Prevalence and risk factors of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in goats in low-input low-output farming systems in Zimbabwe

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic effect of essential oil obtained from Thymus capitatus flowers against Haemonchus contortus and Heligmosomoides polygyrus

Sheep haemonchosis is a disease that causes serious losses in livestock production, particularly with the increase of cases of anthelmintic resistance around the world. This justifies the urgent need of alternative solutions. The aim of this study was to determine the chemical profile, in vitro, and, in vivo, anthelmintic properties of Thymus capitatus essential oil. To evaluate the, in vitro, anthelmintic activity of the T. capitatus EO on Haemonchus contortus, two tests were used: egg hatch assay (EHA) and adult worm motility (AWM) assay. The nematicidal effect of this oil was evaluated, in vivo, in mice infected artificially with Heligmosomoides polygyrus using faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and total worm count reduction (TWCR). Chromatographic characterization of T.capitatus composition using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) demonstrated the presence of carvacrol (81.16%), as the major constituents. The IC50 values obtained was 1.9 mg/mL in the EHT. In the AWM assay; T. capitatus essential oil achieved 70.8% inhibition at 1 mg/mL after 8 h incubation. The in vivo, evaluation on H. polygyrus revealed a significant nematicidal effect 7 days post-treatment by inducing 49.5% FECR and 64.5% TWCR, using the highest dose (1600 mg/kg). The results of present study, demonstrate that T.capitatus EO possess a significant anthelmintic properties. Furthermore, it could be an alternative source of anthelmintic agents against gastrointestinal infections caused by H. contortus.

Epidemiology of rumen fluke infection in selected buffalo farms in perak, malaysia: prevalence, molecular species identification, and associated risk factors

Rumen flukes cause heavy economic losses in the ruminant industry worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. This study estimated the prevalence of rumen flukes in buffaloes, identified the species diversity, and determined risk factors associated with rumen fluke prevalence in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. A cross-sectional study was conducted, and 321 faecal samples were collected from six buffalo farms. A structured questionnaire was developed, and farmers were interviewed to obtain information regarding risk factors associated with rumen fluke infection. The faecal samples were examined using sedimentation and Flukefinder® techniques. Genomic DNA was extracted from the fluke eggs recovered using the Flukefinder® method, and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) fragment was amplified and sequenced to facilitate species identification. The results showed that the overall prevalence of rumen fluke across the sampled farms was 40.2% (129/321). Three rumen fluke species were identified, namely, Fischoederius elongatus, F. cobboldi, and Orthocoelium streptocoelium. Several management factors had a significant association (P < 0.05) with rumen fluke prevalence, including production type, cleaning of the stable, drinking water system, flooding around the farm, grazing system, pasture sharing with other livestock, and deworming program. This work constitutes the first attempt to understand the epidemiology of rumen fluke infection in the region and suggests that good farm management, pasture management, choosing appropriate drugs, and proper husbandry practices may improve buffalo health and production in areas where rumen flukes are prevalent.

A systematic review on the prospects of X- and Y-sexed semen in ruminant livestock: implications for conservation, a South African perspective

South Africa is home to numerous indigenous and locally developed sheep (Nguni Pedi, Zulu, and Namaqua Afrikaner, Afrino, Africander, Bezuidenhout Africander, Damara, Dorper, Döhne Merino, Meat Master, South African Merino, South African Mutton Merino, Van Rooy, and Dorper), goat (SA veld, Tankwa, Imbuzi, Bantu, Boer, and Savanna) and cattle (Afrigus, Afrikaner, Bolowana, Bonsmara, Bovelder, Drakensberger, South African Angus, South African Dairy Swiss, South African Friesland, South African Red, and Veld Master) animals. These breeds require less veterinary service, feed, management efforts, provide income to rural and or poor owners. However, most of them are under extinction risks and some with unknown status hence, require immediate conservation intervention. To allow faster genetic progress on the endangered animals, it is important to generate productive animals while reducing wastages and this can be achieved through sex-sorted semen. Therefore, this systematic review is aimed to evaluate the prospects of X and Y-sexed semen in ruminant livestock and some solutions that can be used to address poor sex-sorted semen and its fertility. This review was incorporated through gathering and assessing relevant articles and through the data from the DAD-IS database. The keywords that were used to search articles online were pre-gender selection, indigenous ecotypes, fertility, flow cytometry, artificial insemination, conservation, and improving sexed semen. Following a careful review of all articles, PRISMA guidelines were used to find the articles that are suitable to address the aim of this review. Sex-sorted semen is a recently introduced technology gaining more attention from researchers particularly, in the conservation programs. Preselection of semen based on the sex chromosomes (X- and or Y-bearing chromosomes) is of paramount importance to obtain desired sex of the offspring and avoid animal wastage as much as possible. However, diverse factors can affect quality of semen of different animal species especially after sex-sorting. Flow cytometry is a common method used to select male and female sperm cells and discard dead and abnormal sperm cells during the process. Thus, sperm sexing is a good advanced reproductive technology (ART) however, it is associated with the production of oxidative stress (OS) and DNA fragmentation (SDF). These findings, therefore, necessitates more innovation studies to come up with a sexing technology that will protect sperm cell injuries during sorting in frozen-thawed.

Gastrointestinal parasitosis in cattle: Unveiling the landscape across diverse production systems in Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Factors influencing parasitosis in cattle in Bangladesh remain inadequately explored, necessitating a comprehensive investigation for interventions and sustainable livestock farming.

OBJECTIVES

We conducted this study to estimate the prevalence and distribution of gastrointestinal parasites, exploring their intricate relationship with farm management practices across a spectrum of small-, medium-, and large-scale commercial farms.

METHODS

We conducted this study in the Chattogram district of Bangladesh. We collected a total of 189 freshly voided faecal samples from different farms. We recorded the age, breed, milking status, sex, body condition score, and anthelmintic use history of the sampled animals. We processed the samples using the direct smear method, with the identification of one egg per sample being considered positive.

RESULTS

We estimated the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite infection in large-scale (52.1%), medium-scale (54.5%), and small-scale farms (70.0%), with statistically significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Both pregnant and lactating cows, as well as indigenous cattle, were more likely to have gastrointestinal parasites (p ≤ 0.05). The predominant parasites across farms of all sizes were trematodes (Paramphistomum spp. and Schistosomas spp.) and protozoa (Balantidium coli and Coccidia spp.).

CONCLUSION

Poor farm management practices, such as no pasture management and inadequate deworming regimens, may contribute to the elevated prevalence and infection load observed on small-scale farms. The increased parasitosis in previously dewormed animals can be attributed to the development of anthelmintic resistance against gastrointestinal parasites. Implementing proper and effective deworming strategies is crucial to preventing gastrointestinal parasitosis and mitigating the risk of anthelmintic resistance.

High prevalence of pathogenic Eimeria spp. and the main risk factors associated with infection in goats from a semiarid region of Northeastern Brazil

This study aimed to analyze the epidemiology of infections caused by Eimeria spp. in goats bred in an extensive production system in Northeast Brazil. To this end, an epidemiological survey was performed, wherein 350 fecal samples were collected from goats ranging from 3 months to 8 years old across 30 farms. The number of oocysts per gram of feces (OPG) was counted using the Mini-FLOTAC method. Species were identified based on their morphological and morphometric characteristics. Frequencies between animal categories were assessed using the chi-square test and known risk factors after multivariate analysis. Eimeria oocysts were found in 99.4% (346/348) of samples and 100% (30/30) of the farms. The OPG was influenced by the age of the animals; therefore, young goats (up to 6 months old) eliminated more oocysts (2302.6 + 5454.8) than adult goats (881.7 + 1551.5). Three pathogenic species were identified, with two demonstrating a high prevalence: Eimeria arloingi (88.83%) and Eimeria christenseni (44.7%), in addition to Eimeria caprina (3.72%). In the study, the habit of ground feeding and the use of cisterns as water sources were identified as risk factors, with odds ratios of 4.04 and 9.82, respectively. However, cleaning facilities at shorter intervals was a protective factor (OR = 0.19). We concluded that there was a high prevalence of Eimeria infection in goats bred in extensive production systems, even those in semiarid regions. This high prevalence can be attributed to the congregation of animals in shaded areas and the substantial accumulation of fecal matter at night.

Seasonal Prevalence and Status of Anthelmintic Resistance of Goats' Gastrointestinal Nematodes, Mirab Abaya, Southern Ethiopia

Goats are an important source of livelihood especially for smallholder communities. But gastrointestinal nematodosis is the greatest threats of goat production. A repeated cross-sectional and field experimental study design was conducted from December 2020 to August 2021 in Mirab Abaya district, with the aim of seasonal prevalence gastrointestinal nematode infection and assessment of anthelmintic resistance. A systematic random sampling strategy was used to select the study goats. The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode infections of goats in the study area was 57.9% (95% CI: 54.4-61.4), of which 48.7% (95% CI: 43.7-53.7) and 67.2% (95% CI: 62.3-71.7) accounted to dry and wet seasons, respectively. The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that season, age, sex, and flock size were significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode infection of goats. The number of eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) was ranged from 100 to 2500. The overall mean egg per gram of faeces (EPG) was 461.1 ± 20.9. The mean EPG of wet season (532.7 ± 28.6) was higher than the dry season (362.3 ± 29.1). From faecal culture, 552 nematode larvae were recovered, and the most commonly identified nematode genera were Haemonchus (36.4%) that followed by Trichostrongylus (28.1%), Oesophagostomum (15.4%), Bunostomum (11.4), Teladorsagia (5.4%), and Strongyloides (3.0%) species. From the anthelmintic resistance test in the field, the percentage reduction and 95% confidence limit of albendazole were 96% (84.2-99.0) and 97.0% (84.6-99.4) in dry and wet seasons, respectively. Here, the lower limit of 95% CI was less than 90% both in dry and wet seasons; and hence, albendazole was suspected for resistance development by gastrointestinal nematode. From a pooled faecal culture that collected from albendazole-treated goats, Haemonchus species was recovered. Therefore, due attention shall be by animal health professionals in the area in the use of albendazole. Animal health extension work to create awareness of how anthelmintic is used is helpful in reducing the risk. Changing the type of anthelmintic drug after using for some period will minimize the risk of anthelmintic resistance development.

Relationship between faecal egg count and health status in Nguni goats reared on semi-arid rangelands

Gastrointestinal parasitism is a major constraint to goat productivity, particularly in resource-limited production systems. The objective of the study was to determine the relationship between faecal egg count and the health status of different classes of Nguni goats. Body condition score (BCS), packed cell volume (PCV), FAMACHA score, and faecal egg count (FEC) were measured in 120 goats of different classes (weaners, does and bucks) across seasons. The identified gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) were Strongyloides (30 %), Haemonchus contortus (28 %), Trichostrongylus sp. (23 %), Oesophagostomum sp. (17 %) and Ostertagia (2 %), which showed higher prevalence at the hot-wet season compared to other seasons. An interaction (P<0.05) between class and season on BCS was observed. Lower PCV were observed in weaners (24.6 ± 0.79) in the post-rainy season, whereas does 27.4 ± 0.86 and bucks (29.3±1.03) had the highest PCV in the same season. Higher FAMACHA scores were observed in the hot seasons for all goat classes, while lower in the cool-dry season. Linear relationships between FAMACHA scores and FEC were observed in all seasons. The rate of change in FAMACHA score was higher in the post-rainy season (P<0.01) than in other seasons as FEC increased in weaners and does. Bucks had a higher rate of change in FAMACHA in the hot-wet season (P<0.0001) as FEC increased. The rate of BCS decline was higher in the post-rainy season in weaners and does (P<0.01) and bucks (P<0.05) than in other seasons. The decline in PCV was faster during the wet than in the dry seasons. It can be concluded that class and season affected BCS, FAMACHA, and PCV. A linear relationship between FEC and FAMACHA score suggests that FAMACHA could be a good indicator of GIN burden.

Gastrointestinal Parasites of Domestic Mammalian Hosts in Southeastern Iran

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIP) are a major cause of disease and production loss in livestock. Some have zoonotic potential, so production animals can be a source of human infections. We describe the prevalence of GIP in domestic mammals in Southeastern Iran. Fresh fecal samples (n = 200) collected from cattle (n = 88), sheep (n = 50), goats (n = 23), camels (n = 30), donkeys (n = 5), horse (n = 1), and dogs (n = 3) were subjected to conventional coprological examination for the detection of protozoan (oo)cysts and helminth ova. Overall, 83% (166/200) of the samples were positive for one or more GIP. Helminths were found in dogs, donkeys, sheep (42%), camels (37%), goats (30%), and cattle (19%), but not in the horse. Protozoa were found in cattle (82%), goats (78%), sheep (60%), and camels (13%), but not in donkeys, dogs, or the horse. Lambs were 3.5 times more likely to be infected by protozoa than sheep (OR = 3.5, 95% CI: 1.05–11.66), whereas sheep were at higher odds of being infected by helminths than lambs (OR = 4.09, 95% CI: 1.06–16.59). This is the first study assessing the prevalence of GIP in domestic mammals in Southeastern Iran.

Prevalence and associated risk factors of gastrointestinal helminths and coccidian infections in domestic goats, Capra hircus, in Minya, Egypt

Background

Helminth and coccidian infections are among potential parasitic infections in the livestock production. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal helminths as well as Eimeia species in domestic goats.

Results

The overall prevalence of parasitic infections was 50.24% (206/410). Twenty two species of helminth eggs/Eimeria spp. oocysts were revealed. The prevalence of helminths was 21.95% (90/410) and that of Eimeria spp. was 39.27% (161/410). Mixed infection was reported in 10.98% (45/410). The highest prevalence was found in young animals (75.0%; 60/80) followed by yearlings (58.46%; 76/130) and the lowest one was in adults (35.0%; 70/200). The infection rate was higher in females (59.02%; 180/305) than males (24.76%; 26/105). The prevalence was mostly highest in summer (63.85%; 83/130) followed by winter (57.78%; 52/90), autumn (40.0%; 28/70) and the lowest one was in spring (35.83%; 43/120). Age, sex and seasonal variations revealed significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences among examined goats. The infection with both nematodes and Eimeria spp. were detected in 7.32% (30/410). The co-infection with Eimeria spp. and tapeworms were found in 2.93% (12/410). Both trematodes and Eimeria spp. were seen in 0.73% (3/410) of examined specimens. Nine Eimeria species were recorded; Eimeria ninakohlyakim-ovae, E. hirci, E. caprinova, E. caprina, E. christenseni, E. jolchijevi, E. arloingi, E. apsheronica and E. alijevi. The most predominant Eimeria species was E. arloingi (23.17%; 95/410) and the least abundant one was E. apsheronica (0.73%; 3/410). The revealed trematodes were Fasciola spp. (0.49%) and Paramphistomum spp. (0.24%). Among cestodes, tapeworms belonged to Anoplocephalids included Moniezia spp. (7.31%) and Avitellina sp. (0.49%) were detected. Meanwhile, coproculture revealed that the prevalence of nematodes infection was 13.41% (55/410) including nine species; Chabertia ovina, Ostertagia ostertagi, Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, Bunostomum sp., Cooperia oncophora, Cooperia curticei and Strongyloides spp.

Conclusion

In the present study, the prevalence of helminths was 21.95% and that of Eimeria spp. was 39.27%, which is considered a high infection rate. Accordingly Strict hygienic measures as well as regular deworming are highly recommended to avoid wide spread of both helminth and coccidial infections.

Diversity and prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of Black Bengal goats in Natore, Bangladesh

Objectives

The objective of this work was to estimate the diversity of gastrointestinal (GI) parasite species, their prevalence, and risk factors in Black Bengal goats (BBGs) of Natore, Bangladesh.

Materials and Methods

Fecal samples from randomly selected 260 BBGs were processed through Stoll's ova counting method, floatation, and simple sedimentation method. Microscopy-based identification of parasitic eggs, cysts, or oocysts was made. A semi-structured questionnaire-based data on host and management practices were collected from the owner. Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences.

Results

The overall prevalence of GI parasites in BBGs was 65.4%, with an individual prevalence of 8.5% for Fasciola gigantica, 21.5% for Paramphistomum spp., 20% for Haemonchus spp., 34.2% for Strongyloides spp., 8.5% for Trichuris spp., and 9.2% for Eimeria spp. No significant effect of host age, gender, body condition, animal rearing system, or housing floor type was observed on parasitism. Animals of young age, female, poorly body-conditioned, living in a free-range system, and housed on a muddy floor had a relatively higher susceptibility to infection. Deworming had a significant impact on reducing the frequency of caprine GI parasitism.

Conclusions

Despite the significant effect of anthelmintic, the elevated prevalence of GI parasites in BBGs suggests a critical need for developing effective strategies to prevent caprine parasitoses.

Smallholders' knowledge about healing goat gastrointestinal parasite infections with wild plants in southern DR Congo

Gastrointestinal parasite (GIP) infections control has an important role to play in increasing livestock production from a limited natural resource base and to improve animal health and welfare. This study aimed to collect indigenous knowledge and identify wild plants locally used by goat smallholders of three territories of Haut-Katanga province for treating signs of gastrointestinal parasitism. Ethnoveterinary surveys were conducted by semi-structured interviews and a bibliographic screening of the biological activities relating to cited plants was carried out. Our interviews showed that ethnosemantic diagnoses of GIP diseases are based on signs. Eighty-seven informants reported that 27 plant species from 15 families, dominated by Fabaceae (29.6%) and Lamiaceae (18.5%) were commonly used in their goats treatment. Among these plants, five species with palmately compound leaves were considerably more used. From those, we noted a substitution of Vitex congolensis De Wild. and T. Durand (Lamiaceae) by Oldfieldia dactylophylla (Welw. Ex Oliv.) J. Leonard (Picrodendraceae) and of Vitex mombassae Vatke by Vitex madiensis Oliv. Subsp. Milanjiensis (Britten) F. White. Roots (46.9%), leaves (28.0%) and seeds (12.5%) were the most frequently used plant organs, and maceration is applied for most of the medicinal preparations (62.2%). Recipes were administered by oral route, for GIP 1) prevention (33.3%), by macerating the ground plant material in drinking water for 2 weeks at the start of each season (dry and rainy); and 2) treatment (66.7%). According to the literature, some of these plants have few or no studies investigating their anthelmintic activity. The cited plants are worth investigating further as they could constitute an effective alternative strategy in maintaining animal productivity. Studies on the biological activity of these plants can also provide indications of promising leads for extracts that could be developed into commercial standardized medications.

Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Nematodes, Cestodes, and Protozoans of Goats in Nyagatare District, Rwanda

Introduction

Goat farming significantly contributes to the efficient use of land and socioeconomic development in developed and developing countries. During the fiscal year 2017-2018, goats made up 13.5% of the total live livestock exported by Rwanda. Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) can negatively impact goat production, especially in developing countries like Rwanda. This study aimed to determine the impact of the goat' age and location (administrative cell) on the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes, cestodes, and protozoans (GiNCPs) of goats in Nyagatare district, Rwanda.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 149 faecal samples were collected from apparently unwell goats and analyzed using the simple flotation technique. Strongyle-type nematodes (STNs) infections were graded using the McMaster method. Pearson chi-square tests of independence were calculated to assess the impact of the goat' age and location on the prevalence of GiNCPs in the study area.

Results

All the goats (100%) were infected with GiNCPs. The identified types of parasites were STNs (96.0%), Coccidia (83.2%), Moniezia spp (14.8%), Strongyloides papillosus (12.8%), Nematodirus spp (0.7%) and Trichuris ovis (0.7%). Nearly 85.9% (128/149) of the goats were coinfected with 2 to 4 types of parasites and the coinfection of STNs and coccidia preponderated at 58.4%. The location (administrative cell) of the goats correlated with the prevalence of monieziasis (p<0.05). The goat's age category was also associated with the prevalence of strongyloidiasis (p<0.05).

Conclusion

All the goats (100%) were infected with GiNCPs. The location (administrative cell) of the goat also correlated with the prevalence of monieziasis. In addition, the goat's age category was associated with the prevalence of strongyloidiasis. These findings show that any control program for caprine gastrointestinal parasitoses in the study area should focus on STNs and Coccidia.

Prevalence and resistance to gastrointestinal parasites in goats: A review

Gastrointestinal parasitism, particularly nematode infection, is a major health issue affecting goats worldwide, resulting in clinical diseases and productivity loss. Prevalent gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) affecting goats in South Africa are the Strongyloides papillosus, Eimeria spp., and Strongyles, especially the Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. According to the issues discussed in this paper and by other authors, the prevalence and intensity of various GIPs vary with an animal's location, breed, age, sex, and season. Because GIPs easily develop resistance to chemical treatment, selecting and breeding genetically GIP-resistant animals would be a relatively simple and inexpensive strategy for reducing or eliminating the current reliance on chemotherapy. Potential phenotypic indicators for selecting GIP-resistant goats include parasitological, immunological, and pathological phenotypic markers. Synergistic use of these indicators should be encouraged for a more accurate simplified genotype selection of resistant animals. Genes with Mendelian inheritance, particularly those involved in immunoregulatory mechanisms, have been identified in goats. Exploring this knowledge base to develop cost-effective molecular tools that facilitate enhanced genetic improvement programs is a current challenge. Future statistical and biological models should investigate genetic variations within genomic regions and different candidate genes involved in immunoregulatory mechanisms, as well as the identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms known to affect GIP infection levels.

PREVALENCE OF Blastocystis sp. IN CATTLE, GOAT AND SHEEP REARED BY DIFFERENT FARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN PAHANG, MALAYSIA

Blastocystis sp. is a familiar parasite in the gastrointestinal tract causing infection in humans and animals. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the Blastocystis sp. prevalence in three sorts of livestock; cattle, goats, and sheep in Pahang, Malaysia, which are reared under two management systems; intensive and semi-intensive farm management system. About 92, 96, and 65 cattle, goat, and sheep fecal samples respectively were collected from different farms around Kuantan, Bera, and Pekan. The fecal samples were cultured in Jones’ medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated horse serum and incubated at 37 ºC for 2 weeks, then observed under light microscopy daily. The total prevalence of Blastocystis sp. was 29.34% in cattle (27/92), 29.16% in goats (28/96), and 43.07% in sheep (28/65). Supported the results of this study, Blastocystis sp. prevalence was higher in sheep and livestock reared by a semi-intensive farm management system (44.38%). However, further study could be done for Blastocystis sp. subtypes identification to determine its genetic diversity. Notwithstanding, this study has provided additional knowledge on the prevalence of each livestock reared in farms around Pahang that serve as important information in understanding host-parasite relationships, besides determining the best farm management system to be applied by farmers.

Apicomplexans in Goat: Prevalence of Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium spp., Eimeria spp. and Risk Factors in Farms from Ecuador

Simple Summary

Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium and Eimeria species are parasites of phylum Apicomplexa, which includes several protozoa affecting animals and humans. In Ecuador, the maintenance of goat health is a matter of utmost importance because it affects the economic welfare of the breeders. N. caninum and T. gondii cause reproductive problems in goats, leading to abortions or weak offspring. Severe diarrhea in kids and delays in growth are due to the Cryptosporidium and Eimeria species. Moreover, T. gondii and Cryptosporidium are zoonotic parasites with serious consequences for human health. The aim of this work was to determine, by serological and parasitological tests, the prevalence of these parasites and the risk factors for goat populations in Southern Ecuador. On some farms, the prevalence of N. caninum and T. gondii reached more than 50%; up to 17% of the kids were positive for Cryptosporidium and 90% of the goats were positive for the Eimeria species. The analysis of risk factors revealed differences according to the parasite species. Considering the zoonotic significance of these results, control and prevention measures are essential and constitute a warning to veterinarians and governmental institutions.

Abstract

Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium and Eimeria cause severe impacts on the productivity of goat herds. The objectives of the present study were to establish the prevalence of these apicomplexans in goat farms from Ecuador; to evaluate a rapid test for Cryptosporidium diagnosis and to identify the risk factors associated with the infections. A questionnaire was designed to obtain information from 24 goat farms from Zapotillo, Garza Real, Cazaderos, Limones and Paletillas parishes in Ecuador. Blood (n = 388) and feces (n = 391) samples were collected. Indirect ELISA and standard parasitological assays were carried out to evaluate the seroprevalence of N. caninum and T. gondii and to detect oocysts of Cryptosporidium and Eimeria. The overall prevalence values of N. caninum and T. gondii were 12.11% and 18.20%, Cryptosporidium spp. and Eimeria spp. oocysts were detected in 10.49% and 89.51% of the total samples. A low correlation value was found between the results obtained by Ziehl-Nielsen and the rapid test. The multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that vitamin supplementation, age of diarrhea, frequency of deworming, pasture area, presence of artiodactyls, domestic fowl, administration of sulfas, age group, body condition, abortions, type of pastures and the presence of cattle were risk factors according to the parasite species.

Eimeria infections in domestic and wild ruminants with reference to control options in domestic ruminants

Eimeria infections are commonly seen in a variety of mammalian hosts. This genus of unicellular sporozoan parasites causes significant disease (coccidiosis) in different livestock species leading to economic losses for agricultural producers. Especially the production of cattle, sheep, and goat is strongly dependent on efficient coccidiosis control. However, many other livestock hosts like, e.g., camelids, bison, rabbits, and guinea pigs may benefit from reduced parasite transmission and targeted control measures as well. Besides livestock, also wildlife and pet animals may be affected by Eimeria infections resulting in clinical or subclinical coccidiosis. Wildlife herd health is crucial to conservation efforts, and Eimeria species are a prevalent pathogen in multiple mammalian wildlife species. This review aims to highlight the epidemiology of mammalian Eimeria infections in both wild and domestic ruminants, including host specificity, transmission, survival of environmental oocysts, occurrence, and risk factors for infection. Understanding general drivers of Eimeria infection may support adequate livestock and wildlife management. Furthermore, control options for livestock with reference to management factors, drug application, and alternative approaches are discussed. The goal of Eimeria control should be to reduce pathogen transmission in different host species and to improve sustainable livestock production. Controlling Eimeria infections in livestock is important considering both their animal welfare impact and their high economic relevance.

Do water shortages increase gastrointestinal nematode loads in Nguni does?

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to assess the effects of water deprivation on the burden of gastrointestinal nematodes in Nguni does.

METHODS

A survey was piloted on goat keepers in households where water was scarce (n = 143) and where it was available throughout the year (n = 142). In a controlled experiment, feed intake (ADFI), body condition score (BCS), FAMACHA score, packed cell volume (PCV) and faecal egg counts (FEC) were determined in does deprived of water for 24 and 48 h.

RESULTS

There was a significant association between the frequency with which goats drink water and the distance from the water source. From the experiment, an increase in the water deprivation period decreased ADFI, BCS and PCV, and increased FAMACHA scores and faecal egg counts in Nguni goats. The BCS of goats deprived of water for 48 h was 12% lower than the control (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Reduction in water supply increased gastrointestinal burdens in does, which may compromise their productivity and production efficiency. Depriving goats of water for 24 h had no significant effect on gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) loads. The deprivation period of 48 h increased the GIN burden in does.

The prevalence of intestinal parasite infections in goats from smallholder farms in Northern Thailand

The present study determined the prevalence of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in small ruminants kept in smallholder farms in Phitsanulok, Northern Thailand. A total of 885 goats from 31 smallholder farms were selected randomly between May 2019 to January 2020. Fecal samples were collected to estimate fecal egg counts and oocysts counts using the modified McMaster technique. Furthermore, pooled fecal samples from each of the farms were cultured in order to differentiate third-stage larvae of nematode. Examination of fecal samples revealed that 885 were positive for one or more parasites, giving an overall prevalence of 87.2 %, of which 38.6 % were infected with one and 48.6 % with multiple parasite. Strongyles and Eimeria oocysts were the most prevalent. Haemonchus contortus and Strongyloides papillosus were the predominant species based on the percentage of larvae in fecal cultures. Tapeworm eggs were encountered in 14.2 % of all samples. No significant difference in gastrointestinal parasite prevalence was associated with sex of the host. Infection was significantly (P = 0.009) highest in poor body conditioned goats (72.0 %) as compared to moderate (48.9 %) and good body conditioned (50.0 %) goats. This report on prevalence of GI parasites of small ruminants in smallholder farms in Northern Thailand reveals a high endoparasitic infections that appeared well-adapted to environmental conditions. Further studies on endoparasite control are required to establish the impact of parasitism on productive performance, including monitoring control parasite programs are needed for better health and productivity.

Simultaneous determination of praziquantel and its main metabolites in the tissues of black goats and their residue depletion

Praziquantel (PZQ) is a pyrazino-isoquinoline compound with broad spectrum of activity against parasitic trematodes and cestodes, and a key veterinary drug in the parasitic disease control field. However, PZQ residues caused by non-conforming or excessive use in food-producing animals may pose a serious threat to human health. Herein, a simple, sensitive and reproducible LC-MS/MS method was developed for the simultaneous determination of praziquantel and trans- and cis-4-hydroxypraziquantel in black goat tissues to guide the reasonable use of PZQ. The mean recoveries for three target analytes were 71.2 ∼ 117.6%, and the limits of quantification were 1.0 μg/kg. Twenty-five healthy black goats were administered a single dose of praziquantel tablets at a dose of 35 mg/kg of body weight for residue elimination study, The results revealed that praziquantel and 4-hydroxypraziquantel were rapidly depleted in goat tissues and the elimination half-lives did not exceed 1 day in all tissues except for muscle and lung. It provides guidance for the establishment of maximum residue limit of praziquantel in goat.

Characterisation of the indigenous knowledge used for gastrointestinal nematode control in smallholder farming areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

The use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes has been known since ancient times. The objective of the study was to characterise the use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats.

METHODS

A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from farmers. Chi-square was used to compute associations; the generalized linear model was used for mean rank scores.

RESULTS

Roundworms were the most common gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) affecting goats reared in the bushland vegetation type than grasslands. Twelve plant species were commonly used to control GIN in goats, with Cissus quadrangularis Linn. singled out as the most widely used plant with a use-value of 0.97, followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (0.66), Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (0.63), Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (0.59), Aloe marlothii A. Berger (0.58), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (0.54), Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (0.53), Aloe maculata All. (0.50), Trichilia emetica Vahl (0.47), Aloe ferox Mill. (0.43), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard (0.25) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (0.16). C. rotundifolia, V. xanthophloea, S. birrea and T. emetica were dominant plant species used to control GIN in goats reared in the grassland vegetation. A. maculata, A. ferox and V. neocorymbosa were dominant in the bushland vegetation type.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that ethnoveterinary plants are widely used in grassland and bushland vegetation types to control GIN in goats. Scientific validation of their efficacy and safety should be carried out to provide a cheaper alternative, thus improving the community livelihoods and development.

Lungworms in ruminants from Brazil: A retrospective epidemiological study over four decades

Lungworms such as Dictyocaulus spp. in cattle and small ruminants, and Muellerius capillaris and Protostrongylus rufescens in small ruminants are important pathogens, causing respiratory disease in these livestock species. Despite their veterinary importance, lungworms of livestock have been poorly studied in certain regions of the world, including Brazil. Therefore, much of their epidemiology and economic impacts on production remain unknown. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the historical and current data published on lungworm infection of domestic ruminants in Brazil. This review consisted of a comprehensive search of technical and scientific publications between January 1980 to December 2020, using online sources such as PubMed, Google Scholar and Scielo. Twenty-four articles published over the last 40 years reporting lungworms exclusively in cattle (n = 16), goats (n = 6) and sheep (n = 1) in Brazil were included. In addition, a study (n = 1) with both goats and sheep were also utilized. Overall, 12 studies were based only on post-mortem examination, five in the detection of specimens in fecal samples, and seven were based on fecal analysis followed by post-mortem examination. Out of all studies, 66.7% (n = 16) articles registered D. viviparus, 4.2% (n = 1) D. filaria, 8.3% (n = 2) P. rufescens, 16.7% (n = 4) M. capillaris, and 4.2% (n = 1) co-infection by D. filaria and M. capillaris. The existence of suitable environmental conditions, as well as intermediate and definitive hosts in Brazil contribute for the survival and development of these nematode species. The majority of the reports of lungworms originate from the Southern and Southeastern regions of the country, whose mild temperatures likely contribute to their occurrence. Finally, lungworms of ruminants have been reported over the past four decades in Brazil, but most of the information was obtained at post-mortem examination. Therefore, further studies to investigate epidemiological aspects in different hosts and regions of the country are needed.

Differences in burden of gastrointestinal nematode infestations in indigenous does foraging in grassland and forestland vegetation types

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infestations remain a major challenge to the health, productivity and reproductive performance of small ruminants. A longitudinal study was conducted to assess the effect of vegetation type, season and parity on the burden of GIN in indigenous does that were foraging in grassland and forestland vegetation types. Body condition scores (BCS), packed cell volume (PCV), FAMACHA score and faecal egg counts (FEC) were determined in Xhosa lob-eared does (n = 165) during the cool-dry, hot-wet and post-rainy seasons in both vegetation types. Faecal samples were collected from the rectum and analysed using the modified McMaster technique. There was a significant association between vegetation type and season on the recorded BCS, body weight (BW), FEC, PCV and FAMACHA scores. Xhosa lob-eared does in the forestland had higher (P < 0.05) BCS as compared to those in grassland. Higher FEC (P < 0.05) were observed in Xhosa lob-eared does in the grassland vegetation compared to those in forestland. Body condition scores, FEC and FAMACHA scores were significantly higher in the hot-wet season than cool-dry and post-rainy seasons, while PCV was significantly higher during the cool-dry compared to hot-wet season in forestland. Strongyles and Strongyloides eggs were higher in does grazing in the grassland than those in the forestland during the hot-wet season. Strategies for the effective control of GIN in goats should consider that infestation levels differ with vegetation type, season and parity. Controlling of GIN in goats, therefore, requires an integrated control strategy that should consider the vegetation type that the goats are reared on.

A Comparison of the Prevalence of the Parasites of the Digestive Tract in Goats from Organic and Conventional Farms

The aim of the study was to compare the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in goats kept on organic (n = 76) and conventional farms (n = 82). In general, a higher prevalence of some gastrointestinal parasitic infections was found in the conventional farms compared to the organic farms: the mean prevalence of Eimeria spp. was 85.4% in conventional farms and 77.6% in organic farms, that of Fasciola hepatica was 6.10% in conventional farms and 2.63% in organic farms, and that of Moniezia expansa was 31.7% and 17.1%, in conventional and organic farms, respectively. Both farm types demonstrated a similar mean prevalence of nematodes (80.3 vs. 84.2%). Conventional farms demonstrated a significantly higher intensity of infection with E. arloingi, Haemonchus spp., Nematodirus spp. and Moniezia expansa compared to organic farms. They also demonstrated a higher intensity of infection with Eimeria spp. than organic farms. The prophylactic programs used to combat parasitic infections in both types of farms appear ineffective and require improvement. There is a need for goat herds to be covered by ongoing parasitological monitoring. It is also recommended that keepers employ rotational or intensive rotational grazing methods and take care to ensure the hygiene of animal quarters and livestock rooms.

Welfare of Native Goat Breeds in Serbia-Emphasis on Parasitological Infections

Native goat breeds in Serbia has been recognized as an important element of regional agrobiodiversity and play an important role in the safeguarding of cultural and traditional heritage. The aim of this study was to identify the main welfare issues likely to be encountered in extensive goat farming systems with an emphasis on parasitological infections. The study was conducted during the winter season on four small farms of native Balkan and Serbian white goats. For welfare assessment, animal-based indicators from AWIN protocol for goats were used. All fecal samples for parasites were qualitatively and quantitatively examined. The main welfare issues identified were poor hair coat condition (62.79%), dirty and light soiling hindquarters (31.40%), thin body condition score (26.74%), abscesses (19.78%), and udder asymmetry (18.60%). In addition, an important and prevalent welfare problem identified across all farms was parasite infection and weak significant (p < 0.001) correlation between certain parasites (Strongylidae, Moniezia spp., Buxtonella sulcate, and Protostrongylidae) and welfare indicators such as poor hair coat condition and nasal discharge. The results of this study provided the first overview and valuable insight into the impact of extensive systems on the welfare of native goats in the Balcan region.

Comparative anthelmintic efficacy of Arundo donax, Areca catechu, and Ferula assa-foetida against Haemonchus contortus

In the present study, anthelmintic activities of Arundo (A.) donax L., Areca (Ar.) catechu L., and Ferula (F.) assa-foetida L. were determined. Leaves of A. donax L., latex of F. assa-foetida L. and seeds of Ar. catechu L. in different solvent fractions were subjected to in vitro (egg hatch assay; EHA, and adult motility assay; AMA) and in vivo (faecal egg count reduction test; FECRT) tests of anthelmintic activity using Haemonchus contortus model. In the AMA, crude aqueous methanol extracts (CAME) and ethyl acetate fractions of F. assa-foetida at 10 hr post-treatment showed maximum mortality of H. contortus at 12.5-50 mg mL-1. In the EHA, CAME of F. assa-foetida was identified as a potent ovicide based on its low LC50 (16.9 µg mL-1), followed in order by Ar. catechu and A. donax. Results from the FECRT also showed the extract of F. assa-foetida L. to be more effective than those of Ar. catechu L. and A. donax L., against the gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes. Chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions showed better anthelmintic activities against the adult worms in vitro, while CAME of these plants were better than their crude powders in vivo. It is recommended to document and investigate indigenous knowledge of possible medicinal plants to plan scientific trials that may justify their endorsement.

An epidemiological study of gastrointestinal nematode and Eimeria coccidia infections in different populations of Kazakh sheep

This is an epidemiological study on the gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) and Eimeria coccidia infections in Kazakh sheep and the F1 and F2 generations of Kazakh × Texel sheep crosses. A total of 7599 sheep fecal samples were collected from the Zhaosu County and Nilka County in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the four seasons-spring, summer, autumn, and winter of 2019. The parasite causing the infection was identified by the saturated saline floating method, and the infection intensity was calculated by the modified McMaster method. SPSS19.0 was used to evaluate the differences in the fecal egg count (FEC) of for GIN and the fecal oocyst count (FOC) value of for coccidia per sample. The results showed that there were nine types of sheep GIN infections and Eimeria coccidia in these two counties of Ililocations, with the dominant parasite species of Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., and Ostertagia spp as the predominant parasites in the sheep. Most of the GIN and coccidia infections in these two regions were mild and moderate. The mean log (FEC) of GIN infection in the Zhaosu area was significantly higher than that in the Nilka area, whereas the mean log (FOC) of coccidia infection in Zhaosu was significantly lower than that of Nilka. The mean log (FEC) of GIN infection in the four seasons was the highest in spring, followed by in summer, then in autumn, and the lowest in winter. The mean log (FOC) of coccidia infection was the highest in spring, followed by in autumn, and was the lowest in summer and winter. The mean log (FEC) of GIN infection and log (FOC) of coccidia infection of Kazakh sheep was significantly higher than the F1 generation, which was then significantly higher than the F2 generation of summer. A positive correlation was found between the EPG and OPG levels in the sheep. These results showed that the GIN and coccidia infection intensities of the F1 generation sheep of Kazakh ×Texel crosses were significantly lower than that of Kazakh sheep paving the way for marker-based resistance selection.

In vitro efficacy of plant extracts against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats

Farmers use plant extracts as a potential source of anthelmintic compounds against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. The objective of the study was to investigate the in vitro anthelmintic activity of aqueous (cold and boiled) and methanolic extracts of Cissus quadrangularis Linn., Aloe marlothii A. Berger, Albizia anthelmintica Brongn., Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl., Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst, and Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter plants against gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN). Plants were used in two forms: dry and fresh. Decoction (boiled water), infusion (cold water), and methanolic extracts at concentrations of 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40% v/v were tested in vitro on mortality of L₃ nematodes. Linear relationships were observed between larvae mortality and extract concentration of the boiled fresh form of C. rotundifolia (P < 0.01), fresh form of cold-water of A. marlothii (P < 0.05), fresh form of cold-water and methanolic C. quadrangularis (P < 0.01), dry form of cold-water and methanolic S. birrea (P < 0.0001), and dry form of cold-water and fresh form of methanolic V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05). Quadratic relationships were observed between larvae mortality and extract concentration of the fresh form of methanolic C. rotundifolia (P < 0.05), fresh form of methanolic A. anthelmintica (P < 0.01), the fresh form of methanol and the dry form of boiled A. marlothii (P < 0.001), fresh form of methanolic (P < 0.05) and dry form of boiled S. birrea (P < 0.01), fresh form of cold and boiled water of V. xanthophloea (P < 0.0001), and dry form of boiled water and methanolic V. xanthophloea (P < 0.05). The crude plant extracts of C. quadrangularis, A. marlothii, A. anthelmintica, C. rotundifolia, S. birrea, and V. xanthophloea could be considered as an integrated approach to achieve sustainable nematode control in goats.

Survey on Endoparasites of Dairy Goats in North-Eastern Italy Using a Farm-Tailored Monitoring Approach

With the spread of anthelmintic resistance (AR), endoparasite monitoring consolidates its role for a more sustainable targeting of treatments. A survey on endoparasites in dairy goat farms of north-eastern Italy was conducted to test a monitoring approach based on a farm-tailored sample size. Farm management and parasites control practices were investigated in 20 farms through a questionnaire survey. Further, fecal samples were collected (November 2018–September 2019) from 264 animals from 13 farms and were analyzed individually with a modified McMaster method and subsequently pooled to perform a coproculture. Coccidia (78.4%), gastrointestinal strongyles (37.9%), Strongyloides (28.4%), Skrjabinema (18.9%), Trichuris (8.0%) and Nematodirus/Marshallagia (0.4%) were identified. Abundances were higher for coccidia and gastrointestinal strongyles. Haemonchus (71%) was the dominant gastrointestinal nematode. Pasture and age class resulted in the main risk factors at the multivariable analysis through a negative binomial regression model. Results from farm monitoring indicate that our approach can be a cost-effective decision tool to target treatments more effectively, but farmers need to be educated about the importance of parasitological testing, which is currently scarcely implemented, against the risk of AR.

Prevalence and fecal egg load of gastrointestinal parasites of Angora goats in four agro-ecological zones in Lesotho

Background and Aim:

Goats are reared for their meat, mohair and other socio-cultural needs in Lesotho. Helminth infections are some of the major setbacks in the goat production industry due to their negative impact on animals’ health, resulting in significant losses on meat and mohair production and death. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence, fecal egg infestation, and morphological identification of gastrointestinal parasites in goats.

Materials and Methods:

Fecal samples were collected from 765 goats and subjected to McMaster egg counting techniques using the flotation method. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS v.26.0).

Results:

The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was 94.7%, and the identified gastrointestinal parasites were nematodes (64.7%), coccidia (25.8%), and cestodes (4.2%). Haemonchus contortus was identified as the prevalent gastrointestinal nematode species found in goats. The prevalence and fecal egg count of gastrointestinal parasites were significantly higher (p<0.05) in goats located in the highlands and Senqu River Valley, while goats in the lowlands demonstrated a significantly (p<0.05) higher prevalence of H. contortus. Immature goats and kids were more significantly (p<0.05) prone to gastrointestinal parasites.

Conclusion:

The nematodes and coccidia infestations were prevalent in goats located in the highlands and foothills, respectively, whereas nematode and coccidia fecal egg loads were higher in goats located in the foothills and Senqu River Valley, respectively.

Risk Factors and Severity of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Selected Small Ruminants from Malaysia

The productivity of smallholder sheep and goat flocks is constrained by high morbidity and mortality of young stock due to helminthosis and coccidiosis. We hypothesized that gastrointestinal parasites are prevalent and may cause severe infections amongst small ruminants in Malaysia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted between March and December 2019 to investigate the prevalence, risk factors, and levels of infection with gastrointestinal strongyle and coccidia in selected smallholder goat flocks in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. A total of 257 blood and fecal samples and management data were collected from four farms in Negeri Sembilan. Gastrointestinal parasites were detected by routine sodium chloride floatation, and the McMaster technique was used to quantify the fecal eggs/oocysts per gram outputs (EPG/OPG). The severity of infection was classified as mild (50–799), moderate (800–1200), or severe (>1200). The packed cell volume (PCV) was determined by microhematocrit centrifugation and classified as anemic or non-anemic. Coprological examination revealed an overall prevalence of 78.6% (CI = 72.74–83.44) and 100% flock level prevalence of strongyle and coccidia infection among goats from Negeri Sembilan with a higher infection in flock A-Lenggeng (95.6%) than B-Senawang (87.3%), D-Mendom (80.6%), or C-Seremban (60.0%). The co-infections of strongyle + Eimeria (50.6; CI = 44.50 to 56.64) were more common than single infections of either strongyle (16.7%; CI = 12.66 to 21.78) or Eimeria (4.3%; CI = 2.41 to 7.50). Quantitative analysis has revealed different (p < 0.05) patterns of EPG/OPG in various categories of goats. In total, there were 49.8% mild, 8.6% moderate, and 13.6% severe infections of strongyle and 40.1% mild, 6.6% moderate, and 19.8% severe infections of coccidia among goats. The mean PCV of goats with severe strongyle infection (24.60 ± 0.85) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the moderate (26.90 ± 1.15), or mild (28.23 ± 0.50) infections and the uninfected (30.4 ± 0.71). There were increased odds of infection with strongyle and coccidia among female (OR = 3.2) and adult (OR = 11.0) goats from smallholder flocks in Negeri Sembilan. In conclusion, gastrointestinal strongyles and coccidia occur at high frequency among smallholder goats, and there is a higher risk of infection amongst the adult and female stock.

Gastrointestinal parasite infection intensity and hematological parameters in South African communal indigenous goats in relation to anemia

Aim:

The study was conducted to determine the intensity of gastrointestinal parasite (GIP) infections and hematological parameters in South African communal indigenous goats in relation to anemia.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 288 goats were randomly sampled in areas representing four agro-ecological zones. Fecal and blood samples were collected from the rectum and jugular vein, respectively, of each animal. The number of eggs per gram (EPG) and oocysts per gram (OPG) of feces and the hematological parameters were determined using the modified McMaster technique and a BC-2800Vet® automatic hematology analyzer, respectively. Data were analyzed using the repeated measures techniques of Minitab 17, modeling the covariance structure of the observed data.

Results:

Based on EPG and OPG, goats in humid zone were significantly infected (p<0.05) with strongyles, Eimeria, Moniezia, and Trichuris spp. Hematological parameters of goats in arid and humid zone were lower (p<0.05) than those in semi-arid and dry sub-humid zone. GIP infection intensities were higher (p<0.05) in young animals than in adult and suckling goats. GIP infection intensity was similar between goat sexes, while hematological parameters were higher (p<0.05) in females. Higher (p<0.05) infection intensities for strongyles (302.90 EPG) and Eimeria (216.09 EPG) were observed in winter compared to summer (strongyles: 302.90, Eimeria: 216.09 EPG). Higher (p<0.05) values for the hematological parameters were observed during summer compared to that in winter.

Conclusion:

GIP infection intensity in the winter could be associated with hypochromic and normocytic anemia which likely to affects suckling goats while in the summer could be associated with normochromic and normocytic anemia which likely to affect young goats.

Conjunctival mucous membrane colour as an indicator for the targeted selective treatment of haemonchosis and of the general health status of peri-urban smallholder goats in southern Malawi

The world's growing population is becoming increasingly centred around large cities, affording opportunities for peri-urban food production. Goats are well-suited to conversion of resources that are available in peri-urban settings into meat and occasionally milk. Haemonchus contortus has been described as "the nemesis of small ruminant production systems in tropical and subtropical regions"; hence control of haemonchosis through planned animal health management affords a pragmatic first step in improving the production efficiency of peri-urban goats. This study of peri-urban goat production investigated the potential value of targeted selective treatment of haemonchosis. 452 peri-urban goat keepers in southern Malawi were visited during three seasonal periods with relevance to the epidemiology of haemonchosis. 622, 599 and 455 individually identified goats were clinically examined during the dry season, the rainy season, and shortly after the end of the rainy season, respectively. Data were recorded for sex, age, weight, conjunctival mucous membrane colour score (FAMACHA©), body condition score (BCS) and faecal worm egg count (FEC); and where possible for pregnancy and lactation status. Animals with pale ocular mucous membranes were treated with 10 mg/kg albendazole, then re-examined 14 days later. Animals with pink mucous membranes, but FECs ≥250 eggs per gram were also re-examined and treated 14 days later. The results show high variability in growth rates deduced from the ages and bodyweights of each of 999 goats at the time of their enrolment. FAMACHA© scores alone were a poor index for the targeted selective treatment of haemonchosis, because they failed to identify too many animals that would have required treatment at different times of year and using different FAMACHA© and FEC cut-offs. Combining the indices of FAMACHA© scores ≥4, body condition scores ≥2, and age >18 months was more reliable in identifying those animals requiring treatment when different epidemiologically-relevant FEC thresholds for different seasons were taken into account. Inclusion of late pregnancy or early lactation status would have resulted in very few animals requiring treatment being missed. The use of conjunctival mucous membrane colour scoring in this way provided a valuable insight of the general health status of the peri-urban goats, to create opportunities for planned animal health management to improve productivity. The efficacy of albendazole treatment was poor, putatively due to drug resistance, or poor drug bioavailability in goats. In summary, our study shows opportunities for better production efficiency in peri-urban goats, and demonstrates the value of simple clinical diagnostic indices as decision support tools in planned animal health management.

Occurrence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Small Ruminants in the Central Part of Myanmar

Gastrointestinal parasite infection in small ruminants remains one of the major economic losses caused by reduced productivity. A total of 380 faecal samples were taken from 280 sheeps in Magway and Pwintbyu Townships and 100 goats in Natmauk Township, Myanmar. Faecal flotation and sedimentation methods were carried out to detect the presence of parasitic infections. Faecal egg and oocyst counts were carried out using the McMaster technique. The overall occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants was 98.4% (374/380). The occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in sheep (99.3%) was higher than that in goats (96%). The highest occurrence was found in Eimeria spp. (96%), followed by Trichostrongyle (77.1%), Trichuris spp. (35%), and Moniezia expansa (14%). The mixed infection rate was 84.8% (317/374), while a single infection was 15.2% (57/374). The mean eggs per gram (EPG) and oocysts per gram (OPG) of faeces were ranged from 50 to 600 and 50 to 29,800, respectively. Among the 4 nucleotide sequences isolated, one sequence was 94.10-94.47% similarity with Trichostrongylus colubriformis, reported from Laos, and three sequences showed 96.64-99.46% identity with Haemonchus contortus from Laos, China, India, and Mongolia. As gastrointestinal parasite infection in small ruminants was relatively high in the study area, the development of appropriate treatment and control measures should be provided to reduce production losses.

Attitudes and practices of resource-limited farmers on the control of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats foraging in grasslands and forestlands

Gastrointestinal nematode infestations remain one of the main constraints to goat productivity. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate the perceptions of goat farmers on the infestation and control of gastrointestinal nematode infestation. A total of 282 goat farmers from two villages of Mbizana local municipality in Alfred Nzo district were interviewed. Higher prevalence of diseases, parasites and feed availability were among the major constraints to goat productivity. Gastrointestinal parasites were ranked as the major constraint by farmers in the grassland than those in the forestland. Ordinal logistic regression analyses revealed that farmers in the grassland were 3.2 times more likely to experience gastrointestinal nematode infestation than those in the forestland (P < 0.05). On both vegetation types, tethered goats were perceived to have higher (P < 0.05) GIN infestation compared with free browsing goats. Poor farmers were 3.1 times more (P < 0.05) likely to experience high GIN infestation compared with less poor farmers. Farmers in the grassland were 2.1 times more likely to control GI nematode infestation than to those in the forestland (P < 0.05). Intervention strategies to control gastrointestinal nematodes should mainly target farmers from the grassland vegetation since they experience higher infestation rates of gastrointestinal nematodes.

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence, distribution and nematode species diversity in small ruminants: a Nigerian perspective

Despite the global projections that agriculture will have to feed an additional 3 billion of the world's population in the nearest future, the global trends and negative impacts of nematodes on livestock productivity are still on the increase. Here, we reported the burden of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants in Nigeria. Six thousand, five hundred and eighty one of the 13,259 small ruminants reported in 40 eligible studies across 18 Nigerian States were infected with at least one nematode species, yielding an overall pooled prevalence (PP) of 58.3% (95% CI 48.8, 67.2). Regional PP varied significantly (P < 0.001) and ranged between 19.5 (95% CI 5.8, 48.7) and 83.7% (95% CI 68.5, 92.3). Seasonal PP was higher in the dry (Prev: 56.5%, 95% CI 34.2, 76.4) than the rainy (Prev: 43.2%, 95% CI 26.7, 61.3) season. Haemonchus species were the most prevalent 21.3% while, Trichuris ovis and Strongyloides species had the widest geographic distribution. Several species of nematodes of small ruminants are highly prevalent in Nigeria. An all-inclusive approach involving public education and standardised management practices that involve adequate hygiene and sanitation, strategic and prophylactic use of anthelmintics, rotational grazing and the control of arthropod intermediate hosts will reduce the economic losses due to these parasites and curtail possible transmission to humans.

Factors influencing regional epidemiology of strongyle nematodes at organized sheep farms in Rajasthan

A study was conducted to observe the influence of year, season, month, breed, age and sex on epidemiology of strongyle nematodes in different sheep breeds managed at organised farms in arid and semi-arid Rajasthan by evaluating 14,030 fresh faecal samples (from April 2016 to March 2019). The overall incidence of strongyle worms was significantly higher (74.1%) in semi-arid as compared to 27.4% in arid region. Among breeds, it varied from 25.6% in Magra to 74.8% in Malpura sheep. The effect of year was significant on regional as well breed-wise incidence. Season had significant effect on regional incidence with maximum incidence during monsoon. A significant breed variation in overall and seasonal incidence was found only in arid region. Irrespective of sheep breed, significantly higher incidence of strongyle worms was observed in adult sheep in both the regions. Male had significantly higher incidence of strongyle worms in both the regions. The effect of agro-climatic region was significant on overall intensity of strongyle worms with mean FECs of 117.8±3.7 epg in arid and 1098.9±45.2 epg in semi-arid region. Breed-wise, the effect of year on intensity of strongyle nematodes was significant in arid region only. Seasonal intensity was significantly higher during monsoon season in both the agro-climatic regions and in all the breeds. Effect of age on overall intensity of infection was also significant in both the regions with higher mean FECs in adult animals as compared to young ones. In both the regions, males possessed higher FECs as compared to females. On coproculture, Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus sp and Oesophagostomum sp were recovered with maximum (71.1±2.1%) mean annual proportion of H. contortus. Availability of infective larvae of GI nematodes on herbage was observed during monsoon and extended up to post-monsoon season in semi-arid region. Comparatively higher herbage infectivity was not noticed in semi-arid farm with a peak of 2,100.0±97.9 L3/kg dry matter of herbage in September. The study suggest a marked influence of agro-climatic region on epidemiology and dynamics of strongyle nematodes in sheep flocks and on pasture. The breed variation was evident only in arid conditions. Further, the magnitude of monthly intensity of strongyle infection in arid region suggested anthelmintics intervention through targeted selective approach instead of strategic en-mass drench.

Angora goat gastrointestinal parasite knowledge and control practices among Lesotho farming communities

Smallholder Angora goat farming is widespread throughout Lesotho, resulting in the country being ranked second in global mohair production. The Lesotho landscape across which Angora goats are produced is divided into lowlands, foothills, mountains, and the Senqu river valley agro-ecological zones (AEZs). Husbandry practices, including those related to the control of gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs), are assumed to be influenced by the AEZ-determined farmers' lifestyles. This study assessed how the AEZ of the Angora goat farming communities influences farmers' demographic and socio-economic profiles, GIP knowledge, and goat management practices. Interviews were conducted with farmers from Maseru and Quthing districts selected from four areas that represent the AEZs. Our findings indicate that middle-aged males dominate goat farming in all AEZs. Also, most farmers only reached primary education, hence rely on experience for goat production. Familiarity with parasites differed among farmers from different AEZs although most viewed the GIP impact on goat health as high. Many farmers from all AEZs except the lowlands believed that diarrhoea, a common GIP symptom, is associated with their goat mortality. GIP control measures used include anthelmintics and traditional herbal medicines with differing frequency of administration. More than 80% of farmers reported offering supplemental feeds although other recommended goat management practices like shelter and sanitation were not commonly observed. All farmers reported reliance on communal grazing and many considered rangelands as sources of GIP infections. It is concluded that most husbandry practices are common across AEZs and that many of these are inadequate in controlling GIPs.

Gastro-intestinal nematodes in goats in Bangladesh: A large-scale epidemiological study on the prevalence and risk factors

Goats greatly influence the economic sustainability of rural communities. However, parasitic diseases, especially gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) are a major constraint on profitable small ruminants' production worldwide. During July- 2015 to June- 2016, we conducted a cross sectional study within seven topographic zones of Bangladesh to explore the level of infection and associated risk factors of GINs infections of goats. The study followed standard flotation and modified McMaster techniques. Among 1998 samples from goats; 1241 (62.1%) were found to be infected with one or more species of GINs by fecal examination for nematode eggs. The identified nematodes were strongyles (51.9%), Strongyloides sp. (19.0%) and Trichuris spp. (2.9%). By coproculture, we identified Haemonchus spp., Oesophagostomum spp., Trichostrongylus spp. and Bunostomum spp. in the different topographic zones. According to univariate analysis; young age, other breed than Black Bengal, animals in poor condition, backyard rearing system, muddy housing, illiterate farmers and rainy season were found significantly associated with GINs infections. Besides, other breed than Black Bengal, animals in poor condition, backyard rearing system, muddy housing and illiterate farmers were identified as the risk factors of GINs infections in goats. This is the first detailed epidemiological investigation of GINs of goats in Bangladesh. The epidemiological findings are expected to help formulate effective control strategies against GINs infections in goats by improving health status of animals, management system and education level of the farmers.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in communal goats from different agro-ecological zones of South Africa

Aim:

A longitudinal study was conducted to assess the epidemiology of common gastrointestinal parasite (GIP) infections affecting goats in South Africa as influenced by agro-ecological zone (AEZ), sampling season, and the age and sex of animals.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 288 goats (101 male and 187 female) were randomly sampled during winter and summer in areas representing four AEZs (arid: 80; semi-arid: 76; humid: 62; and dry sub-humid: 70) of South Africa. Fecal samples from each animal were collected from the rectum, and the presence of GIP eggs was determined using a modified McMaster technique. A sample was considered positive when a minimum of one GIP egg was detected under the microscope. Fecal cultures were prepared, and infective larvae were collected and identified. The data were analyzed by MiniTab17 (2017) using the FREQ procedure, and the association between the independent factors and the prevalence of various GIPs were evaluated using the Pearson Chi-square test (p<0.05).

Results:

The overall prevalence of GIP in the present study was 37.1%, with a mean prevalence of 30.0, 26.4, 31.1, 36.6, and 59.6% for Eimeria spp., Trichuris, Strongyloides papillosus, Moniezia spp., and strongyles, respectively. There was a significant (p<0.05) association between the prevalence of strongyles, Trichuris, Moniezia spp., and AEZs, whereas an insignificant (p>0.05) association was observed for the prevalence of Eimeria spp. and S. papillosus. A significant (p<0.05) association between goat age and prevalence of all GIPs was observed, where the prevalence was higher in young goats, followed by adults, and then by suckling goats. The prevalence of various GIPs was similar between male and female goats. The percentage of infection with Eimeria spp., Trichuris, S. papillosus, and strongyle parasitic infections was marginally higher in males than in females, whereas that of the Moniezia spp. was higher in females. A significant (p<0.05) association between the prevalence of Eimeria spp. and sampling season was observed, and there was an insignificant (p>0.05) association between the other GIPs and sampling season. The prevalence of Eimeria spp. infection was higher in winter (34.0%) than in summer (26.0%).

Conclusion:

AEZs and goat age are the most important risk factors influencing GIP infections in South African communal goats. These epidemiological parameters are important for outlining effective parasite control management systems against these GIPs in goats.

Diversity and prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in farmed pigs in Southeast Gabon, Central Africa

Background and Aim

Gastrointestinal infestations caused by intestinal parasites are the most important diseases and the most common in pigs in the tropics. These parasites are often associated with a huge economic loss. This study aimed to assess the diversity and prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in farmed pigs from Haut-Ogooue Province, in South East Gabon.

Materials and Methods

From March 2018 to July 2018, 156 samples of pig feces collected from nine different farms were analyzed under light microscopy. The identification of eggs, cysts, and oocysts in fecal samples was done using two qualitative techniques: Flotation and sedimentation.

Results

After examination, the results obtained revealed an overall infestation level of 98.7% (154/156). We found ten parasite types with infestation levels that varied from species: Balantidium coli (120/156), Oesophagostomum spp. (100/156), Isospora suis (102/156), Ancylostoma spp. (17/156), Trichostrongylus spp. (28/156), Hyostrongylus spp. (13/156), Strongyloides spp. (7/156), Ascaris suum (8/156), Globocephalus spp. (1/156), and spirurida (1/156). The study of risk factors revealed that factors such as sex, age, and physiological condition may influence the diversity and level of infestation of animals by gastrointestinal parasites.

Conclusion

For better prevention of parasitism in these farms, it would be interesting to implement health monitoring and to ensure good hygiene. Finally, further studies would be needed to better evaluate the distribution of these parasites in Gabon and the involvement of these animals in the transmission cycle of parasitic zoonoses.

Assessment of Haemonchus contortus larval and adult somatic antigens in sero-diagnosis of haemonchosis in naturally infected sheep and goats

The current work was carried out to evaluate the potency of larval and adult somatic Haemonchus contortus (H. contortus) antigens in detection of haemonchosis among sheep and goats using ELISA. Two hundred and forty-three fecal and blood samples were randomly collected from small ruminants (107 sheep and 136 goats) in Beni-Suef Governorate, Egypt, during the period from June to August 2018. The fecal analysis exhibited that 26.33% of the small ruminants were infected with gastrointestinal nematodes. The overall prevalence of H. contortus was reached 22.22% whereas it was 27.10% and 18.38% among sheep and goats, respectively. The current study elucidated that the larval antigen has claimed more superior diagnostic results compared to the adult somatic H. contortus antigen. The apparent overall sero-prevalence among small ruminants was reached 51.85%. Separately, it was 64.48% in sheep and 41.91% in goats. The larval antigen had proved 96.55% sensitivity and 47.43% specificity, for sheep serum samples. Meanwhile, sensitivity and specificity for goats' sera were 100% and 71.17%, respectively. Diagnostic efficacy of ELISA was recorded 60.74% in sheep and 76.47% in goats. This study deduced that the larval antigen has proved the priority and the potency for diagnosis of H. contortus infection. Moreover, haemonchosis is a prevalent disease among the examined sheep and goats.

Epidemiology of strongyle nematode infections and first report of benzimidazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus in goats in South Darfur State, Sudan

BACKGROUND

Since pastoralists in South Darfur, Sudan, had complained about lack of albendazole (ABZ) efficacy to control nematodes in goats, the frequency of infection with gastrointestinal helminths was studied before in vivo faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRT) were conducted using ABZ orally either at the dose recommended for sheep, 5 mg/kg body weight (bw) or at 10 mg/kg bw. Experiments included goats naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes or experimentally infected with local Haemonchus contortus isolates. Three study areas (Nyala, Beleil and Kass) were visited in autumn or winter.

RESULTS

Out of 478 screened goats, 82.4% were infected with gastrointestinal helminths and 82% were shedding eggs of strongyle nematodes with 90% of the strongyle larvae representing Haemonchus spp. A FECRT using naturally infected goats (n = 225: 71 untreated, 104 and 50 treated with 5 and 10 mg ABZ/kg bw, respectively) detected reduced ABZ efficacy in Nyala and Kass. Paired and unpaired FECRT calculations detected reductions of 72-92% with samples taken at 8 days post treatment with 5 mg ABZ/kg bw and of 85-94% with 10 mg ABZ/kg bw. The FECRT based on day 14 post treatment samples showed reductions of 69-77% with 5 mg/kg and of 75-87% with 10 mg ABZ/kg bw. In Beleil, ABZ efficacy was 95%. In the egg hatch test EC₅₀ values for Nyala and Kass ranged from 0.12-0.24 μg thiabendazole/ml, corresponding to benzimidazole resistant phenotypes. Only Haemonchus spp. larvae were present after treatments in coprocultures. When the efficacy was evaluated experimentally using isolates of H. contortus from Nyala and Kass, the 5 mg ABZ/kg dose revealed reductions of 76-78% on day 8 and of 62-70% on day 14 with the unpaired method. Using 10 mg ABZ/kg, the FECR was still only 77-82%.

CONCLUSIONS

Both, in vivo and in vitro methods detected resistant H. contortus populations in goats from South Darfur State. The time point 14 days post treatment was more sensitive for detection of ABZ resistance than 8 days post treatment. This is the first report on the occurrence of anthelmintic resistance in Sudan confirming that anthelmintic resistance selection is occurring in African subsistence farming systems.

Prevalence of Haemonchus contortus Infections in Sheep and Goats in Nyagatare District, Rwanda

This study investigated the overall prevalence of Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep and goats from five purposively selected subdivisions (sectors) of Nyagatare district from January to December 2014, after a high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and generalized poor productivity was reported in small ruminants in some districts of Rwanda. Faecal egg counts (FEC) were performed using the Modified Wisconsin Sugar Floatation method and the Fluorescent-labeled peanut-lectin agglutination test while enumerations, as log (FEC), were done using the modified McMaster method. The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep and goats was 75.7% (n=949). The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep (83.4%, n=314) was higher than in goats (71.8%, n=635) (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.98, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.40-2.79, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in female goats (74.2%) was higher than in male goats (64.3%) (OR 1.60, 95% CI: 1.09-2.36, and p=0.01). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Nyagatare was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 3.25, 95% CI: 1.76-5.99, and p≤0.001) and from Katabagemu (OR 3.67, 95% CI: 2.04-6.59, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Karangazi was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 4.72, 95% CI: 2.40-9.28, and p≤0.001). The overall mean monthly log (FEC) for H. contortus in sheep and goats were highest in April (18.9±0.2 and 14.05±0.1, respectively) and October (19.25± 0.2 and 13.75±0.1, respectively). Though, overall, sheep in Nyagatare district were at greater risk of H. contortus infection and goats from Nyagatare and Karangazi sectors were paradoxically at greater risk of H. contortus infection. It was also apparent that young female goats were at greater risk of H. contortus infection than young male goats. H. contortus infection is endemic in small ruminants in Nyagatare district and possibly other districts in Rwanda. Targeted selective treatment (TST) using FAMACHA with emphasis on low-lying swampy pastures and appropriate anthelmintic drugs may be the most economically viable solution in the short term. In the long term breeding of H. contortus resistant small ruminants and strategic grazing using the concept of refugia may bring about considerable relief from H. contortus infection in Nyagatare district, in particular, and Rwanda at large.

Positive selection and climatic effects on MHC class II gene diversity in hares (Lepus capensis) from a steep ecological gradient

In natural populations, allelic diversity of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is commonly interpreted as resulting from positive selection in varying spatiotemporal pathogenic landscapes. Composite pathogenic landscape data are, however, rarely available. We studied the spatial distribution of allelic diversity at two MHC class II loci (DQA, DQB) in hares, Lepus capensis, along a steep ecological gradient in North Africa and tested the role of climatic parameters for the spatial distribution of DQA and DQB proteins. Climatic parameters were considered to reflect to some extent pathogenic landscape variation. We investigated historical and contemporary forces that have shaped the variability at both genes, and tested for differential selective pressure across the ecological gradient by comparing allelic variation at MHC and neutral loci. We found positive selection on both MHC loci and significantly decreasing diversity from North to South Tunisia. Our multinomial linear models revealed significant effects of geographical positions that were correlated with mean annual temperature and precipitation on the occurrence of protein variants, but no effects of co-occurring DQA or DQB proteins, respectively. Diversifying selection, recombination, adaptation to local pathogenic landscapes (supposedly reflected by climate parameters) and neutral demographic processes have shaped the observed MHC diversity and differentiation patterns.

Gastro-intestinal parasite infections of Ankole cattle in an unhealthy landscape: An assessment of ecological predictors

The distribution of gastro-intestinal (GI) parasites across landscapes is closely related to the spatial distribution of hosts. In GI parasites with environmental life stages, the vitality of parasites is also affected by ecological and landscape-related components of the environment. This is particularly relevant for domestic livestock species that are often kept across habitats with varying degrees of degradation, exposing them to a wide range of environmentally robust parasite species. In our study, we examined the effect of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the prevalence and intensity of GI parasites across a free-ranging stock of Ankole cattle in the Mutara rangelands of northeastern Rwanda. Prevalence and intensity of each parasite type (i.e., strongyle-type nematodes, Strongyloides spp., Moniezia spp., and Eimeria spp.) were used as dependent variables. Two fixed factors related to season and conservation-political history, together with three principal components (condensed from nine ecological variables) were used as independent covariates in a univariate General Linear Model (GLM). Major effects on the prevalence and intensity of strongyle-type nematodes and on the intensity of Eimeria spp. were found in that vegetation-related effects such as above-ground grass biomass in conjunction with a high degree of soil compaction had a negative relationship with these parasite types. These unexpected findings suggest that strongyle-type and coccidian infections increase with increasing rangeland degradation. Strongyle-type nematode prevalence and intensity were also negatively related to goat/sheep density, indicating a 'dilution effect' of GI infections between domestic livestock species.

Physio-biochemical parameters: a potential tool for target-selective treatment of haemonchosis in the small ruminants

This study aims to evaluate the conjunctiva colour-based FAMACHA score (FS) coupled with a body condition score (BCS), haemogram and stressor hormone level estimation, in identifying post-mortem (PM)/coproscopically proven individuals wanting therapy for economically important gastrointestinal (GI) helminths, Haemonchus contortus, in the small ruminants. The incidence of haemonchosis was significantly (p < 0.05) higher (60.81%) in the ruminants with FS = 3. The H. contortus count in the animals with FS 2, 3 and 4 was 23.2 ± 0.37, 62 ± 2.5 and 74 ± 3.2 (p < 0.05) [positive correlation (r = 0.841 in goats; r = 0.828 in sheep, p < 0.05)], respectively, with corresponding 2.8 ± 0.15, 2 ± 0.3 and 2 ± 0.16 BCS (negative correlation, p > 0.05). The infected animals of FS 2, 3 and 4 measured 8.2 ± 0.0, 7.5 ± 0.23 and 6.7 ± 0.34 g/dl Hb (r = -0.452, p = 0.01) in goats/9.3 ± 0.8, 8.6 ± 0.5 and 7.6 ± 0.3 g/dl Hb (r = -0.511, p = 0.05) in sheep with 21.2, 19.8 ± 1.8 and 17.8 ± 0.2% PCV (r = -0.369, p = 0.05) in goats/26.7 ± 1.2, 22.2 ± 0.2 and 20.9 ± 0.6% PCV (r = -0.251, p = 0.03) in sheep, respectively. The FS 2, 3 and 4 infected goats/sheep measured 6.1 ± 0, 7.9 ± 1.0 and 9.5 ± 0.9 (p < 0.05)/5.8 ± 2.3, 6.9 ± 1.2 and 7.8 ± 0.2% (p < 0.05) mid-granulocyte [(r = 0.928 (goats)/0.834 (sheep), p < 0.05], while the cortisol level was 15.6, 23 ± 4.5 and 42 ± 2.3 (p = 0.23)/12.1 ± 0, 15.9 ± 1.2 and 24 ± 3.4 (p = 0.29) μg/dl, respectively. The infected ruminants recorded low (p < 0.05) level of Hb/PCV while high level of mid-granulocytes/cortisol. Specificity of FAMACHA test was maximized (100%) when FS = 4 was considered anaemic, but sensitivity was low (35.29% in goats; 25% in sheep). The false negatives was 5.9 (goat)/12.5 (sheep)% when FS ≥ 3 was considered anaemic. The small ruminants with FS ≥ 3, BCS ≤ 2.5, Hb ≤ 7.5 g/dl (goats)/8.6 g/dl (sheep), PCV ≤ 19.8% (goats)/22.2% (sheep) and mid-granulocyte ≥7.9% (goats)/6.9 ± 1.2% (sheep) can be subjected to target-selective treatment for haemonchosis in the field simultaneously maximizing the economic benefit to the farmers.