favoring the high dissemination of waterborne viruses such as human adenovirus (HAdV). The aim of this study was to perform the detection and molecular characterization of adenovirus in urban channels and in a wastewater treatment plant located in a metropolitan city in the Amazon. Additionally, metagenomic analyses were performed to assess viral diversity. Samples were concentrated by organic flocculation, analyzed by quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) and sequenced (Sanger e next generation sequencing). Cell culture was performed to verify the viability of HAdV particles. A total of 104 samples were collected, being the HAdV positivity of 76% (79/104). Among the positive samples, 29.1% (23/79) were characterized as HAdV-F40 (87%, 20/23), HAdV-F41 (8.7%, 2/23), and HAdV-B (4.3%, 1/23). Average precipitation rates ranged from 163 to 614 mm, while the pH ranged from 6.9 to 7.6. Eight positive samples were inoculated into A549 cells and in 4 of these, was observed changes in the structure of the cell monolayer, alteration in the structure of the cell monolayer was observed, but without amplification when analyzed by PCR. The metagenomic data demonstrated the presence of 14 viral families, being the most abundant: Myoviridae (41% of available reads), Siphoviridae (24.5%), Podoviridae (14.1%), and Autographiviridae (6.9%) with more than 85% of the total number of identified reads. This study reinforcing that continuous surveillance may contribute to monitoring viral diversity in aquatic environments and provide early warning of potential outbreaks.

Predictive potential of SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentration in wastewater to assess the dynamics of COVID-19 clinical outcomes and infections

Coronavirus disease 2019 - caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) -, has triggered a worldwide pandemic resulting in 665 million infections and over 6.5 million deaths as of December 15, 2022. The development of different epidemiological tools have helped predict new outbreaks and assess the behavior of clinical variables in different health contexts. In this study, we aimed to monitor concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater as a tool to predict the progression of clinical variables during Waves 3, 5, and 6 of the pandemic in the Spanish city of Xátiva from September 2020 to March 2022. We estimated SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in 195 wastewater samples using the RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel validated by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. We also compared the trends of several clinical variables (14-day cumulative incidence, positive cases, hospital cases and stays, critical cases and stays, primary care visits, and deaths) for each study wave against wastewater SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations using Pearson's product-moment correlations, a two-sided Mann-Whitney U test, and a cross-correlation analysis. We found strong correlations between SARS-CoV-2 concentrations with 14-day cumulative incidence and positive cases over time. Wastewater RNA concentrations showed strong correlations with these variables one and two weeks in advance. There were significant correlations with hospitalizations and critical care during Wave 3 and Wave 6; cross-correlations were stronger for hospitalization stays one week before during Wave 6. No association between vaccination percentages and wastewater viral concentrations was observed. Our findings support wastewater SARS-CoV-2 concentrations as a potential surveillance tool to anticipate infection and epidemiological data such as 14-day cumulative incidence, hospitalizations, and critical care stays. Public health authorities could use this epidemiological tool on a similar population as an aid for health care decision-making during an epidemic outbreak.

The bacterial biofilm resistome in drinking water distribution systems: A systematic review

Antibiotic resistance in drinking water systems poses human health risks. Earlier studies, including reviews on antibiotic resistance in drinking water systems are limited to the occurrence, behaviour and fate in bulk raw water and drinking water treatment systems. By comparison, reviews on the bacterial biofilm resistome in drinking water distribution systems are still limited. Therefore, the present systematic review investigates the occurrence, behaviour and fate and, detection methods of bacterial biofilm resistome in the drinking water distribution systems. A total of 12 original articles drawn from 10 countries were retrieved and analyzed. Antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes detected in biofilms include those for sulfonamides, tetracycline, and beta-lactamase. The genera detected in biofilms include Staphylococcus, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Mycobacteria, as well as Enterobacteriaceae family and other gram-negative bacteria. The presence of Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcusaureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacterbaumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species (ESKAPE bacteria) among the detected bacteria points to potential human exposure and health risks especially for susceptible individuals via the consumption of drinking water. Besides, the effects of water quality parameter and residual chlorine, the physico-chemical factors controlling the emergence, persistence and fate of the biofilm resistome are still poorly understood. Culture-based methods, and molecular methods, and their advantages and limitations are discussed. The limited data on the bacterial biofilm resistome in drinking water distribution system points to the need for further research. To this end, future research directions are discussed including understanding the formation, behaviour, and fate of the resistome and the controlling factors.

RNA-Seq of untreated wastewater to assess COVID-19 and emerging and endemic viruses for public health surveillance

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic showcased the power of genomic sequencing to tackle the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. However, metagenomic sequencing of total microbial RNAs in wastewater has the potential to assess multiple infectious diseases simultaneously and has yet to be explored.

Methods

A retrospective RNA-Seq epidemiological survey of 140 untreated composite wastewater samples was performed across urban (n = 112) and rural (n = 28) areas of Nagpur, Central India. Composite wastewater samples were prepared by pooling 422 individual grab samples collected prospectively from sewer lines of urban municipality zones and open drains of rural areas from 3rd February to 3rd April 2021, during the second COVID-19 wave in India. Samples were pre-processed and total RNA was extracted prior to genomic sequencing.

Findings

This is the first study that has utilised culture and/or probe-independent unbiased RNA-Seq to examine Indian wastewater samples. Our findings reveal the detection of zoonotic viruses including chikungunya, Jingmen tick and rabies viruses, which have not previously been reported in wastewater. SARS-CoV-2 was detectable in 83 locations (59%), with stark abundance variations observed between sampling sites. Hepatitis C virus was the most frequently detected infectious virus, identified in 113 locations and co-occurring 77 times with SARS-CoV-2; and both were more abundantly detected in rural areas than urban zones. Concurrent identification of segmented virus genomic fragments of influenza A virus, norovirus, and rotavirus was observed. Geographical differences were also observed for astrovirus, saffold virus, husavirus, and aichi virus that were more prevalent in urban samples, while the zoonotic viruses chikungunya and rabies, were more abundant in rural environments.

Interpretation

RNA-Seq can effectively detect multiple infectious diseases simultaneously, facilitating geographical and epidemiological surveys of endemic viruses that could help direct healthcare interventions against emergent and pre-existent infectious diseases as well as cost-effectively and qualitatively characterising the health status of the population over time.

Funding

UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) grant number H54810, as supported by Research England.

A critical assessment of SARS-CoV-2 in aqueous environment: Existence, detection, survival, wastewater-based surveillance, inactivation methods, and effective management of COVID-19

In early January 2020, the causal agent of unspecified pneumonia cases detected in China and elsewhere was identified as a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and was the major cause of the COVID-19 outbreak. Later, the World Health Organization (WHO) proclaimed the COVID-19 pandemic a worldwide public health emergency on January 30, 2020. Since then, many studies have been published on this topic. In the present study, bibliometric analysis has been performed to analyze the research hotspots of the coronavirus. Coronavirus transmission, detection methods, potential risks of infection, and effective management practices have been discussed in the present review. Identification and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 viral loads in various water matrices have been reviewed. It was observed that the viral shedding through urine and feces of COVID-19-infected patients might be a primary mode of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in water and wastewater. In this context, the present review highlights wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE)/sewage surveillance, which can be utilized as an effective tool for tracking the transmission of COVID-19. This review also emphasizes the role of different disinfection techniques, such as chlorination, ultraviolet irradiation, and ozonation, for the inactivation of coronavirus. In addition, the application of computational modeling methods has been discussed for the effective management of COVID-19.

Comparative evaluation of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for reducing SARS-CoV-2 viral load from campus sewage water

Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater is a major concern as the wastewater meets rivers and other water bodies and is used by the population for various purposes. Hence it is very important to treat sewage water in an efficient manner in order to reduce the public health risk. In the present work, various advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been evaluated for disinfection of SARS-CoV-2 from sewage water collected from STP inlet of academic institutional residential. The sewage water was subjected to ten AOPs, which include Ozone (O₃), Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC), Ultraviolet radiation (UV), and their hybrid combinations like HC/O₃, HC/O₃/H₂O₂, HC/H₂O_2, O₃/UV, UV/H₂O₂, UV/H₂O₂/O_3, and O₃/H₂O₂ to reduce SARS-CoV-2 viral load. Further, AOP treated sewage water was subjected to total nucleic acid isolation followed by RT-qPCR for viral load estimation. The sewage water treatment techniques were evaluated based on their viral concentration-reducing efficiency. It was found that ozone and ozone-coupled hybrid AOPs showed the most promising result with more than 98 % SARS-CoV-2 viral load reducing efficiency from sewage water. Interestingly, the best six AOPs used in this study significantly reduced both the SARS-CoV-2 and PMMoV (faecal indicator) viral load and improved water quality in terms of increasing DO and decreasing TOC.

Contemporary Drift in Emerging Micro(nano)plastics Removal and Upcycling Technologies from Municipal Wastewater Sludge: Strategic Innovations and Prospects

Purpose of Review

Annually, huge amounts of microplastics (MPs) are added to farmlands through sewage sludge (SS)/biosolid applications as a fertilizer. Most research emphasizes the enormity of the problem and demonstrates the fate, impacts, and toxicity of MPs during SS treatment processes and land applications. None has addressed the management strategies. To address the gaps, the current review evaluates the performance analysis of conventional and advanced sludge treatment methods in eliminating MPs from sludge.

Recent Findings

The review uncovers that the occurrence and characteristics of MPs in SS are highly governed by factors such as population density, speed and level of urbanization, citizens' daily habits, and treatment units in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Furthermore, conventional sludge treatment processes are ineffective in eliminating MPs from SS and are accountable for the increased small-sized MPs or micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) along with altered surface morphology facilitating more co-contaminant adsorption. Simultaneously, MPs can influence the operation of these treatment processes depending on their size, type, shape, and concentration. The review reveals that research to develop advanced technology to remove MPs efficiently from SS is still at a nascent stage.

Summary

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of MPs in the SS, by corroborating state-of-the-knowledge, on different aspects, including the global occurrence of MPs in WWTP sludge, impacts of different conventional sludge treatment processes on MPs and vice versa, and efficiency of advanced sludge treatment and upcycling technologies to eliminate MPs, which will facilitate the development of mitigation measures from the systematic and holistic level.

Graphical Abstract

Changing molecular epidemiology of Hepatitis A virus in Santiago, Chile from 2010 to 2021

OBJECTIVES

Hepatitis A (HAV) virus causes asymptomatic to life-treating fulminant hepatitis. During infection, patients show large viral excretion in their stools. Resistance of HAV to environmental conditions, allows us to recover viral nucleotide sequences from wastewater and trace its evolutionary history.

METHODS

We characterize twelve years of HAV circulation in wastewater from Santiago, Chile, and conducted phylogenetic analyses to decipher the dynamics of circulating lineages.

RESULTS

We observed the exclusive circulation of the HAV IA genotype. The molecular epidemiologic analyses showed a steady circulation of a dominant lineage with low genetic diversity (d = 0,007) between 2010 and 2017. An outbreak of Hepatitis A associated with men who have sex with men, in 2017 was associated with the irruption of a new lineage. Remarkably, a dramatic change in the dynamic of HAV circulation was observed in the period post-outbreak; between 2017 and 2021 when 4 different lineages were transiently detected. Exhaustive phylogenetic analyses indicate that these lineages were introduced and possibly derived from isolates from other Latin American countries.

CONCLUSION

The HAV circulation in recent years in Chile is rapidly changing and suggests that this phenomenon could be a consequence of massive population migrations in Latin America caused by political instability and natural disasters.

Occurrence of enteric and non-enteric microorganisms in coastal waters impacted by anthropogenic activities: A multi-route QMRA for swimmers

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the microbial characteristics of coastal waters which are impacted by anthropogenic pollution as well as estimate the health risks associated with exposure to enteric and non-enteric microorganisms during swimming. Fecal indicator bacteria were highly detected in samples. Moreover, pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms were found, with the highest frequency for Pseudomonas aeruginosa followed by Adenovirus 40/41, Acanthamoeba spp., Salmonella enterica, and Cryptosporidium parvum. The median risk of gastrointestinal illness through ingestion of water was estimated to be above the benchmark value of 0.05 per event recommended by WHO. Cryptosporidium followed by Adenovirus, showed higher illness risks than Salmonella. The potential risks of Acanthamoeba and P. aeruginosa were estimated to be low for both dermal and ocular exposure routes. However, there are uncertainties about the infectious fraction of pathogens existing in coastal waters and the delivered dose of microorganisms from dermal/ocular exposure during recreational activities.

Waterborne virus transport and the associated risks in a large lake

Waterborne enteric viruses in lakes, especially at recreational water sites, may have a negative impact on human health. However, their fate and transport in lakes are poorly understood. In this study, we propose a coupled water quality and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model to study the transport, fate and infection risk of four common waterborne viruses (adenovirus, enterovirus, norovirus and rotavirus), using Lake Geneva as a study site. The measured virus load in raw sewage entering the lake was used as the source term in the water quality simulations for a hypothetical scenario of discharging raw wastewater at the lake surface. After discharge into the lake, virus inactivation was modeled as a function of water temperature and solar irradiance that varied both spatially and temporally during transport throughout the lake. Finally, the probability of infection, while swimming at a popular beach, was quantified and compared among the four viruses. Norovirus was found to be the most abundant virus that causes an infection probability that is at least 10 times greater than the other viruses studied. Furthermore, environmental inactivation was found to be an essential determinant in the infection risks posed by viruses to recreational water users. We determined that infection risks by enterovirus and rotavirus could be up to 1000 times lower when virus inactivation by environmental stressors was accounted for compared with the scenarios considering hydrodynamic transport only. Finally, the model highlighted the role of the wind field in conveying the contamination plume and hence in determining infection probability. Our simulations revealed that for beaches located west of the sewage discharge, the infection probability under eastward wind was 43% lower than that under westward wind conditions. This study highlights the potential of combining water quality simulation and virus-specific risk assessment for a safe water resources usage and management.

Occurrence of Hepatitis A Virus in Water Matrices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Hepatitis A is a common form of viral hepatitis. It is usually transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated food and water. This systematic review was carried out to summarise the overall prevalence of Hepatitis A virus (HAV) in different water matrices: untreated and treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and others (e.g., irrigation water and floodwater). The literature search was performed in four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Global Index Medicus, and Excerpta Medica Database. Heterogeneity (I2) was assessed using the χ2 test on the Cochran Q statistic and H parameters. A total of 200 prevalence data from 144 articles were included in this meta-analysis. The overall prevalence of HAV in water matrices was 16.7% (95% CI: 13.4−20.3). The prevalence for individual matrix was as follows: 31.4% (95% CI: 23.0−40.4) untreated wastewater, 18.0% (95% CI: 9.5−28.2) treated wastewater, 15.0% (95% CI: 10.1−20.5) surface water, 2.3% (95% CI: 0.1−6.0) in groundwater, 0.3% (95% CI: 0.0−1.7) in drinking water, and 8.5% (95% CI: 3.1−15.6) in other matrices. The prevalence was higher in low-income economies (29.0%). Africa and Eastern Mediterranean were the regions with higher HAV prevalence values. This study showed a high heterogeneity (I2 > 75%) with a significant publication bias (p value Egger test < 0.001). The results of this review suggest that water matrices could be an important route of HAV transmission even in industrialized countries, despite the lower prevalence compared to less industrialized countries, and the availability of advanced water management systems. More effective water/wastewater treatment strategies are needed in developing countries to limit the environmental circulation of HAV.

Wastewater Surveillance for Infectious Disease: A Systematic Review

Wastewater surveillance for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been shown to be a valuable source of information regarding SARS-CoV-2 transmission and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases. Although the method has been used for several decades to track other infectious diseases, there has not been a comprehensive review outlining all of the pathogens that have been surveilled through wastewater. Herein we identify the infectious diseases that have been previously studied via wastewater surveillance prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Infectious diseases and pathogens were identified in 100 studies of wastewater surveillance across 38 countries, as were themes of how wastewater surveillance and other measures of disease transmission were linked. Twenty-five separate pathogen families were identified in the included studies, with the majority of studies examining pathogens from the family Picornaviridae, including polio and nonpolio enteroviruses. Most studies of wastewater surveillance did not link what was found in the wastewater to other measures of disease transmission. Among those studies that did, the value reported varied by study. Wastewater surveillance should be considered as a potential public health tool for many infectious diseases. Wastewater surveillance studies can be improved by incorporating other measures of disease transmission at the population-level including disease incidence and hospitalizations.

A critical review on the existing wastewater treatment methods in the COVID-19 era: What is the potential of advanced oxidation processes in combatting viral especially SARS-CoV-2?

The COVID-19 epidemic has put the risk of virus contamination in water bodies on the horizon of health authorities. Hence, finding effective ways to remove the virus, especially SARS-CoV-2, from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has emerged as a hot issue in the last few years. Herein, this study first deals with the fate of SARS-CoV-2 genetic material in WWTPs, then critically reviews and compares different wastewater treatment methods for combatting COVID-19 as well as to increase the water quality. This critical review sheds light the efficiency of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to inactivate virus, specially SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Although several physicochemical treatment processes (e.g. activated sludge) are commonly used to eliminate pathogens, AOPs are the most versatile and effective virus inactivation methods. For instance, TiO₂ is the most known and widely studied photo-catalyst innocuously utilized to degrade pollutants as well as to photo-induce bacterial and virus disinfection due to its high chemical resistance and efficient photo-activity. When ozone is dissolved in water and wastewater, it generates a wide spectrum of the reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are responsible to degrade materials in virus membranes resulting in destroying the cell wall. Furthermore, electrochemical advanced oxidation processes act through direct oxidation when pathogens react at the anode surface or by indirect oxidation through oxidizing species produced in the bulk solution. Consequently, they represent a feasible choice for the inactivation of a wide range of pathogens. Nonetheless, there are some challenges with AOPs which should be addressed for application at industrial-scale.

Assessing the influence of sewage sludge and derived-biochar in immobilization and transformation of heavy metals in polluted soil: Impact on intracellular free radical formation in maize

As one of the most common ways to get rid of municipal waste, landfill leachate, waste with complicated compositions and high levels of contaminants, has become a significant threat to the world's environment. Here, the impact of sewage sludge (SS) and derived-biochar (SSB) amendments on the immobilization and potential mobility of heavy metals in a contaminated soil-plant system was investigated. The sequential fractionation findings showed that using SS-2%, SSB-2%, and SSBC-1% reduced the potential mobility of heavy metals while increasing the residual fraction in polluted soils. The translocation and bioconcentration factors showed that heavy metals were slightly transferred into shoots from roots and lowered accumulation in roots from contaminated soils. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) comprehensive characterization results indicated the significant role of applied amendments for heavy metals transformation from the exchangeable-soluble fractions to the least available form by lowering their mobility to confirm the adsorption-based complexes, which results in the surface adsorption of heavy metals with functional groups. The electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) results indicated the dominance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the intracellular formation of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) in maize plant roots and shoots. ROS (•OH) generation plays a critical influence in the interaction between the physiological processes of plants and heavy metals. Moreover, all the amendments increased maize growth and biomass production. Our study suggests that alone and combined application of SS and SSB have great potential to remediate heavy metals contaminated soil for environmental sustainability.