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Puthanveetil P, Kong X, Bräse S, Voros G, Peer WA. Transcriptome analysis of two structurally related flavonoids; Apigenin and Chrysin revealed hypocholesterolemic and ketogenic effects in mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 893:173804. [PMID: 33347826 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
There is no known single therapeutic drug for treating hypercholesterolemia that comes with negligible systemic side effects. In the current study, using next generation RNA sequencing approach in mouse embryonic fibroblasts we discovered that two structurally related flavonoid compounds. Apigenin and Chrysin exhibited moderate blocking ability of multiple transcripts that regulate rate limiting enzymes in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. The observed decrease in cholesterol biosynthesis pathway correlated well with an increase in transcripts involved in generation and trafficking of ketone bodies as evident by the upregulation of Bdh1 and Slc16a6 transcripts. The hypocholesterolemic potential of Apigenin and Chrysin at higher concentrations along with their ability to generate ketogenic substrate especially during embryonic stage is useful or detrimental for embryonic health is not clear and still debatable. Our study will serve as a steppingstone to further the investigation in whole animal studies and also in translating this knowledge to human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasanth Puthanveetil
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, USA.
| | - Xiaoli Kong
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Stefan Bräse
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems (IBCS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann von Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein Leopoldshafen, Germany.
| | - Gabor Voros
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, Catholic University Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Wendy Ann Peer
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, College of Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of Maryland, MD, USA.
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ElObeid T, Moawad J, Shi Z. Importance of Nutrition Intervention in Autistic Patients. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2020; 24:535-545. [PMID: 32006372 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-30402-7_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Along with the issues of inflated social and financial burden associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), specific treatment for this disorder has also not been developed. Having a thorough look at previous trials done to treat autism, we find that nutrition intervention had been used frequently as a complementary form of therapy. Indeed, an early diagnosis of nutrition deficiency and metabolic disorders done concomitantly with accurate therapeutic interventions can be a cornerstone for improving cognitive and behavioral aptitudes of people with autism. Several studies have showed that increasing the intake of specific nutrients can reduce the symptoms and comorbidities associated with autism. Consequently, nutrition intervention and appropriate supplementation can be crucial in managing and treating autism. This paper will discuss recent literature on the significance of metabolic aspects in autistic disorder and highlight the influence of nutrition intervention on the symptoms of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahra ElObeid
- Human Nutrition Department, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Joyce Moawad
- Human Nutrition Department, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Zumin Shi
- Human Nutrition Department, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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3
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Glinton KE, Elsea SH. Untargeted Metabolomics for Autism Spectrum Disorders: Current Status and Future Directions. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:647. [PMID: 31551836 PMCID: PMC6746843 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of neurodevelopment disorders characterized by childhood onset deficits in social communication and interaction. Although the exact etiology of most cases of ASDs is unknown, a portion has been proposed to be associated with various metabolic abnormalities including mitochondrial dysfunction, disorders of cholesterol metabolism, and folate abnormalities. Targeted biochemical testing like plasma amino acid and acylcarnitine profiles have demonstrated limited utility in helping to diagnose and manage such patients. Untargeted metabolomics has emerged, however, as a promising tool in screening for underlying biochemical abnormalities and managing treatment and as a means of investigating possible novel biomarkers for the disorder. Here, we review the principles and methodology behind untargeted metabolomics, recent pilot studies utilizing this technology, and areas in which it may be integrated into the care of children with this disorder in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin E. Glinton
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Sarah H. Elsea
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
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4
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Mouro FM, Miranda-Lourenço C, Sebastião AM, Diógenes MJ. From Cannabinoids and Neurosteroids to Statins and the Ketogenic Diet: New Therapeutic Avenues in Rett Syndrome? Front Neurosci 2019; 13:680. [PMID: 31333401 PMCID: PMC6614559 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is an X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder caused mainly by mutations in the MECP2 gene, being one of the leading causes of mental disability in females. Mutations in the MECP2 gene are responsible for 95% of the diagnosed RTT cases and the mechanisms through which these mutations relate with symptomatology are still elusive. Children with RTT present a period of apparent normal development followed by a rapid regression in speech and behavior and a progressive deterioration of motor abilities. Epilepsy is one of the most common symptoms in RTT, occurring in 60 to 80% of RTT cases, being associated with worsening of other symptoms. At this point, no cure for RTT is available and there is a pressing need for the discovery of new drug candidates to treat its severe symptoms. However, despite being a rare disease, in the last decade research in RTT has grown exponentially. New and exciting evidence has been gathered and the etiopathogenesis of this complex, severe and untreatable disease is slowly being unfolded. Advances in gene editing techniques have prompted cure-oriented research in RTT. Nonetheless, at this point, finding a cure is a distant reality, highlighting the importance of further investigating the basic pathological mechanisms of this disease. In this review, we focus our attention in some of the newest evidence on RTT clinical and preclinical research, evaluating their impact in RTT symptomatology control, and pinpointing possible directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Melo Mouro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Catarina Miranda-Lourenço
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Maria Sebastião
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria José Diógenes
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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Korade Ž, Liu W, Warren EB, Armstrong K, Porter NA, Konradi C. Effect of psychotropic drug treatment on sterol metabolism. Schizophr Res 2017; 187:74-81. [PMID: 28202290 PMCID: PMC5554466 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol metabolism is vital for brain function. Previous work in cultured cells has shown that a number of psychotropic drugs inhibit the activity of 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7), an enzyme that catalyzes the final steps in cholesterol biosynthesis. This leads to the accumulation of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC), a molecule that gives rise to oxysterols, vitamin D, and atypical neurosteroids. We examined levels of cholesterol and the cholesterol precursors desmosterol, lanosterol, 7DHC and its isomer 8-dehydrocholesterol (8DHC), in blood samples of 123 psychiatric patients on various antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs, and 85 healthy controls, to see if the observations in cell lines hold true for patients as well. Three drugs, aripiprazole, haloperidol and trazodone increased circulating 7DHC and 8DHC levels, while five other drugs, clozapine, escitalopram/citalopram, lamotrigine, olanzapine, and risperidone, did not. Studies in rat brain verified that haloperidol dose-dependently increased 7DHC and 8DHC levels, while clozapine had no effect. We conclude that further studies should investigate the role of 7DHC and 8DHC metabolites, such as oxysterols, vitamin D, and atypical neurosteroids, in the deleterious and therapeutic effects of psychotropic drugs. Finally, we recommend that drugs that increase 7DHC levels should not be prescribed during pregnancy, as children born with DHCR7 deficiency have multiple congenital malformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Željka Korade
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, UNMC, Omaha, NE 68198, United States
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, TN 37235, United States
| | - Emily B Warren
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, United States
| | - Kristan Armstrong
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, United States
| | - Ned A Porter
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, TN 37235, United States
| | - Christine Konradi
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, United States.
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6
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Gillberg C, Fernell E, Kočovská E, Minnis H, Bourgeron T, Thompson L, Allely CS. The role of cholesterol metabolism and various steroid abnormalities in autism spectrum disorders: A hypothesis paper. Autism Res 2017; 10:1022-1044. [PMID: 28401679 PMCID: PMC5485071 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Based on evidence from the relevant research literature, we present a hypothesis that there may be a link between cholesterol, vitamin D, and steroid hormones which subsequently impacts on the development of at least some of the "autisms" [Coleman & Gillberg]. Our hypothesis, driven by the peer reviewed literature, posits that there may be links between cholesterol metabolism, which we will refer to as "steroid metabolism" and findings of steroid abnormalities of various kinds (cortisol, testosterone, estrogens, progesterone, vitamin D) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Further research investigating these potential links is warranted to further our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying ASD. Autism Res 2017. © 2017 The Authors Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Society for Autism Research. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1022-1044. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Gillberg
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Elisabeth Fernell
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Eva Kočovská
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Barts and London School of Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, Blizard Institute58 Turner StreetE1 2ABLondon
| | - Helen Minnis
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, RHSC YorkhillGlasgowScotlandG3 8SJUnited Kingdom
| | - Thomas Bourgeron
- Institut Pasteur, Human Genetics and Cognitive Functions UnitParisFrance
- CNRS UMR 3571: Genes, Synapses and Cognition, Institut PasteurParisFrance
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris CitéHuman Genetics and Cognitive FunctionsParisFrance
- FondaMental FoundationCréteilFrance
| | - Lucy Thompson
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, RHSC YorkhillGlasgowScotlandG3 8SJUnited Kingdom
| | - Clare S. Allely
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- School of Health SciencesUniversity of SalfordManchesterEngland
- Honorary Research Fellow in the College of MedicalVeterinary and Life Sciences affiliated to the Institute of Health and Wellbeing at the University of Glasgow
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7
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Domizio S, Pallotta R, Romanelli A, Puglielli C, Pollice R, Casacchia M, Conte E, Domizio R, Sabatino G. A Case of Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome, Defect of Cholesterol Biosynthesis. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2016; 19:439-42. [PMID: 16831310 DOI: 10.1177/039463200601900220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the case of a child with Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome. The pregnancy was complicated by prenatal growth retardation. The baby was admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of Chieti when she was five months old. She showed postnatal growth retardation, trouble sucking and swallowing, microcefaly and multiple major and minor malformations, including characteristic facial features and 2–3 syndactyly of the toes. We found correlations between multiple congenital malformations, failure to thrive and low plasmatic cholesterol measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Domizio
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, University G. D'Annunzio, Ospedale Policlinico, Via dei Vestini 5, 66100 Chieti, Italy
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9
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Jóźwik J, Kałużna-Czaplińska J. Current Applications of Chromatographic Methods in the Study of Human Body Fluids for Diagnosing Disorders. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2016; 46:1-14. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2014.929487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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10
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Slominski AT, Li W, Kim TK, Semak I, Wang J, Zjawiony JK, Tuckey RC. Novel activities of CYP11A1 and their potential physiological significance. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 151:25-37. [PMID: 25448732 PMCID: PMC4757911 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
CYP11A1, found only in vertebrates, catalyzes the first step of steroidogenesis where cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone. The purified enzyme, also converts desmosterol and plant sterols including campesterol and β-sitosterol, to pregnenolone. Studies, initially with purified enzyme, reveal that 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC), ergosterol, lumisterol 3, and vitamins D3 and D2 also serve as substrates for CYP11A1, with 7DHC being better and vitamins D3 and D2 being poorer substrates than cholesterol. Adrenal glands, placenta, and epidermal keratinocytes can also carry out these conversions and 7-dehydropregnenolone has been detected in the epidermis, adrenal glands, and serum, and 20-hydroxyvitamin D3 was detected in human serum and the epidermis. Thus, this metabolism does appear to occur in vivo, although its quantitative importance and physiological role remain to be established. CYP11A1 action on 7DHC in vivo is further supported by detection of Δ(7)steroids in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome patients. The activity of CYP11A1 is affected by the structure of the substrate with sterols having steroidal or Δ(7)-steroidal structures undergoing side chain cleavage following hydroxylations at C22 and C20. In contrast, metabolism of vitamin D involves sequential hydroxylations that start at C20 but do not lead to cleavage. Molecular modeling using the crystal structure of CYP11A1 predicts that other intermediates of cholesterol synthesis could also serve as substrates for CYP11A1. Finally, CYP11A1-derived secosteroidal hydroxy-derivatives and Δ(7)steroids are biologically active when administered in vitro in a manner dependent on the structure of the compound and the lineage of the target cells, suggesting physiological roles for these metabolites. This article is part of a special issue entitled 'SI: Steroid/Sterol signaling'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA; Division of Rheumatology of the Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA.
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Igor Semak
- Department of Biochemistry, Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus
| | - Jin Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jordan K Zjawiony
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA
| | - Robert C Tuckey
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
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Platt FM, Wassif C, Colaco A, Dardis A, Lloyd-Evans E, Bembi B, Porter FD. Disorders of cholesterol metabolism and their unanticipated convergent mechanisms of disease. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2015; 15:173-94. [PMID: 25184529 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genom-091212-153412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol plays a key role in many cellular processes, and is generated by cells through de novo biosynthesis or acquired from exogenous sources through the uptake of low-density lipoproteins. Cholesterol biosynthesis is a complex, multienzyme-catalyzed pathway involving a series of sequentially acting enzymes. Inherited defects in genes encoding cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes or other regulators of cholesterol homeostasis result in severe metabolic diseases, many of which are rare in the general population and currently without effective therapy. Historically, these diseases have been viewed as discrete disorders, each with its own genetic cause and distinct pathogenic cascades that lead to its specific clinical features. However, studies have recently shown that three of these diseases have an unanticipated mechanistic convergence. This surprising finding is not only shedding light on details of cellular cholesterol homeostasis but also suggesting novel approaches to therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances M Platt
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, United Kingdom;
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12
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Bianconi SE, Cross JL, Wassif CA, Porter FD. Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Clinical Aspects of Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs 2015; 3:267-280. [PMID: 25734025 PMCID: PMC4343216 DOI: 10.1517/21678707.2015.1014472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome (SLOS) is a malformation syndrome inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion. It is due to a metabolic defect in the conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol to cholesterol, which leads to an accumulation of 7-dehydrocholesterol and frequently a deficiency of cholesterol. The syndrome is characterized by typical dysmorphic facial features, multiple malformations, and intellectual disability. AREAS COVERED In this paper we provide an overview of the clinical phenotype and discuss how the manifestations of the syndrome vary depending on the age of the patients. We then explore the underlying biochemical defect and pathophysiological alterations that may contribute to the many disease manifestations. Subsequently we explore the epidemiology and succinctly discuss population genetics as they relate to SLOS. The next section presents the diagnostic possibilities. Thereafter, the treatment and management as is standard of care are presented. EXPERT OPINION Even though the knowledge of the underlying molecular mutations and the biochemical alterations is being rapidly accumulated, there is currently no efficacious therapy addressing neurological dysfunction. We discuss the difficulty of treating this disorder, which manifests as a combination of a malformation syndrome and an inborn error of metabolism. A very important factor in developing new therapies is the need to rigorously establish efficacy in controlled trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona E Bianconi
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Section on Molecular Dysmorphology, 10 Center Drive, Bld 10 Rm 9D42, Bethesda, MD 20892,
| | - Joanna L Cross
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Section on Molecular Dysmorphology, 10 Center Drive, Bld 10 CRC, Rm 1-3288, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Christopher A Wassif
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Section on Molecular Dysmorphology, 10 Center Drive, Bld 10 CRC, Rm 1-3288, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Forbes D Porter
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Section on Molecular Dysmorphology, 10 Center Drive, Bld 10, CRC, Rm 2571, Bethesda, MD 20892,
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Gore AC, Martien KM, Gagnidze K, Pfaff D. Implications of prenatal steroid perturbations for neurodevelopment, behavior, and autism. Endocr Rev 2014; 35:961-91. [PMID: 25211453 PMCID: PMC4234775 DOI: 10.1210/er.2013-1122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The prenatal brain develops under the influence of an ever-changing hormonal milieu that includes endogenous fetal gonadal and adrenal hormones, placental and maternal hormones, and exogenous substances with hormonal activity that can cross the placental barrier. This review discusses the influences of endogenous fetal and maternal hormones on normal brain development and potential consequences of pathophysiological hormonal perturbations to the developing brain, with particular reference to autism. We also consider the effects of hormonal pharmaceuticals used for assisted reproduction, the maintenance of pregnancy, the prevention of congenital adrenal hypertrophy, and hormonal contraceptives continued into an unanticipated pregnancy, among others. These treatments, although in some instances life-saving, may have unintended consequences on the developing fetuses. Additional concern is raised by fetal exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals encountered universally by pregnant women from food/water containers, contaminated food, household chemicals, and other sources. What are the potential outcomes of prenatal steroid perturbations on neurodevelopmental and behavioral disorders, including autism-spectrum disorders? Our purposes here are 1) to summarize some consequences of steroid exposures during pregnancy for the development of brain and behavior in the offspring; 2) to summarize what is known about the relationships between exposures and behavior, including autism spectrum disorders; 3) to discuss the molecular underpinnings of such effects, especially molecular epigenetic mechanisms of prenatal steroid manipulations, a field that may explain effects of direct exposures, and even transgenerational effects; and 4) for all of these, to add cautionary notes about their interpretation in the name of scientific rigor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea C Gore
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology (A.C.G.), University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712; Massachusetts General Hospital for Children (K.M.M.), Lexington, Massachusetts, 02421; and Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior (K.G., D.P.), Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021
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14
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Slominski AT, Kim TK, Li W, Yi AK, Postlethwaite A, Tuckey RC. The role of CYP11A1 in the production of vitamin D metabolites and their role in the regulation of epidermal functions. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 144 Pt A:28-39. [PMID: 24176765 PMCID: PMC4002668 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Research over the last decade has revealed that CYP11A1 can hydroxylate the side chain of vitamin D3 at carbons 17, 20, 22 and 23 to produce at least 10 metabolites, with 20(OH)D3, 20,23(OH)2D3, 20,22(OH)2D3, 17,20(OH)2D3 and 17,20,23(OH)3D3 being the main products. However, CYP11A1 does not act on 25(OH)D3. The placenta, adrenal glands and epidermal keratinocytes have been shown to metabolize vitamin D3 via this CYP11A1-mediated pathway that is modified by the activity of CYP27B1, with 20(OH)D3 (the major metabolite), 20,23(OH)2D3, 1,20(OH)2D3, 1,20,23(OH)3D3 and 17,20,23(OH)3D3 being detected, defining these secosteroids as endogenous regulators/natural products. This is supported by the detection of a mono-hydroxyvitamin D3 with the retention time of 20(OH)D3 in human serum. In new work presented here we demonstrate that the CYP11A1-initiated pathways also occurs in Caco-2 colon cells. Our previous studies show that 20(OH)D3 and 20,23(OH)2D3 are non-calcemic at pharmacological doses, dependent in part on their lack of a C1α hydroxyl group. In epidermal keratinocytes, 20(OH)D3, 20(OH)D2 and 20,23(OH)2D3 inhibited cell proliferation, stimulated differentiation and inhibited NF-κB activity with potencies comparable to 1,25(OH)2D3, acting as partial agonists on the VDR. 22(OH)D3 and 20,22(OH)2D3, as well as secosteroids with a short or no side chain, showed antiproliferative and prodifferentiation effects, however, with lower potency than 20(OH)D3 and 20,23(OH)2D3. The CYP11A1-derived secosteroids also inhibited melanocyte proliferation while having no effect on melanogenesis, and showed anti-melanoma activities in terms of inhibiting proliferation and the ability to grow in soft agar. Furthermore, 20(OH)D3 and 20,23(OH)2D3 showed anti-fibrosing effects in vitro, and also in vivo for the former. New data presented here shows that 20(OH)D3 inhibits LPS-induced production of TNFα in the J774 line, TNFα and IL-6 in peritoneal macrophages and suppresses the production of proinflammatory Th1/Th17-related cytokines, while promoting the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in vivo. In summary, CYP11A1 initiates new pathways of vitamin D metabolism in a range of tissues and products could have important physiological roles at the local or systemic level. In the skin, CYP11A1-derived secosteroids could serve both as endogenous regulators of skin functions and as excellent candidates for treatment of hyperproliferative and inflammatory skin disorders, and skin cancer. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled '16th Vitamin D Workshop'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Memphis, TN, USA; Division of Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases of the Department of Medicine, Memphis, TN, USA; Center for Adult Cancer Research, University of Tennessee HSC, Memphis, TN, USA.
| | - Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Memphis, TN, USA
| | | | - Arnold Postlethwaite
- Division of Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases of the Department of Medicine, Memphis, TN, USA; Veteran Administration, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Robert C Tuckey
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
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Goyal S, Xiao Y, Porter NA, Xu L, Guengerich FP. Oxidation of 7-dehydrocholesterol and desmosterol by human cytochrome P450 46A1. J Lipid Res 2014; 55:1933-43. [PMID: 25017465 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m051508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (P450 or CYP) 46A1 is expressed in brain and has been characterized by its ability to oxidize cholesterol to 24S-hydroxycholesterol. In addition, the same enzyme is known to further oxidize 24S-hydroxycholesterol to the 24,25- and 24,27-dihydroxy products, as well as to catalyze side-chain oxidations of 7α-hydroxycholesterol and cholestanol. As precursors in the biosynthesis of cholesterol, 7-dehydrocholesterol has not been found to be a substrate of P450 46A1 and desmosterol has not been previously tested. However, 24-hydroxy-7-dehydrocholesterol was recently identified in brain tissues, which prompted us to reexamine this enzyme and its potential substrates. Here we report that P450 46A1 oxidizes 7-dehydrocholesterol to 24-hydroxy-7-dehydrocholesterol and 25-hydroxy-7-dehydrocholesterol, as confirmed by LC-MS and GC-MS. Overall, the catalytic rates of formation increased in the order of 24-hydroxy-7-dehydrocholesterol < 24-hydroxycholesterol < 25-hydroxy-7-dehydrocholesterol from their respective precursors, with a ratio of 1:2.5:5. In the case of desmosterol, epoxidation to 24S,25-epoxycholesterol and 27-hydroxylation was observed, at roughly equal rates. The formation of these oxysterols in the brain may be of relevance in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, desmosterolosis, and other relevant diseases, as well as in signal transduction by lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Goyal
- Department of Biochemistry and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Biochemistry and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Ned A Porter
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
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Slominski A, Kim TK, Zmijewski MA, Janjetovic Z, Li W, Chen J, Kusniatsova EI, Semak I, Postlethwaite A, Miller DD, Zjawiony JK, Tuckey RC. Novel vitamin D photoproducts and their precursors in the skin. DERMATO-ENDOCRINOLOGY 2014; 5:7-19. [PMID: 24494038 PMCID: PMC3897599 DOI: 10.4161/derm.23938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Novel metabolic pathways initiated by the enzymatic action of CYP11A1 on 7DHC (7-dehydrocholesterol), ergosterol, vitamins D3 and D2 were characterized with help of chemical synthesis, UV and mass spectrometry and NMR analyses. The first pathway follows the sequence 7DHC→22(OH)7DHC → 20,22(OH)27DHC → 7DHP (7-dehydropregnenolone), which can further be metabolized by steroidogenic enzymes. The resulting 5,7-dienes can be transformed by UVB to corresponding, biologically active, secosteroids. Action of CYP11A1 on vitamin D3 and D2 produces novel hydroxyderivatives with OH added at positions C17, C20, C22, C23 and C24, some of which can be hydroxylated by CYP27B1 and/or by CYP27A1 and/ or by CYP24A1.The main products of these pathways are biologically active with a potency related to their chemical structure and the target cell type. Main products of CYP11A1-mediated metabolism on vitamin D are non-calcemic and non-toxic at relatively high doses and serve as partial agonists on the vitamin D receptor. New secosteroids are excellent candidates for therapy of fibrosing, inflammatory or hyperproliferative disorders including cancers and psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Center for Cancer Research; University of Tennessee Health Science Center; Memphis, TN USA
| | - Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Center for Cancer Research; University of Tennessee Health Science Center; Memphis, TN USA
| | | | - Zorica Janjetovic
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Center for Cancer Research; University of Tennessee Health Science Center; Memphis, TN USA
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN USA
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN USA
| | | | - Igor Semak
- Department of Biochemistry; Belarusian State University; Minsk, Belarus
| | - Arnold Postlethwaite
- Department of Medicine, Division of Connective Tissue Diseases; University of Tennessee Health Science Center; Memphis, TN USA
| | - Duane D Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN USA
| | - Jordan K Zjawiony
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; School of Pharmacy; University of Mississippi; University, MS USA
| | - Robert C Tuckey
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry; University of Western Australia; Crawley, WA, Australia
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Calvo PL, Brunati A, Spada M, Romagnoli R, Corso G, Parenti G, Rossi M, Baldi M, Carbonaro G, David E, Pucci A, Amoroso A, Salizzoni M. Liver transplantation in defects of cholesterol biosynthesis: the case of lathosterolosis. Am J Transplant 2014; 14:960-5. [PMID: 24621408 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Revised: 12/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
We report the outcome of liver transplantation (LT) in the only surviving patient with lathosterolosis, a defect of cholesterol biosynthesis characterized by high lathosterol levels associated with progressive cholestasis, multiple congenital anomalies and mental retardation. From her diagnosis at age 2 she had shown autistic behavior, was unable to walk unaided and her sight was impaired by cataracts. By age 7 she developed end-stage liver disease. After a soul-searching discussion within the transplantation team, she was treated with LT as this represented her only lifesaving option. At 1-year follow-up, her lathosterol levels had returned to normal (0.61 mg/dL from 13.04 ± 2.65) and her nutrition improved. She began exploring her environment and walking by holding onto an adult's hand and then independently. Her brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) had shown a normal picture at age 1, whereas a volume reduction of white matter with ex vacuo ventricular dilatation and defective myelinization were observed before transplant. At 5-year follow-up, a complete biochemical recovery, an arrest of mental deterioration and a stable MRI picture were achieved, with a return to her every day life albeit with limitations. Timely liver transplant in defects of cholesterol biosynthesis might arrest the progression of neurological damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- P L Calvo
- Department of Pediatrics, Azienda Ospedaliera Città della Salute e della Scienza, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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18
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Nowaczyk MJM, Irons MB. Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome: phenotype, natural history, and epidemiology. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS PART C-SEMINARS IN MEDICAL GENETICS 2012; 160C:250-62. [PMID: 23059950 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a congenital multiple anomaly/intellectual disability syndrome caused by a deficiency of cholesterol synthesis resulting from a deficiency of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC) reductase encoded by DHCR7. SLOS is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. It is characterized by prenatal and postnatal growth retardation, microcephaly, a variable degree of intellectual disability that encompasses normal intelligence to severe intellectual deficiency, and multiple major and minor malformations. External malformations include distinctive facial features, cleft palate, postaxial polydactyly, 2-3 syndactyly of the toes, and underdeveloped external genitalia in males, while internal anomalies may affect every organ system. The clinical spectrum is wide, and rare individuals have been described with normal development and only minor malformations. The clinical diagnosis of SLOS is confirmed by demonstrating an abnormally elevated concentration of the cholesterol precursor, 7DHC, in serum or other tissues, or by the presence of two DHCR7 mutations. The enzymatic deficiency results in decreased cholesterol and increased 7DHC levels, both during embryonic development and after birth. The malformations found in SLOS may result from decreased cholesterol, increased 7DHC or a combination of these two factors. This review discusses the physical and behavioral phenotype of SLOS, the diagnostic approaches, the natural history from the prenatal period to adulthood, and current understanding of the pathophysiology of SLOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata J M Nowaczyk
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine and Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University McMaster University Medical Centre, Room 3N16, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton ON, Canada L8S 4J9.
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19
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Cytochrome P450scc-dependent metabolism of 7-dehydrocholesterol in placenta and epidermal keratinocytes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:2003-18. [PMID: 22877869 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The discovery that 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC) is an excellent substrate for cytochrome P450scc (CYP11A1) opens up new possibilities in biochemistry. To elucidate its biological significance we tested ex vivo P450scc-dependent metabolism of 7DHC by tissues expressing high and low levels of P450scc activity, placenta and epidermal keratinocytes, respectively. Incubation of human placenta fragments with 7DHC led to its conversion to 7-dehydropregnenolone (7DHP), which was inhibited by dl-aminoglutethimide, and stimulated by forskolin. Final proof for P450scc involvement was provided in isolated placental mitochondria where production of 7DHP was almost completely inhibited by 22R-hydroxycholesterol. 7DHC was metabolized by placental mitochondria at a faster rate than exogenous cholesterol, under both limiting and saturating conditions of substrate transport, consistent with higher catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) with 7DHC as substrate than with cholesterol. Ex vivo experiments showed five 5,7-dienal intermediates with MS spectra of dihydroxy and mono-hydroxy-7DHC and retention time corresponding to 20,22(OH)(2)7DHC and 22(OH)7DHC. The chemical structure of 20,22(OH)(2)7DHC was defined by NMR. 7DHP was further metabolized by either placental fragments or placental microsomes to 7-dehydroprogesterone as defined by UV, MS and NMR, and to an additional product with a 5,7-dienal structure and MS corresponding to hydroxy-7DHP. Furthermore, epidermal keratinocytes transformed either exogenous or endogenous 7DHC to 7DHP. 7DHP inhibited keratinocytes proliferation, while the product of its pholytic transformation, pregcalciferol, lost this capability. In conclusion, tissues expressing P450scc can metabolize 7DHC to biologically active 7DHP with 22(OH)7DHC and 20,22(OH)(2)7DHC serving as intermediates, and with further metabolism to 7-dehydroprogesterone and (OH)7DHP.
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20
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Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is an autosomal recessive, multiple congenital malformation and intellectual disability syndrome, with clinical characteristics that encompass a wide spectrum and great variability. Elucidation of the biochemical and genetic basis for SLOS, specifically understanding SLOS as a cholesterol deficiency syndrome caused by mutation in DHCR7, opened up enormous possibilities for therapeutic intervention. When cholesterol was discovered to be the activator of sonic hedgehog, cholesterol deficiency with inactivation of this developmental patterning gene was thought to be the cause of SLOS malformations, yet this explanation is overly simplistic. Despite these important research breakthroughs, there is no proven treatment for SLOS. Better animal models are needed to allow potential treatment testing and the study of disease pathophysiology, which is incompletely understood. Creation of human cellular models, especially models of brain cells, would be useful, and in vivo human studies are also essential. Biomarker development will be crucial in facilitating clinical trials in this rare condition, because the clinical phenotype can change over many years. Additional research in these and other areas is critical if we are to make headway towards ameliorating the effects of this devastating condition.
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21
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De Marco R, Leggio A, Liguori A, Perri F, Siciliano C. Transformations of 3-hydroxy steroids with lewis and anhydrous protic acids: the case of pregn-4-en-3β,17α,20β-triol. Chem Biol Drug Des 2011; 78:269-76. [PMID: 21599858 DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0285.2011.01147.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The acid-catalyzed dehydration is one of the most important processes, which transforms 3-hydroxy steroids into their corresponding unsaturated derivatives. This reaction is of great importance because it can produce molecules that play a key role in the understanding of the natural metabolism of steroids. Sterol dehydration is generally performed with aqueous acidic systems, and the treatment often affords low yields of the desired compounds and/or complex mixtures of by-products. In this paper, we report the results obtained from the study of the structural and stereochemical effects of the acid-induced reaction of pregn-4-en-3β,17α,20β-triol in anhydrous systems. In particular, the treatment of this trihydroxy steroid model with Lewis acids leads to the corresponding Δ(3,5) -steradiene as the only product and in very high yields. With Lewis acids, no modifications of the 1,2-diol function on the D-ring are observed, even when the reactions are performed at high temperatures. Protic acid catalysis in non-aqueous organic solvents causes the formation of an epimeric mixture of the corresponding Δ(3,5) -steradiene derivatives by a partial stereochemical inversion of the asymmetric C-17. The reactivity of the 17α,20β-diolic residue is also evaluated by exposing pregn-4-en-3β,17α,20β-triol and the corresponding Δ(3,5) -steradiene to the prolonged action of anhydrous protic acid systems under thermal conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosaria De Marco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università della Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale, I-87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy
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22
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Lee RWY, Tierney E. Hypothesis: the role of sterols in autism spectrum disorder. AUTISM RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2011; 2011:653570. [PMID: 22937253 PMCID: PMC3420784 DOI: 10.1155/2011/653570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Revised: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A possible role for sterols in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has not been proven, but studies in disorders of sterol biosynthesis, chiefly Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS), enable hypotheses on a causal relationship to be discussed. Advances in genetic technology coupled with discoveries in membrane physiology have led to renewed interest for lipids in the nervous system. This paper hypothesizes on the role of sterol dysfunction in ASD through the framework of SLOS. Impaired sonic hedgehog patterning, alterations in membrane lipid rafts leading to abnormal synaptic plasticity, and impaired neurosteroid synthesis are discussed. Potential therapeutic agents include the development of neuroactive steroid-based agents and enzyme-specific drugs. Future investigations should reveal the specific mechanisms underlying sterol dysfunction in neurodevelopmental disorders by utilizing advanced imaging and molecular techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W. Y. Lee
- Department of Neurology and Developmental Medicine, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 716 North Broadway Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Elaine Tierney
- Department of Psychiatry, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 716 North Broadway Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MS 21287, USA
- Center for Genetic Disorders of Cognition and Behavior, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 716 North Broadway Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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23
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Zmijewski MA, Li W, Chen J, Kim TK, Zjawiony JK, Sweatman TW, Miller DD, Slominski AT. Synthesis and photochemical transformation of 3β,21-dihydroxypregna-5,7-dien-20-one to novel secosteroids that show anti-melanoma activity. Steroids 2011; 76:193-203. [PMID: 21070794 PMCID: PMC3005096 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2010.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We have synthesized 3β,21-dihydroxypregna-5,7-dien-20-one (21(OH) 7DHP) and used UVB radiation to induce its photoconversion to analogues of vitamin D (pD), lumisterol (pL) and tachysterol (pT). The number and character of the products and the dynamics of the process were dependent on the UVB dose. The main products: pD and pT compounds were characterized by UV absorption, MS and NMR spectroscopy after RP-HPLC chromatography. In addition, formation of multiple oxidized derivatives of the primary products was detected and one of these derivatives was characterized as oxidized 21-hydroxyisotachysterol compound (21(OH)oxy-piT). These newly synthesized compounds inhibited growth of human melanoma cells in a dose dependent manner, with greater or equal potency to calcitriol. 3β,21-Dihydroxy-9β,10α-pregna-5,7-dien-20-one (21(OH)pL) and 21(OH)oxy-piT had higher potency against pigmented melanoma cells, while the EC(50) for compounds 21(OH)7DHP and (5Z,7E)-3β,21-dihydroxy-9,10-secopregna-5,7,10(19)-trien-20-one (21(OH)pD) were similar in both pigmented and non-pigmented cells. Moreover, 21(OH)7DHP and its derivatives inhibited proliferation of human epidermal HaCaT keratinocytes, albeit at a lower activity compared to melanoma cells. Importantly, 21(OH)7DHP derivatives strongly inhibited the colony formation of human melanoma cells with 21(OH)pD being the most potent. The potential mechanism of action of newly synthesized compounds was similar to that mediated by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) and involved ligand-induced translocation of vitamin D receptor into the nucleus. In summary, we have characterized for the first time products of UVB-induced conversion of 21(OH)7DHP and documented that these compounds have selective, inhibitory effects on melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Jordan K. Zjawiony
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677-1848, USA
| | - Trevor W. Sweatman
- Department of Pharmacology and the Center for Anticancer Drug Research, University of Tennessee, Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Duane D. Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Andrzej T. Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
- Address for all correspondence and reprint requests to: Andrzej T. Slominski, MD, PhD, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 930 Madison Avenue, RM525, Memphis, TN 38163, Tel: (901) 448-3741, Fax: (901) 448-6979,
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24
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Porter FD, Herman GE. Malformation syndromes caused by disorders of cholesterol synthesis. J Lipid Res 2010; 52:6-34. [PMID: 20929975 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r009548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol homeostasis is critical for normal growth and development. In addition to being a major membrane lipid, cholesterol has multiple biological functions. These roles include being a precursor molecule for the synthesis of steroid hormones, neuroactive steroids, oxysterols, and bile acids. Cholesterol is also essential for the proper maturation and signaling of hedgehog proteins, and thus cholesterol is critical for embryonic development. After birth, most tissues can obtain cholesterol from either endogenous synthesis or exogenous dietary sources, but prior to birth, the human fetal tissues are dependent on endogenous synthesis. Due to the blood-brain barrier, brain tissue cannot utilize dietary or peripherally produced cholesterol. Generally, inborn errors of cholesterol synthesis lead to both a deficiency of cholesterol and increased levels of potentially bioactive or toxic precursor sterols. Over the past couple of decades, a number of human malformation syndromes have been shown to be due to inborn errors of cholesterol synthesis. Herein, we will review clinical and basic science aspects of Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, desmosterolosis, lathosterolosis, HEM dysplasia, X-linked dominant chondrodysplasia punctata, Congenital Hemidysplasia with Ichthyosiform erythroderma and Limb Defects Syndrome, sterol-C-4 methyloxidase-like deficiency, and Antley-Bixler syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Forbes D Porter
- Program in Developmental Genetics and Endocrinology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Tierney E, Conley SK, Goodwin H, Porter FD. Analysis of short-term behavioral effects of dietary cholesterol supplementation in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2010; 152A:91-5. [PMID: 20014133 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.33148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is an inborn error of cholesterol synthesis due to mutations of 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7). DHCR7 catalyzes the reduction of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC) to yield cholesterol in the final step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Phenotypically patients with SLOS have multiple malformations, cognitive deficits, and behavioral difficulties. Impaired DHCR7 activity results in the accumulation of 7DHC and frequently decreased cholesterol in blood and tissues. Dietary cholesterol supplementation has become standard therapy for SLOS, and anecdotal reports suggest rapid, marked clinical improvement of behavior problems. Although reported in the literature, beneficial behavioral effects of dietary cholesterol supplementation have not been formally documented through a randomized clinical trial. To address this we initiated a double-masked, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial to test the hypothesis that dietary cholesterol supplementation has rapid beneficial effects on behavior. Our primary outcome measure was the hyperactivity subscale of the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC). Hyperactivity is a symptom that has been reported to respond rapidly to dietary cholesterol supplementation. Secondary outcome measures included the total ABC score and other ABC subscale scores. Ten subjects completed this study. Although the trial was done under conditions similar to those reported to induce marked behavioral changes in SLOS patients, we observed no differences between treatment and placebo phases. The results of this study call into question anecdotal reports supporting rapid behavioral benefits previously reported for dietary cholesterol supplementation in SLOS and underscore the need for a larger placebo-controlled trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Tierney
- Department of Psychiatry, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
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26
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Kim TK, Chen J, Li W, Zjawiony J, Miller D, Janjetovic Z, Tuckey RC, Slominski A. A new steroidal 5,7-diene derivative, 3beta-hydroxyandrosta-5,7-diene-17beta-carboxylic acid, shows potent anti-proliferative activity. Steroids 2010; 75:230-9. [PMID: 20025893 PMCID: PMC2846116 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2009] [Revised: 12/07/2009] [Accepted: 12/08/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The new steroidal 5,7-diene, 3beta-hydroxyandrosta-5,7-diene-17beta-carboxylic acid (17-COOH-7DA), was synthesized from 21-acetoxypregnenolone, with the oxidative cleavage of the side chain being dependent on the presence of oxygen. In human epidermal (HaCaT) keratinocytes, 17-COOH-7DA inhibited proliferation in a dose-dependent manner, starting at a dose as low as 10(-11) M. This inhibition was accompanied by decreased expression of epidermal growth factor receptor, bcl2 and cyclin E2 mRNAs and by increased expression of involucrin mRNA. Inhibition of proliferation was associated with slowing of the cell cycle in G1/G0 phases but not with cell death. 17-COOH-7DA was significantly more potent than pregnenolone, 17-COOH-pregnenolone, 17-COOCH(3)-7DA and calcitriol. 17-COOH-7DA also inhibited proliferation of normal human epidermal melanocytes and human and hamster melanoma lines, however, with lower potency than for keratinocytes. In normal human dermal fibroblasts 17-COOH-7DA stimulated proliferation in serum-free media but inhibited it in the presence of 5% serum. 17-COOH-7DA inhibited cell colony formation of human and hamster melanoma cells, and induced monocyte-like differentiation of human HL60 leukemia cells. Thus, the new steroidal 5,7-diene, 17-COOH-7DA, can serve as an inhibitor of proliferation of normal keratinocytes and normal and malignant melanocytes, as a condition-dependent regulator of fibroblast proliferation and a stimulator of leukemia cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Kang Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
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27
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The Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome with a G303R/R352W mutation: in an extremely irritable child responsive to cholesterol supplementation. Genes Genomics 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-010-0687-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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28
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Korade Z, Kenworthy AK, Mirnics K. Molecular consequences of altered neuronal cholesterol biosynthesis. J Neurosci Res 2009; 87:866-75. [PMID: 18951487 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The first dedicated step in de novo cholesterol biosynthesis begins with formation of squalene and ends with the reduction of 7-dehydrocholesterol by 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (Dhcr7) into cholesterol, which is an essential structural and signaling molecule. Mutations in the Dhcr7 gene lead to Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS), which is characterized by developmental deformities, incomplete myelination, and mental retardation. To understand better the molecular consequences of Dhcr7 deficiency in neuronal tissue, we analyzed the effect of cholesterol deficiency on the transcriptome in Neuro2a cells. Transient down-regulation of Dhcr7 by siRNA led to altered expression of multiple molecules that play critical roles in intracellular signaling or vesicular transport or are inserted into membrane rafts (e.g. Egr1, Snx, and Adam19). A similar down-regulation was also observed in stable Dhrc7-shRNA-transfected cell lines, and the findings were verified by qPCR. Furthermore, we investigated the Dhcr7-deficient and control cells for the expression of several critical genes involved in lipid biosynthesis. Among these, fatty acid synthase, sterol-regulatory element binding protein 2, SREBF chaperone, site-1 protease, and squalene synthase showed a significant down-regulation, suggesting that, in a neuronal cell line, Dhcr7 is a potent regulator of lipid biosynthesis. Importantly, the gene expression changes were present in both lipid-containing and cholesterol-deficient media, suggesting that intrinsic cholesterol biosynthesis is necessary for normal neuronal function and cannot be supplemented from extrinsic sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeljka Korade
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA.
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Zecavati N, Spence SJ. Neurometabolic disorders and dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2009; 9:129-36. [PMID: 19268036 DOI: 10.1007/s11910-009-0021-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The cause of autism remains largely unknown because it is likely multifactorial, arising from the interaction of biologic, genetic, and environmental factors. The specific role of metabolic abnormalities also is largely unknown, but current research may provide insight into the pathophysiologic underpinnings of autism, at least in some patients. We review a number of known neurometabolic disorders identified as having an autistic phenotype. We also discuss the possible involvement of mitochondrial disorders and dysfunction as well as a theory regarding an increased vulnerability to oxidative stress, by which various environmental toxins produce metabolic alterations that impair normal cellular function. Finally, we review various strategies for metabolic work-up and treatment. Accurate diagnosis of neurometabolic disorders and a broader understanding of underlying metabolic disturbance even in the absence of known disease have important implications both for individual patients and for research into the etiology of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nassim Zecavati
- Pediatrics and Developmental Neuropsychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Sequential metabolism of 7-dehydrocholesterol to steroidal 5,7-dienes in adrenal glands and its biological implication in the skin. PLoS One 2009; 4:e4309. [PMID: 19190754 PMCID: PMC2629546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Since P450scc transforms 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC) to 7-dehydropregnenolone (7DHP) in vitro, we investigated sequential 7DHC metabolism by adrenal glands ex vivo. There was a rapid, time- and dose-dependent metabolism of 7DHC by adrenals from rats, pigs, rabbits and dogs with production of more polar 5,7-dienes as detected by RP-HPLC. Based on retention time (RT), UV spectra and mass spectrometry, we identified the major products common to all tested species as 7DHP, 22-hydroxy-7DHC and 20,22-dihydroxy-7DHC. The involvement of P450scc in adrenal metabolic transformation was confirmed by the inhibition of this process by DL-aminoglutethimide. The metabolism of 7DHC with subsequent production of 7DHP was stimulated by forscolin indicating involvement of cAMP dependent pathways. Additional minor products of 7DHC metabolism that were more polar than 7DHP were identified as 17-hydroxy-7DHP (in pig adrenals but not those of rats) and as pregna-4,7-diene-3,20-dione (7-dehydroprogesterone). Both products represented the major identifiable products of 7DHP metabolism in adrenal glands. Studies with purified enzymes show that StAR protein likely transports 7DHC to the inner mitochondrial membrane, that 7DHC can compete effectively with cholesterol for the substrate binding site on P450scc and that the catalytic efficiency of 3betaHSD for 7DHP (V(m)/K(m)) is 40% of that for pregnenolone. Skin mitochondria are capable of transforming 7DHC to 7DHP and the 7DHP is metabolized further by skin extracts. Finally, 7DHP, its photoderivative 20-oxopregnacalciferol, and pregnenolone exhibited biological activity in skin cells including inhibition of proliferation of epidermal keratinocytes and melanocytes, and melanoma cells. These findings define a novel steroidogenic pathway: 7DHC-->22(OH)7DHC-->20,22(OH)(2)7DHC-->7DHP, with potential further metabolism of 7DHP mediated by 3betaHSD or CYP17, depending on mammalian species. The 5-7 dienal intermediates of the pathway can be a source of biologically active vitamin D3 derivatives after delivery to or production in the skin, an organ intermittently exposed to solar radiation.
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Abstract
Cholesterol is essential for neuroactive steroid production, growth of myelin membranes, and normal embryonic and fetal development. It also modulates the oxytocin receptor, ligand activity and G-protein coupling of the serotonin-1A receptor. A deficit of cholesterol may perturb these biological mechanisms and thereby contribute to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), as observed in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) and some subjects with ASDs in the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE). A clinical diagnosis of SLOS can be confirmed by laboratory testing with an elevated plasma 7DHC level relative to the cholesterol level and is treatable by dietary cholesterol supplementation. Individuals with SLOS who have such cholesterol treatment display fewer autistic behaviours, infections, and symptoms of irritability and hyperactivity, with improvements in physical growth, sleep and social interactions. Other behaviours shown to improve with cholesterol supplementation include aggressive behaviours, self-injury, temper outbursts and trichotillomania. Cholesterol ought to be considered as a helpful treatment approach while awaiting an improved understanding of cholesterol metabolism and ASD. There is an increasing recognition that this single-gene disorder of abnormal cholesterol synthesis may be a model for understanding genetic causes of autism and the role of cholesterol in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alka Aneja
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and Department of Psychiatry, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD 21211, USA.
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Abstract
Autism is an etiologic heterogeneous entity caused by many different diseases occurring in the central nervous system at an early stage in life. Several metabolic defects have been associated with autistic symptoms with a rate higher than that found in the general population. Inborn errors of metabolism can probably account for less than 5% of individuals. Selective metabolic testing should be done in the presence of suggestive clinical findings, including lethargy, cyclic vomiting, early seizures, dysmorphic features, and mental retardation. In some patients, early diagnosis of the metabolic disorders and proper therapeutic interventions may significantly improve the long-term cognitive and behavioral outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Manzi
- Department of Neurosciences, Pediatric Neurology Unit, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via di Tor Vergata 135, Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a malformation syndrome due to a deficiency of 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7). DHCR7 primarily catalyzes the reduction of 7-dehydrocholesterol (7DHC) to cholesterol. In SLOS, this results in decreased cholesterol and increased 7DHC levels, both during embryonic development and after birth. The malformations found in SLOS may result from decreased cholesterol, increased 7DHC or a combination of these two factors. This review discusses the clinical aspects and diagnosis of SLOS, therapeutic interventions and the current understanding of pathophysiological processes involved in SLOS.
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Aneja A, Tierney E. Cholesterol Deficit in Autism: Insights from Smith–Lemli–Opitz Syndrome. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-489-0_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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Sikora DM, Pettit-Kekel K, Penfield J, Merkens LS, Steiner RD. The near universal presence of autism spectrum disorders in children with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2006; 140:1511-8. [PMID: 16761297 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.31294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is an autosomal recessive condition caused by a defect in cholesterol synthesis. Affected children often have malformations and mental retardation. Autistic behaviors also are evident. The purpose of the present study was to determine the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in children with SLOS. Fourteen children, 3-16 years old, were evaluated using three different methods to document autistic symptoms: (a) parent interview, (b) direct observation, and (c) a behavior checklist. Blood sterols were also measured at regular intervals. Each subject was determined to have Autistic Disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder, not otherwise specified (PDD NOS), or no diagnosis on the autism spectrum, based on DSM-IV criteria. Correlations among variables were calculated, and blood sterol levels were compared between diagnostic groups. Approximately three-fourths of the children with SLOS (71-86% depending on the evaluation method) had an ASD, about 50% diagnosed with Autistic Disorder and the rest with PDD NOS. The children's baseline cholesterol, 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC), and 8-dehydrocholesterol (8-DHC) levels, and cholesterol levels following supplementation did not correlate with the presence or severity of autistic symptoms. These results suggest that most children with SLOS have some variant of autism. SLOS appears to have the most consistent relationship with autism of any single gene disorder. Therefore, a link between cholesterol metabolism and autism is suggested. With further study, these findings, together with knowledge of the genetic and biochemical defects in SLOS, will likely provide valuable insights into the causes of autism in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryn M Sikora
- Department of Pediatrics and Molecular, Doernbecher Children's Hospital, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, 97207, USA.
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Correa-Cerro LS, Wassif CA, Kratz L, Miller GF, Munasinghe JP, Grinberg A, Fliesler SJ, Porter FD. Development and characterization of a hypomorphic Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome mouse model and efficacy of simvastatin therapy. Hum Mol Genet 2006; 15:839-51. [PMID: 16446309 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddl003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is a genetic syndrome caused by mutations in the 3beta-hydroxysterol Delta(7)-reductase gene (DHCR7). SLOS patients have decreased cholesterol and increased 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC) levels. Dietary cholesterol supplementation improves systemic biochemical abnormalities; however, because of the blood-brain barrier, the central nervous system (CNS) is not treated. Simvastatin therapy has been proposed as a means to treat the CNS. Mice homozygous for a null disruption of Dhcr7, Dhcr7(Delta3-5/Delta3-5), die soon after birth, thus they cannot be used to study postnatal development or therapy. To circumvent this problem, we produced a hypomorphic SLOS mouse model by introducing a mutation corresponding to DHCR7(T93M). Both Dhcr7(T93M/T93M) and Dhcr7(Delta3-5/T93M) mice are viable. Phenotypic findings in Dhcr7(T93M/Delta3-5) mice include CNS ventricular dilatation and two to three syndactyly. Biochemically, both Dhcr7(T93M/T93M) and Dhcr7(T93M/Delta3-5) mice have elevated tissue 7-DHC levels; however, the biochemical defect improved with age. This has not been observed in human patients, and is due to elevated Dhcr7 expression in mouse tissues. Dietary cholesterol therapy improved sterol profiles in peripheral, but not CNS tissues. However, treatment of Dhcr7(T93M/Delta3-5) mice with simvastatin decreased 7-DHC levels in both peripheral and brain tissues. Expression of Dhcr7 increased in Dhcr7(T93M/Delta3-5) tissues after simvastatin therapy, consistent with the hypothesis that simvastatin therapy improves the biochemical phenotype by increasing the expression of a Dhcr7 allele with residual enzymatic activity. We conclude that simvastatin treatment is efficacious in improving the SLOS-associated sterol abnormality found in the brain, and thus has the potential to be an effective therapeutic intervention for behavioral and learning problems associated with SLOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina S Correa-Cerro
- Unit on Molecular Dysmorphology, Heritable Disorders Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Abstract
Evidence is accumulating that the skin can serve as a peripheral neuroendocrine organ. The skin neuroendocrine activities are predominantly independent of regulation from the central level (which controls classical hormone secretion) but are rather regulated by local cutaneous factors. These endocrine factors would represent an exquisite regulatory layer addressed at restricting maximally the effect of noxious agents in the skin to preserve local and consequently global homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163, USA.
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Abstract
Recent insights into the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. The Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) is an autosomal recessive multiple congenital anomaly/mental retardation disorder caused by an inborn error of post-squalene cholesterol biosynthesis. Deficient cholesterol synthesis in SLOS is caused by inherited mutations of 3beta-hydroxysterol-Delta7 reductase gene (DHCR7). DHCR7 deficiency impairs both cholesterol and desmosterol production, resulting in elevated 7DHC/8DHC levels, typically decreased cholesterol levels and, importantly, developmental dysmorphology. The discovery of SLOS has led to new questions regarding the role of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway in human development. To date, a total of 121 different mutations have been identified in over 250 patients with SLOS who represent a continuum of clinical severity. Two genetic mouse models have been generated which recapitulate some of the developmental abnormalities of SLOS and have been useful in elucidating the pathogenesis. This mini review summarizes the recent insights into SLOS genetics, pathophysiology and potential therapeutic approaches for the treatment of SLOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yu
- Corresponding authors: Hongwei Yu, Shailesh Patel, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nutrition, Medical College of Wisconsin, 9200 West, Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA, Tel.: +1 414 456 6801; fax: +1 414 456 6210; e-mail: ,
| | - SB Patel
- Corresponding authors: Hongwei Yu, Shailesh Patel, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nutrition, Medical College of Wisconsin, 9200 West, Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA, Tel.: +1 414 456 6801; fax: +1 414 456 6210; e-mail: ,
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Slominski A, Semak I, Zjawiony J, Wortsman J, Li W, Szczesniewski A, Tuckey RC. The cytochrome P450scc system opens an alternate pathway of vitamin D3 metabolism. FEBS J 2005; 272:4080-90. [PMID: 16098191 PMCID: PMC2234577 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.04819.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We show that cytochrome P450scc (CYP11A1) in either a reconstituted system or in isolated adrenal mitochondria can metabolize vitamin D3. The major products of the reaction with reconstituted enzyme were 20-hydroxycholecalciferol and 20,22-dihydroxycholecalciferol, with yields of 16 and 4%, respectively, of the original vitamin D3 substrate. Trihydroxycholecalciferol was a minor product, likely arising from further metabolism of dihydroxycholecalciferol. Based on NMR analysis and known properties of P450scc we propose that hydroxylation of vitamin D3 by P450scc occurs sequentially and stereospecifically with initial formation of 20(S)-hydroxyvitamin D3. P450scc did not metabolize 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, indicating that modification of C25 protected it against P450scc action. Adrenal mitochondria also metabolized vitamin D3 yielding 10 hydroxyderivatives, with UV spectra typical of vitamin D triene chromophores. Aminogluthimide inhibition showed that the three major metabolites, but not the others, resulted from P450scc action. It therefore appears that non-P450scc enzymes present in the adrenal cortex to some extent contribute to metabolism of vitamin D3. We conclude that purified P450scc in a reconstituted system or P450scc in adrenal mitochondria can add one hydroxyl group to vitamin D3 with subsequent hydroxylation being observed for reconstituted enzyme but not for adrenal mitochondria. Additional vitamin D3 metabolites arise from the action of other enzymes in adrenal mitochondria. These findings appear to define novel metabolic pathways involving vitamin D3 that remain to be characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee, Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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Correa-Cerro LS, Porter FD. 3beta-hydroxysterol Delta7-reductase and the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. Mol Genet Metab 2005; 84:112-26. [PMID: 15670717 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2004.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2004] [Revised: 09/28/2004] [Accepted: 09/28/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In the final step of cholesterol synthesis, 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7) reduces the double bond at C7-8 of 7-dehydrocholesterol to yield cholesterol. Mutations of DHCR7 cause Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS). Over 100 different mutations of DHCR7 have been identified in SLOS patients. SLOS is a classical multiple malformation, mental retardation syndrome, and was the first human malformation syndrome shown to result from an inborn error of cholesterol synthesis. This paper reviews the biochemical, molecular, and mutational aspects of DHCR7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina S Correa-Cerro
- Unit on Molecular Dysmorphology, Heritable Disorders Branch, Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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