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Sung CYW, Li M, Jonjic S, Sanchez V, Britt WJ. Cytomegalovirus infection lengthens the cell cycle of granule cell precursors during postnatal cerebellar development. JCI Insight 2024; 9:e175525. [PMID: 38855871 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.175525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in infants infected in utero can lead to a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders. However, mechanisms underlying altered neurodevelopment in infected infants remain poorly understood. We have previously described a murine model of congenital HCMV infection in which murine CMV (MCMV) spreads hematogenously and establishes a focal infection in all regions of the brain of newborn mice, including the cerebellum. Infection resulted in disruption of cerebellar cortical development characterized by reduced cerebellar size and foliation. This disruption was associated with altered cell cycle progression of the granule cell precursors (GCPs), which are the progenitors that give rise to granule cells (GCs), the most abundant neurons in the cerebellum. In the current study, we have demonstrated that MCMV infection leads to prolonged GCP cell cycle, premature exit from the cell cycle, and reduced numbers of GCs resulting in cerebellar hypoplasia. Treatment with TNF-α neutralizing antibody partially normalized the cell cycle alterations of GCPs and altered cerebellar morphogenesis induced by MCMV infection. Collectively, our results argue that virus-induced inflammation altered the cell cycle of GCPs resulting in a reduced numbers of GCs and cerebellar cortical hypoplasia, thus providing a potential mechanism for altered neurodevelopment in fetuses infected with HCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Yea Won Sung
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
- Laboratory of Hearing Biology and Therapeutics, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Mao Li
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Department of Histology and Embryology and
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Veronica Sanchez
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - William J Britt
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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2
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Tong T, Chen Y, Hao C, Shen J, Chen W, Cheng W, Yan S, Li J, Li Y, Gulizhaerkezi T, Zeng J, Meng X. The effects of acupuncture on depression by regulating BDNF-related balance via lateral habenular nucleus BDNF/TrkB/CREB signaling pathway in rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 451:114509. [PMID: 37244435 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Depression is a major mental disease worldwide, causing dysfunction of Lateral Habenular (LHb). As a non-invasive alternative, acupuncture (AP) has been widely used to treat depression in clinic, yet few basic studies have been focused on the effects and mechanism of acupuncture on synaptic plasticity in LHb. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential mechanism of the antidepressant effect of acupuncture. Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into control, chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), AP, fluoxetine (FLX), acupoint catgut embedding (ACE), sham-ACE groups (n = 9/group). Rats were given a 28-day treatment at the Shangxing (GV23) and Fengfu (GV16) acupoints with acupuncture, ACE, sham-ACE or fluoxetine (2.1 mg/kg). The results showed that AP, FLX and ACE suppressed the behavioral deficits, increased the level of the 5-hydroxytryptamine and FNDC5/IRISIN in serum, also reduced the expression of pro-BDNF impacted by CUMS. Both AP and FLX ameliorated the %area of IBA-1, GFAP, BrdU and DCX in the LHb and increased the expression of BDNF/TrkB/CREB, with non-significant difference between the two groups These findings suggest that AP therapy relieves depression-related manifestations in depressed rats, suggesting a potential mechanism via the BDNF/TrkB/CREB pathway in LHb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Tong
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China; Second Clinical College, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China
| | - Yiping Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China; Second Clinical College, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China
| | - Chonyao Hao
- Second Clinical College, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China
| | - Junliang Shen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China
| | - Wenjie Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China
| | - Wenjing Cheng
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Ezhou Central Hospital, Ezhou, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Simin Yan
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China
| | - Jianguo Li
- Second Clinical College, Shanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, Shanxi, P. R. China
| | - Yuhan Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, P. R. China
| | - Tuergong Gulizhaerkezi
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China
| | - Jingyu Zeng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China
| | - Xianjun Meng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, P. R. China.
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3
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Cordero Cervantes D, Khare H, Wilson AM, Mendoza ND, Coulon-Mahdi O, Lichtman JW, Zurzolo C. 3D reconstruction of the cerebellar germinal layer reveals tunneling connections between developing granule cells. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf3471. [PMID: 37018410 PMCID: PMC10075961 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf3471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The difficulty of retrieving high-resolution, in vivo evidence of the proliferative and migratory processes occurring in neural germinal zones has limited our understanding of neurodevelopmental mechanisms. Here, we used a connectomic approach using a high-resolution, serial-sectioning scanning electron microscopy volume to investigate the laminar cytoarchitecture of the transient external granular layer (EGL) of the developing cerebellum, where granule cells coordinate a series of mitotic and migratory events. By integrating image segmentation, three-dimensional reconstruction, and deep-learning approaches, we found and characterized anatomically complex intercellular connections bridging pairs of cerebellar granule cells throughout the EGL. Connected cells were either mitotic, migratory, or transitioning between these two cell stages, displaying a chronological continuum of proliferative and migratory events never previously observed in vivo at this resolution. This unprecedented ultrastructural characterization poses intriguing hypotheses about intercellular connectivity between developing progenitors and its possible role in the development of the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diégo Cordero Cervantes
- Membrane Traffic and Pathogenesis, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3691, F-75015 Paris, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Harshavardhan Khare
- Membrane Traffic and Pathogenesis, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3691, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Alyssa Michelle Wilson
- Department of Neurology, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nathaly Dongo Mendoza
- Membrane Traffic and Pathogenesis, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3691, F-75015 Paris, France
- Research Center in Bioengineering, Universidad de Ingeniería y Tecnología-UTEC, Lima 15049, Peru
| | - Orfane Coulon-Mahdi
- Membrane Traffic and Pathogenesis, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3691, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Jeff William Lichtman
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Chiara Zurzolo
- Membrane Traffic and Pathogenesis, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3691, F-75015 Paris, France
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4
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Tang W, Wang H, He H. Protocol to photoactivate adipose-derived stem cell differentiation using a tightly-focused femtosecond laser. STAR Protoc 2022; 3:101574. [PMID: 35880123 PMCID: PMC9307679 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2022.101574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The technology to induce stem cell differentiation is of great importance in life science, stem cell therapy, and regenerative medicine. Here, we detail steps to noninvasively activate stem cell differentiation in vitro and in vivo using a tightly focused femtosecond laser. We describe how a single-time transient photoactivation can initiate differentiation without any gene engineering, exogenous substances, or physical contact. This protocol enables the differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells to osteoblasts in vitro and cerebellar granule neuron progenitors to granule neurons in vivo. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Tang et al. (2022). An easy-to-build optical system to provide transient noninvasive photoactivation All-optical noninvasive approach without exogenous substances or physical contact Differentiation of several stem cell models in vitro and in vivo
Publisher’s note: Undertaking any experimental protocol requires adherence to local institutional guidelines for laboratory safety and ethics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyi Tang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China.
| | - Haipeng Wang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China
| | - Hao He
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China.
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5
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Tang W, Wang H, Zhao X, Liu S, Kong SK, Ho A, Chen T, Feng H, He H. Stem cell differentiation with consistent lineage commitment induced by a flash of ultrafast-laser activation in vitro and in vivo. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110486. [PMID: 35263591 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent technological advancements on stem cell differentiation induction have been making great progress in stem cell research, regenerative medicine, and therapeutic applications. However, the risk of off-target differentiation limits the wide application of stem cell therapy strategies. Here, we report a non-invasive all-optical strategy to induce stem cell differentiation in vitro and in vivo that activates individual target stem cells in situ by delivering a transient 100-ms irradiation of a tightly focused femtosecond laser to a submicron cytoplasmic region of primary adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs). The ADSCs differentiate to osteoblasts with stable lineage commitment that cannot further transdifferentiate because of simultaneous initiation of multiple signaling pathways through specific Ca2+ kinetic patterns. This method can work in vivo to direct mouse cerebellar granule neuron progenitors to granule neurons in intact mouse cerebellums through the skull. Hence, this optical method without any genetic manipulations or exogenous biomaterials holds promising potential in biomedical research and cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyi Tang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China
| | - Haipeng Wang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China
| | - Xiaohui Zhao
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China
| | - Shiyue Liu
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, P.R. China
| | - Siu Kai Kong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, P.R. China
| | - Aaron Ho
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, P.R. China
| | - Tunan Chen
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Hua Feng
- Institute of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, P.R. China
| | - Hao He
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P.R. China.
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6
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Luo W, Lin GN, Song W, Zhang Y, Lai H, Zhang M, Miao J, Cheng X, Wang Y, Li W, Wei W, Gao WQ, Yang R, Wang J. Single-cell spatial transcriptomic analysis reveals common and divergent features of developing postnatal granule cerebellar cells and medulloblastoma. BMC Biol 2021; 19:135. [PMID: 34210306 PMCID: PMC8247169 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebellar neurogenesis involves the generation of large numbers of cerebellar granule neurons (GNs) throughout development of the cerebellum, a process that involves tight regulation of proliferation and differentiation of granule neuron progenitors (GNPs). A number of transcriptional regulators, including Math1, and the signaling molecules Wnt and Shh have been shown to have important roles in GNP proliferation and differentiation, and deregulation of granule cell development has been reported to be associated with the pathogenesis of medulloblastoma. While the progenitor/differentiation states of cerebellar granule cells have been broadly investigated, a more detailed association between developmental differentiation programs and spatial gene expression patterns, and how these lead to differential generation of distinct types of medulloblastoma remains poorly understood. Here, we provide a comparative single-cell spatial transcriptomics analysis to better understand the similarities and differences between developing granule and medulloblastoma cells. RESULTS To acquire an enhanced understanding of the precise cellular states of developing cerebellar granule cells, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing of 24,919 murine cerebellar cells from granule neuron-specific reporter mice (Math1-GFP; Dcx-DsRed mice). Our single-cell analysis revealed that there are four major states of developing cerebellar granule cells, including two subsets of granule progenitors and two subsets of differentiating/differentiated granule neurons. Further spatial transcriptomics technology enabled visualization of their spatial locations in cerebellum. In addition, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing of 18,372 cells from Patched+/- mutant mice and found that the transformed granule cells in medulloblastoma closely resembled developing granule neurons of varying differentiation states. However, transformed granule neuron progenitors in medulloblastoma exhibit noticeably less tendency to differentiate compared with cells in normal development. CONCLUSION In sum, our study revealed the cellular and spatial organization of the detailed states of cerebellar granule cells and provided direct evidence for the similarities and discrepancies between normal cerebellar development and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqin Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Guan Ning Lin
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Weichen Song
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Huadong Lai
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Man Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Juju Miao
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Xiaomu Cheng
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
| | - Yongjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Wang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China
| | - Wenxiang Wei
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China.
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China.
| | - Ru Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China.
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai, 200127, China.
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7
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Notch Signaling between Cerebellar Granule Cell Progenitors. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0468-20.2021. [PMID: 33762301 PMCID: PMC8121261 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0468-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar granule cells (GCs) are cells which comprise over 50% of the neurons in the entire nervous system. GCs enable the cerebellum to properly regulate motor coordination, learning, and consolidation, in addition to cognition, emotion and language. During GC development, maternal GC progenitors (GCPs) divide to produce not only postmitotic GCs but also sister GCPs. However, the molecular machinery for regulating the proportional production of distinct sister cell types from seemingly uniform GCPs is not yet fully understood. Here we report that Notch signaling creates a distinction between GCPs and leads to their proportional differentiation in mice. Among Notch-related molecules, Notch1, Notch2, Jag1, and Hes1 are prominently expressed in GCPs. In vivo monitoring of Hes1-promoter activities showed the presence of two types of GCPs, Notch-signaling ON and OFF, in the external granule layer (EGL). Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and in silico analyses indicate that ON-GCPs have more proliferative and immature properties, while OFF-GCPs have opposite characteristics. Overexpression as well as knock-down (KD) experiments using in vivo electroporation showed that NOTCH2 and HES1 are involved cell-autonomously to suppress GCP differentiation by inhibiting NEUROD1 expression. In contrast, JAG1-expressing cells non-autonomously upregulated Notch signaling activities via NOTCH2-HES1 in surrounding GCPs, eventually suppressing their differentiation. These findings suggest that Notch signaling results in the proportional generation of two types of cells, immature and differentiating GCPs, which contributes to the well-organized differentiation of GCs.
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8
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Merk DJ, Zhou P, Cohen SM, Pazyra-Murphy MF, Hwang GH, Rehm KJ, Alfaro J, Reid CM, Zhao X, Park E, Xu PX, Chan JA, Eck MJ, Nazemi KJ, Harwell CC, Segal RA. The Eya1 Phosphatase Mediates Shh-Driven Symmetric Cell Division of Cerebellar Granule Cell Precursors. Dev Neurosci 2021; 42:170-186. [PMID: 33472197 DOI: 10.1159/000512976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
During neural development, stem and precursor cells can divide either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The transition between symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions is a major determinant of precursor cell expansion and neural differentiation, but the underlying mechanisms that regulate this transition are not well understood. Here, we identify the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway as a critical determinant regulating the mode of division of cerebellar granule cell precursors (GCPs). Using partial gain and loss of function mutations within the Shh pathway, we show that pathway activation determines spindle orientation of GCPs, and that mitotic spindle orientation correlates with the mode of division. Mechanistically, we show that the phosphatase Eya1 is essential for implementing Shh-dependent GCP spindle orientation. We identify atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) as a direct target of Eya1 activity and show that Eya1 dephosphorylates a critical threonine (T410) in the activation loop. Thus, Eya1 inactivates aPKC, resulting in reduced phosphorylation of Numb and other components that regulate the mode of division. This Eya1-dependent cascade is critical in linking spindle orientation, cell cycle exit and terminal differentiation. Together these findings demonstrate that a Shh-Eya1 regulatory axis selectively promotes symmetric cell divisions during cerebellar development by coordinating spindle orientation and cell fate determinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Merk
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurology & Interdisciplinary Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Tübingen, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pengcheng Zhou
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maria F Pazyra-Murphy
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Grace H Hwang
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kristina J Rehm
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jose Alfaro
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Christopher M Reid
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Xuesong Zhao
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eunyoung Park
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Pin-Xian Xu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jennifer A Chan
- Arnie Charbonneau Cancer Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Michael J Eck
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kellie J Nazemi
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Corey C Harwell
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,
| | - Rosalind A Segal
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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9
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Paniagua-Herranz L, Menéndez-Méndez A, Gómez-Villafuertes R, Olivos-Oré LA, Biscaia M, Gualix J, Pérez-Sen R, Delicado EG, Artalejo AR, Miras-Portugal MT, Ortega F. Live Imaging Reveals Cerebellar Neural Stem Cell Dynamics and the Role of VNUT in Lineage Progression. Stem Cell Reports 2020; 15:1080-1094. [PMID: 33065045 PMCID: PMC7663791 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the intrinsic specification of postnatal cerebellar neural stem cells (NSCs) and to what extent they depend on information from their local niche. Here, we have used an adapted cell preparation of isolated postnatal NSCs and live imaging to demonstrate that cerebellar progenitors maintain their neurogenic nature by displaying hallmarks of NSCs. Furthermore, by using this preparation, all the cell types produced postnatally in the cerebellum, in similar relative proportions to those observed in vivo, can be monitored. The fact that neurogenesis occurs in such organized manner in the absence of signals from the local environment, suggests that cerebellar lineage progression is to an important extent governed by cell-intrinsic or pre-programmed events. Finally, we took advantage of the absence of the niche to assay the influence of the vesicular nucleotide transporter inhibition, which dramatically reduced the number of NSCs in vitro by promoting their progression toward neurogenesis. We present a preparation that allows monitoring the behavior of cerebellar NSCs Isolated NSCs maintain their neurogenic nature in absence of niche factors The model enables monitoring the three postnatal cerebellar niches simultaneously VNUT influences the balance between quiescence and activation of cerebellar NSCs
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Paniagua-Herranz
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Aida Menéndez-Méndez
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa Gómez-Villafuertes
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis A Olivos-Oré
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Biscaia
- Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Gualix
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Pérez-Sen
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Esmerilda G Delicado
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio R Artalejo
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Teresa Miras-Portugal
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Felipe Ortega
- Departament of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica (IUIN), Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, Spain.
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10
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Arzaghi H, Adel B, Jafari H, Askarian-Amiri S, Shiralizadeh Dezfuli A, Akbarzadeh A, Pazoki-Toroudi H. Nanomaterial integration into the scaffolding materials for nerve tissue engineering: a review. Rev Neurosci 2020; 31:/j/revneuro.ahead-of-print/revneuro-2020-0008/revneuro-2020-0008.xml. [PMID: 32776904 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2020-0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The nervous system, which consists of a complex network of millions of neurons, is one of the most highly intricate systems in the body. This complex network is responsible for the physiological and cognitive functions of the human body. Following injuries or degenerative diseases, damage to the nervous system is overwhelming because of its complexity and its limited regeneration capacity. However, neural tissue engineering currently has some capacities for repairing nerve deficits and promoting neural regeneration, with more developments in the future. Nevertheless, controlling the guidance of stem cell proliferation and differentiation is a challenging step towards this goal. Nanomaterials have the potential for the guidance of the stem cells towards the neural lineage which can overcome the pitfalls of the classical methods since they provide a unique microenvironment that facilitates cell-matrix and cell-cell interaction, and they can manipulate the cell signaling mechanisms to control stem cells' fate. In this article, the suitable cell sources and microenvironment cues for neuronal tissue engineering were examined. Afterward, the nanomaterials that impact stem cell proliferation and differentiation towards neuronal lineage were reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamidreza Arzaghi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Hemat Highway Next to Milad Tower, Tehran 1449614535, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Bashir Adel
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, The University of Guilan, Rasht 4199613776, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Hossein Jafari
- Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM), Artesh Highway, Tehran 1956836681, Islamic Reitutionpublic of Iran
| | - Shaghayegh Askarian-Amiri
- Physiology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Hemat Highway Next to Milad Tower, Tehran 1449614535, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Amin Shiralizadeh Dezfuli
- Physiology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Hemat Highway Next to Milad Tower, Tehran 1449614535, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Abolfazl Akbarzadeh
- Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center of Tabriz, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Islamic Republic of Iran
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5165665811, Islamic Republic of Iran
- Iran Universal Scientific and Education Network (USERN), Tabriz 5165665811, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Hamidreza Pazoki-Toroudi
- Physiology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Hemat Highway Next to Milad Tower, Tehran 1449614535, Islamic Republic of Iran
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Hemat Highway Next to Milad Tower, Tehran 1449614535, Islamic Republic of Iran
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11
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Jiwani T, Kim JJ, Rosenblum ND. Suppressor of fused controls cerebellum granule cell proliferation by suppressing Fgf8 and spatially regulating Gli proteins. Development 2020; 147:dev.170274. [PMID: 31932349 DOI: 10.1242/dev.170274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cerebellar granule cell (GC) development relies on precise regulation of sonic hedgehog (Shh)-Gli signalling activity, failure of which is associated with motor disorders and medulloblastoma. Mutations in the pathway regulator suppressor of fused (Sufu), which modulates Gli activators and repressors, are linked to cerebellar dysfunction and tumourigenesis. The mechanism by which Sufu calibrates Shh signalling in GCs is unknown. Math1-Cre-mediated deletion of Sufu in mouse GC progenitors (GCPs) demonstrated that Sufu restricts GCP proliferation and promotes cell cycle exit, by promoting expression of Gli3R and suppressing Gli2 levels. Sufu is also required to promote a high threshold of pathway activity in GCPs. Remarkably, central cerebellar lobules are more deleteriously impacted by Sufu deletion, but are less sensitive to downstream genetic manipulations to reduce Gli2 expression or overexpress a Gli3R mimic, compared with anterior lobules. Transcriptome sequencing uncovered new Sufu targets, especially Fgf8, which is upregulated in Sufu-mutant GCPs. We demonstrate that Fgf8 is necessary and sufficient to drive Sufu-mutant GCP proliferation. This study reveals new insights into the spatial and temporal regulation of cerebellar Shh-Gli signalling, while uncovering new targets, such as Fgf8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tayyaba Jiwani
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 0A4, Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Jinny J Kim
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 0A4, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Norman D Rosenblum
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 0A4, Canada .,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
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12
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Hanzel M, Rook V, Wingate RJT. Mitotic granule cell precursors undergo highly dynamic morphological transitions throughout the external germinal layer of the chick cerebellum. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15218. [PMID: 31645601 PMCID: PMC6811643 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51532-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The developing cerebellum of amniotes is characterised by a unique, transient, secondary proliferation zone: the external germinal layer (EGL). The EGL is comprised solely of granule cell precursors, whose progeny migrate inwardly to form the internal granule cell layer. While a range of cell morphologies in the EGL has long been known, how they reflect the cells' differentiation status has previously only been inferred. Observations have suggested a deterministic maturation from outer to inner EGL that we wished to test experimentally. To do this, we electroporated granule cell precursors in chick with plasmids encoding fluorescent proteins and probed labelled cells with markers of both proliferation (phosphohistone H3) and differentiation (Axonin1/TAG1 and NeuroD1). We show that granule cell precursors can display a range of complex forms throughout the EGL while mitotically active. Overexpression of full length NeuroD1 within granule cell precursors does not abolish proliferation, but biases granule cells towards precocious differentiation, alters their migration path and results in a smaller and less foliated cerebellum. Our results show that granule cells show a greater flexibility in differentiation than previously assumed. We speculate that this allows the EGL to regulate its proliferative activity in response to overall patterns of cerebellar growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michalina Hanzel
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, 4th floor New Hunt's House, Guy's Campus, London, UK
| | - Victoria Rook
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, 4th floor New Hunt's House, Guy's Campus, London, UK
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E4 1NS, UK
| | - Richard J T Wingate
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, 4th floor New Hunt's House, Guy's Campus, London, UK.
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13
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Trim32 suppresses cerebellar development and tumorigenesis by degrading Gli1/sonic hedgehog signaling. Cell Death Differ 2019; 27:1286-1299. [PMID: 31527798 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-019-0415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling is crucial for the maintenance of the physiological self-renewal of granule neuron progenitor cells (GNPs) during cerebellar development, and its dysregulation leads to oncogenesis. However, how SHH signaling is controlled during cerebellar development is poorly understood. Here, we show that Trim32, a cell fate determinant, is distributed asymmetrically in the cytoplasm of mitotic GNPs, and that genetic knockout of Trim32 keeps GNPs at a proliferating and undifferentiated state. In addition, Trim32 knockout enhances the incidence of medulloblastoma (MB) formation in the Ptch1 mutant mice. Mechanistically, Trim32 binds to Gli1, an effector of SHH signaling, via its NHL domain and degrades the latter through its RING domain to antagonize the SHH pathway. These findings provide a novel mechanism that Trim32 may be a vital cell fate regulator by antagonizing the SHH signaling to promote GNPs differentiation and a tumor suppressor in MB formation.
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14
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Zhang Y, Li Y, Luo W, Tang Y, Wang J, Yang R, Gao WQ. Histological, cellular and behavioural analyses of effects of chemotherapeutic agent cyclophosphamide in the developing cerebellum. Cell Prolif 2019; 52:e12608. [PMID: 30932251 PMCID: PMC6536418 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.12608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2018] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives We performed histological, cellular and behavioural analyses of the effects of cyclophosphamide (CTX), a chemotherapeutic drug, in the developing cerebellum and aimed to provide valuable insights into clinical application of CTX in children. Materials and methods C57BL/6 mice and Math1‐dependent GFP expression transgenic mice were used in the research. H&E staining was performed to analyse histological effects of CTX in the cerebellum. Staining for EdU and TUNEL was used to estimate the cell proliferation and apoptosis. Rotarod test and hanging wire test were used to evaluate the behavioural functions. Immunofluorescent staining was used to identify the cell types. The differentiation markers and genes related to Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signalling were measured via quantitative real‐time PCR or immunoblotting. Results We found that while CTX induced a significant reduction in cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in the EGL in 48 hours, the behavioural functions and the multilayer laminar structure of cerebella were largely restored when the mice grew to adults. Mechanistically, granule neuron progenitors, driven by the SHH signalling, enhanced the capability of proliferation quickly after CTX administration was stopped, which allowed the developing cerebellum to catch up and to gradually replenish the injury. Conclusion The chemotherapeutic agent CTX induces an immediate damage to the developing cerebellum, but the cerebellar multilayer laminar structure and motor function can be largely restored if the agent is stopped shortly after use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongfang Li
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenqin Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaohui Tang
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ru Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-Med X Clinical Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,School of Biomedical Engineering & Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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15
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Heimann G, Sirko S. Investigating Age-Related Changes in Proliferation and the Cell Division Repertoire of Parenchymal Reactive Astrocytes. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1938:277-292. [PMID: 30617988 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9068-9_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Reactive gliosis is a complicated process involving all types of glial cells and is the therapeutic target of efforts to treat several types of neuropathologies. Parenchymal astrocytes continuously survey their microenvironment to identify even tiny abnormalities in the central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis and react rapidly to brain damage, such as following ischemia, trauma, or neurodegenerative diseases, to prevent propagation of tissue damage. Aging can play causal roles in certain astroglial dysfunctions, however, still little is known to what extent the heterogeneous reaction of astrocytes at the injury site might be impaired over the course of aging. Based on our experience with both in vitro and in vivo experimental paradigms, we describe here in detail the analysis of age-related changes in (1) proliferative response of parenchymal astrocytes within the posttraumatic cerebral cortex grey matter (GM), and (2) repertoire of their cell divisions in adherent cell culture prepared from the injured GM of young and old double transgenic GFAP-mRFP1/(FUCCI)-S/G2/M-mAG-hGeminin mice by single cell time-lapse imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Heimann
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munch, Germany
| | - Swetlana Sirko
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munch, Germany.
- Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany.
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16
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Wang CX, Cui GS, Liu X, Xu K, Wang M, Zhang XX, Jiang LY, Li A, Yang Y, Lai WY, Sun BF, Jiang GB, Wang HL, Tong WM, Li W, Wang XJ, Yang YG, Zhou Q. METTL3-mediated m6A modification is required for cerebellar development. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2004880. [PMID: 29879109 PMCID: PMC6021109 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2004880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation is the most abundant modification on mRNAs and plays important roles in various biological processes. The formation of m6A is catalyzed by a methyltransferase complex including methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) as a key factor. However, the in vivo functions of METTL3 and m6A modification in mammalian development remain unclear. Here, we show that specific inactivation of Mettl3 in mouse nervous system causes severe developmental defects in the brain. Mettl3 conditional knockout (cKO) mice manifest cerebellar hypoplasia caused by drastically enhanced apoptosis of newborn cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) in the external granular layer (EGL). METTL3 depletion–induced loss of m6A modification causes extended RNA half-lives and aberrant splicing events, consequently leading to dysregulation of transcriptome-wide gene expression and premature CGC death. Our findings reveal a critical role of METTL3-mediated m6A in regulating the development of mammalian cerebellum. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an abundant modification in mRNA molecules and regulates mRNA metabolism and various biological processes, such as cell fate control, early embryonic development, sex determination, and diseases like diabetes and obesity. Adenosine methylation is regulated by a large methyltransferase complex and by demethylases, as well as by other binding proteins. METTL3 is one of the core subunits of the methyltransferase complex catalyzing m6A formation. However, the role of METTL3-mediated m6A in mammalian brain development remains unclear mainly because of the lack of specific spatiotemporal knockout animal models, as conventional METTL3 knockout in mice leads to early embryonic death. In this study, we specifically inactivated METTL3 in the developing mouse brain. We detected a drastic depletion of m6A accompanied by severe developmental defects in the cerebellum of these mice. Further analysis established that METTL3-mediated m6A participates in cerebellar development by controlling mRNA stability of genes related to cerebellar development and apoptosis and by regulating alternative splicing of pre-mRNAs of synapse-associated genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guan-Shen Cui
- Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiuying Liu
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Network Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kai Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Network Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xin-Xin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li-Yuan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ang Li
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Yang
- Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Yi Lai
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bao-Fa Sun
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Gui-Bin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hai-Lin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Min Tong
- Department of Pathology, Center for Experimental Animal Research, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiu-Jie Wang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Network Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XJW); (YGY); (QZ)
| | - Yun-Gui Yang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XJW); (YGY); (QZ)
| | - Qi Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XJW); (YGY); (QZ)
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17
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Antonelli F, Casciati A, Tanori M, Tanno B, Linares-Vidal MV, Serra N, Bellés M, Pannicelli A, Saran A, Pazzaglia S. Alterations in Morphology and Adult Neurogenesis in the Dentate Gyrus of Patched1 Heterozygous Mice. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:168. [PMID: 29875630 PMCID: PMC5974030 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Many genes controlling neuronal development also regulate adult neurogenesis. We investigated in vivo the effect of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling activation on patterning and neurogenesis of the hippocampus and behavior of Patched1 (Ptch1) heterozygous mice (Ptch1+/−). We demonstrated for the first time, that Ptch1+/− mice exhibit morphological, cellular and molecular alterations in the dentate gyrus (DG), including elongation and reduced width of the DG as well as deregulations at multiple steps during lineage progression from neural stem cells to neurons. By using stage-specific cellular markers, we detected reduction of quiescent stem cells, newborn neurons and astrocytes and accumulation of proliferating intermediate progenitors, indicative of defects in the dynamic transition among neural stages. Phenotypic alterations in Ptch1+/− mice were accompanied by expression changes in Notch pathway downstream components and TLX nuclear receptor, as well as perturbations in inflammatory and synaptic networks and mouse behavior, pointing to complex biological interactions and highlighting cooperation between Shh and Notch signaling in the regulation of neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Antonelli
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Arianna Casciati
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Mirella Tanori
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara Tanno
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Maria V Linares-Vidal
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Rovira I Virgili University (URV), Reus, Spain.,Physiology Unit, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Noemi Serra
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Rovira I Virgili University (URV), Reus, Spain.,Physiology Unit, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Monserrat Bellés
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Rovira I Virgili University (URV), Reus, Spain.,Physiology Unit, School of Medicine, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Alessandro Pannicelli
- Technical Unit of Energetic Efficiency, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Saran
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
| | - Simonetta Pazzaglia
- Laboratory of Biomedical Technologies, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), Rome, Italy
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18
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Abstract
The postembryonic brain exhibits experience-dependent development, in which sensory experience guides normal brain growth. This neuroplasticity is thought to occur primarily through structural and functional changes in pre-existing neurons. Whether neurogenesis also mediates the effects of experience on brain growth is unclear. Here, we characterized the importance of motor experience on postembryonic neurogenesis in larval zebrafish. We found that movement maintains an expanded pool of forebrain neural precursors by promoting progenitor self-renewal over the production of neurons. Physical cues associated with swimming (bodily movement) increase neurogenesis and these cues appear to be conveyed by dorsal root ganglia (DRG) in the zebrafish body: DRG-deficient larvae exhibit attenuated neurogenic responses to movement and targeted photoactivation of DRG in immobilized larvae expands the pallial pool of proliferative cells. Our results demonstrate the importance of movement in neurogenic brain growth and reveal a fundamental sensorimotor association that may couple early motor and brain development. Sensory experiences early in life help the brain to grow and develop. For example, raising animals in complete darkness stops the visual areas of their brain from forming properly. Previous studies have shown that sensory input helps to strengthen the connections between already existing brain cells, but it is unclear if it affects the actual creation of new brain cells. Conditions that reduce the mobility of young children, such as muscular disease, are often accompanied by learning difficulties. This suggests that physical movement may be important for healthy brain development. Scientists have previously found a link between exercise and an increased production of new brain cells in adults. However, such a link has not been established earlier in life, when the brain is developing the most. To address this, Hall and Tropepe studied how movement affects the brain development in zebrafish larvae, at an age when many of their brain cells are created. Restraining the larvae decreased their physical movement, while making them swim against a current increased their movement. Hall et al. looked at how this affected the larvae’s number of so called progenitor cells – the cells from which brain cells are created. When the larvae moved less, the number of progenitor cells decreased. But when they moved more frequently, the amount of progenitor cells increased. The experiments also showed that some sensory cells, which detect sensations associated with movement of the body during swimming, are linked to brain cell production. Blocking the development of these sensory cells prevented the rise in progenitor cells seen with increased movement in the larvae. However, activating these sensory cells in immobilised larvae increased the number of progenitor cells, even though the larvae could not move. These findings suggest that measures to increase physical movement in young children could be used to help the brain develop normally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Jonas Hall
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Vincent Tropepe
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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19
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Singh R, Lauth M. Emerging Roles of DYRK Kinases in Embryogenesis and Hedgehog Pathway Control. J Dev Biol 2017; 5:E13. [PMID: 29615569 PMCID: PMC5831797 DOI: 10.3390/jdb5040013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hedgehog (Hh)/GLI signaling is an important instructive cue in various processes during embryonic development, such as tissue patterning, stem cell maintenance, and cell differentiation. It also plays crucial roles in the development of many pediatric and adult malignancies. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of pathway regulation is therefore of high interest. Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinases (DYRKs) comprise a group of protein kinases which are emerging modulators of signal transduction, cell proliferation, survival, and cell differentiation. Work from the last years has identified a close regulatory connection between DYRKs and the Hh signaling system. In this manuscript, we outline the mechanistic influence of DYRK kinases on Hh signaling with a focus on the mammalian situation. We furthermore aim to bring together what is known about the functional consequences of a DYRK-Hh cross-talk and how this might affect cellular processes in development, physiology, and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Singh
- Philipps University Marburg, Institute of Molecular Biology and Tumor Research (IMT), Center for Tumor and Immune Biology (ZTI), Hans-Meerwein-Str. 3, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Matthias Lauth
- Philipps University Marburg, Institute of Molecular Biology and Tumor Research (IMT), Center for Tumor and Immune Biology (ZTI), Hans-Meerwein-Str. 3, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
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20
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Dynamics of the cell division orientation of granule cell precursors during cerebellar development. Mech Dev 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mod.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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21
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Chen Q, Quan Y, Wang N, Xie C, Ji Z, He H, Chai R, Li H, Yin S, Chin YE, Wei X, Gao WQ. Inactivation of STAT3 Signaling Impairs Hair Cell Differentiation in the Developing Mouse Cochlea. Stem Cell Reports 2017; 9:231-246. [PMID: 28669599 PMCID: PMC5511372 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although STAT3 signaling is demonstrated to regulate sensory cell differentiation and regeneration in the zebrafish, its exact role is still unclear in mammalian cochleae. Here, we report that STAT3 and its activated form are specifically expressed in hair cells during mouse cochlear development. Importantly, conditional cochlear deletion of Stat3 leads to an inhibition on hair cell differentiation in mice in vivo and in vitro. By cell fate analysis, inactivation of STAT3 signaling shifts the cell division modes from asymmetric to symmetric divisions from supporting cells. Moreover, inhibition of Notch signaling stimulates STAT3 phosphorylation, and inactivation of STAT3 signaling attenuates production of supernumerary hair cells induced by a Notch pathway inhibitor. Our findings highlight an important role of the STAT3 signaling during mouse cochlear hair cell differentiation and may have clinical implications for the recovery of hair cell loss-induced hearing impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yizhou Quan
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Naitao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Chengying Xie
- Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Zhongzhong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Hao He
- Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; The Affiliated Six People's Hospital, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Renjie Chai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Huawei Li
- Otorhinolaryngology Department of Affiliated Eye and ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Shankai Yin
- The Affiliated Six People's Hospital, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Y Eugene Chin
- China Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences-Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xunbin Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - Wei-Qiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji-MedX Stem Cell Research Center, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Med-X Research Institute & School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; The Affiliated Six People's Hospital, Med-X Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
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22
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Smith P, Azzam M, Hinck L. Extracellular Regulation of the Mitotic Spindle and Fate Determinants Driving Asymmetric Cell Division. Results Probl Cell Differ 2017; 61:351-373. [PMID: 28409313 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53150-2_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Stem cells use mode of cell division, symmetric (SCD) versus asymmetric (ACD), to balance expansion with self-renewal and the generation of daughter cells with different cell fates. Studies in model organisms have identified intrinsic mechanisms that govern this process, which involves partitioning molecular components between daughter cells, frequently through the regulation of the mitotic spindle. Research performed in vertebrate tissues is revealing both conservation of these intrinsic mechanisms and crucial roles for extrinsic cues in regulating the frequency of these divisions. Morphogens and positional cues, including planar cell polarity proteins and guidance molecules, regulate key signaling pathways required to organize cell/ECM contacts and spindle pole dynamics. Noncanonical WNT7A/VANGL2 signaling governs asymmetric cell division and the acquisition of cell fates through spindle pole orientation in satellite stem cells of regenerating muscle fibers. During cortical neurogenesis, the same pathway regulates glial cell fate determination by regulating spindle size, independent of its orientation. Sonic hedgehog (SHH) stimulates the symmetric expansion of cortical stem and cerebellar progenitor cells and contributes to cell fate acquisition in collaboration with Notch and Wnt signaling pathways. SLIT2 also contributes to stem cell homeostasis by restricting ACD frequency through the regulation of spindle orientation. The capacity to influence stem cells makes these secreted factors excellent targets for therapeutic strategies designed to enhance cell populations in degenerative disease or restrict cell proliferation in different types of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prestina Smith
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Mark Azzam
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Lindsay Hinck
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
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Stox1 as a novel transcriptional suppressor of Math1 during cerebellar granule neurogenesis and medulloblastoma formation. Cell Death Differ 2016; 23:2042-2053. [PMID: 27564589 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2016.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar granule neuronal progenitors (GNPs) are the precursors of cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) and are believed to be the cell of origin for medulloblastoma (MB), yet the molecular mechanisms governing GNP neurogenesis are poorly elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that storkhead box 1 (Stox1), a forkhead transcriptional factor, has a pivotal role in cerebellar granule neurogenesis and MB suppression. Expression of Stox1 is upregulated along with GNP differentiation and repressed by activation of sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling. Stox1 exerts its neurogenic and oncosuppressing effect via direct transcriptional repression of Math1, a basic helix-loop-helix transcription activator essential for CGC genesis. This study illustrates a SHH-Stox1-Math1 regulatory axis in normal cerebellar development and MB formation.
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