The role of a sodium ion binding site in the allosteric modulation of the A(2A) adenosine G protein-coupled receptor

Functional dynamics of G protein-coupled receptors reveal new routes for drug discovery

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest human membrane protein family that transduce extracellular signals into cellular responses. They are major pharmacological targets, with approximately 26% of marketed drugs targeting GPCRs, primarily at their orthosteric binding site. Despite their prominence, predicting the pharmacological effects of novel GPCR-targeting drugs remains challenging due to the complex functional dynamics of these receptors. Recent advances in X-ray crystallography, cryo-electron microscopy, spectroscopic techniques and molecular simulations have enhanced our understanding of receptor conformational dynamics and ligand interactions with GPCRs. These developments have revealed novel ligand-binding modes, mechanisms of action and druggable pockets. In this Review, we highlight such aspects for recently discovered small-molecule drugs and drug candidates targeting GPCRs, focusing on three categories: allosteric modulators, biased ligands, and bivalent and bitopic compounds. Although studies so far have largely been retrospective, integrating structural data on ligand-induced receptor functional dynamics into the drug discovery pipeline has the potential to guide the identification of drug candidates with specific abilities to modulate GPCR interactions with intracellular effector proteins such as G proteins and β-arrestins, enabling more tailored selectivity and efficacy profiles.

Biased signaling in GPCRs: Structural insights and implications for drug development

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of cell surface receptors in humans, playing a crucial role in regulating diverse cellular processes and serving as primary drug targets. Traditional drug design has primarily focused on ligands that uniformly activate or inhibit GPCRs. However, the concept of biased agonism-where ligands selectively stabilize distinct receptor conformations, leading to unique signaling outcomes-has introduced a paradigm shift in therapeutic development. Despite the promise of biased agonists to enhance drug efficacy and minimize side effects, a comprehensive understanding of the structural and biophysical mechanisms underlying biased signaling is essential. Recent advancements in GPCR structural biology have provided unprecedented insights into ligand binding, conformational dynamics, and the molecular basis of biased signaling. These insights, combined with improved techniques for characterizing ligand efficacy, have driven the development of biased ligands for several GPCRs, including opioid, angiotensin, and adrenergic receptors. This review synthesizes these developments, from mechanisms to drug discovery in biased signaling, emphasizing the role of structural insights in the rational design of next-generation biased agonists with superior therapeutic profiles. Ultimately, these advances hold the potential to revolutionize GPCR-targeted drug discovery, paving the way for more precise and effective treatments.

Discovery of a mu-opioid receptor modulator that in combination with morphinan antagonists induces analgesia

Morphinan antagonists, which block opioid effects at mu-opioid receptors, have been studied for their analgesic potential. Previous studies have suggested that these antagonists elicit analgesia with fewer adverse effects in the presence of the mutant mu-opioid receptor (MOR; S196A). However, introducing a mutant receptor for medical applications represents significant challenges. We hypothesize that binding a chemical compound to the MOR may elicit a comparable effect to the S196A mutation. Through high-throughput screening and structure-activity relationship studies, we identified a modulator, 4-(2-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxothiazolidin-3-yl)-3-methylbenzoic acid (BPRMU191), which confers agonistic properties to small-molecule morphinan antagonists, which induce G protein-dependent MOR activation. Co-application of BPRMU191 and morphinan antagonists resulted in MOR-dependent analgesia with diminished side effects, including gastrointestinal dysfunction, antinociceptive tolerance, and physical and psychological dependence. Combining BPRMU191 and morphinan antagonists could serve as a potential therapeutic strategy for severe pain with reduced adverse effects and provide an avenue for studying G protein-coupled receptor modulation.

Revealing the graded activation mechanism of neurotensin receptor 1

Graded activation contributes to the precise regulation of GPCR activity, presenting new opportunities for drug design. In this work, a total of 10 μs enhanced-sampling simulations are performed to provide molecular insights into the binding dynamics differences of the neurotensin receptor 1 (NTSR1) to the full agonist SRI-9829, partial agonist RTI-3a and inverse agonist SR48692. The possible graded activation mechanism of NTSR1 is revealed by an integrated analysis utilizing the reweighted potential of mean force (PMF), deep learning (DL) and transfer entropy (TE). Specifically, the orthosteric pocket is observed to undergo expansion and contraction, with the G-protein-binding site experiencing interconversions among the inactive, intermediate and active-like states. Detailed structural comparisons capture subtle conformational differences arising from ligand binding in allosteric signaling, which can well explain the graded activation. Critical microswitches that contribute to graded activation are efficiently identified with the DL model. TE calculations enable the visualization of allosteric communication networks within the receptor, elucidating the driver-responder relationships associated with signal transduction. Fortunately, the dissociation of the full agonist from the orthosteric pocket is observed. The current findings systematically reveal the mechanism of NTSR1 graded activation, and also provide implications for structure-based drug design.

Monitoring GPCR conformation with GFP-inspired dyes

Solvatochromic compounds have emerged as valuable environment-sensitive probes for biological research. Here we used thiol-reactive solvatochromic analogs of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) chromophore to track conformational changes in two proteins, recoverin and the A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR). Two dyes showed Ca2+-induced fluorescence changes when attached to recoverin. Our best-performing dye, DyeC, exhibited agonist-induced changes in both intensity and shape of its fluorescence spectrum when attached to A2AAR; none of these effects were observed with other common environment-sensitive dyes. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that activation of the A2AAR led to a more confined and hydrophilic environment for DyeC. Additionally, an allosteric modulator of A2AAR induced distinct fluorescence changes in the DyeC spectrum, indicating a unique receptor conformation. Our study demonstrated that GFP-inspired dyes are effective for detecting structural changes in G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), offering advantages such as intensity-based and ratiometric tracking, redshifted fluorescence spectra, and sensitivity to allosteric modulation.

Structural Mass Spectrometry Captures Residue-Resolved Comprehensive Conformational Rearrangements of a G Protein-Coupled Receptor

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) structural studies with in-solution spectroscopic approaches have offered distinctive insights into GPCR activation and signaling that highly complement those yielded from structural snapshots by crystallography or cryo-EM. While most current spectroscopic approaches allow for probing structural changes at selected residues or loop regions, they are not suitable for capturing a holistic view of GPCR conformational rearrangements across multiple domains. Herein, we develop an approach based on limited proteolysis mass spectrometry (LiP-MS) to simultaneously monitor conformational alterations of a large number of residues spanning both flexible loops and structured transmembrane domains for a given GPCR. To benchmark LiP-MS for GPCR conformational profiling, we studied the adenosine 2A receptor (A2AR) in response to different ligand binding (agonist/antagonist/allosteric modulators) and G protein coupling. Systematic and residue-resolved profiling of A2AR conformational rearrangements by LiP-MS precisely captures structural mechanisms in multiple domains underlying ligand engagement, receptor activation, and allostery, and may also reflect local conformational flexibility. Furthermore, these residue-resolution structural fingerprints of the A2AR protein allow us to readily classify ligands of different pharmacology and distinguish the G protein-coupled state. Thus, our study provides a new structural MS approach that would be generalizable to characterizing conformational transition and plasticity for challenging integral membrane proteins.

Structure-Guided Design of Partial Agonists at an Opioid Receptor

The persistence of chronic pain and continuing overdose deaths from pain-relieving opioids targeting μ opioid receptor (μOR) have fueled the need for reliable long-term analgesics which use different targets and mechanisms. The δ opioid receptor (δOR) is a potential alternative target for non-addictive analgesics to alleviate chronic pain, made more attractive by its lack of respiratory depression associated with μOR agonists. However, early δOR full agonists were found to induce seizures, precluding clinical use. Partial δOR agonists may offer more controlled activation of the receptor compared to full agonists, but the development of such ligands has been hindered by uncertainty over the molecular mechanism mediating partial agonism. Using a structure-based approach, we explored the engagement of the sodium binding pocket in δOR and developed a bitopic ligand, C6-Quino, predicted to be a selective δOR partial agonist. Functional studies of C6-Quino revealed that it displayed δOR partial agonist activity at both G-protein and arrestin pathways. Its interaction with the sodium pocket was confirmed and analyzed using a single particle cryo-EM. Additionally, C6-Quino demonstrated favorable chemical and physiological properties like oral activity, and analgesic activity in multiple chronic pain models. Notably, μOR-related hyperlocomotion and respiratory depression, and δOR-related convulsions, were not observed at analgesic doses of C6-Quino. This fundamentally new approach to designing δOR ligands provides a blueprint for the development of partial agonists as safe analgesics and acts as a generic method to optimize signaling profiles of other Class A GPCRs.

Single-molecule visualization of human A2A adenosine receptor activation by a G protein and constitutively activating mutations

Mutations that constitutively activate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), known as constitutively activating mutations (CAMs), modify cell signaling and interfere with drugs, resulting in diseases with limited treatment options. We utilize fluorescence imaging at the single-molecule level to visualize the dynamic process of CAM-mediated activation of the human A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR) in real time. We observe an active-state population for all CAMs without agonist stimulation. Importantly, activating mutations significantly increase the population of an intermediate state crucial for receptor activation, notably distinct from the addition of a partner G protein. Activation kinetics show that while CAMs increase the frequency of transitions to the intermediate state, mutations altering sodium sensitivity increase transitions away from it. These findings indicate changes in GPCR function caused by mutations may be predicted based on whether they favor or disfavor formation of an intermediate state, providing a framework for designing receptors with altered functions or therapies that target intermediate states.

An inverse agonist of orphan receptor GPR61 acts by a G protein-competitive allosteric mechanism

GPR61 is an orphan GPCR related to biogenic amine receptors. Its association with phenotypes relating to appetite makes it of interest as a druggable target to treat disorders of metabolism and body weight, such as obesity and cachexia. To date, the lack of structural information or a known biological ligand or tool compound has hindered comprehensive efforts to study GPR61 structure and function. Here, we report a structural characterization of GPR61, in both its active-like complex with heterotrimeric G protein and in its inactive state. Moreover, we report the discovery of a potent and selective small-molecule inverse agonist against GPR61 and structural elucidation of its allosteric binding site and mode of action. These findings offer mechanistic insights into an orphan GPCR while providing both a structural framework and tool compound to support further studies of GPR61 function and modulation.

The World of GPCR dimers - Mapping dopamine receptor D2 homodimers in different activation states and configuration arrangements

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are known to dimerize, but the molecular and structural basis of GPCR dimers is not well understood. In this study, we developed a computational framework to generate models of symmetric and asymmetric GPCR dimers using different monomer activation states and identified their most likely interfaces with molecular details. We chose the dopamine receptor D2 (D2R) homodimer as a case study because of its biological relevance and the availability of structural information. Our results showed that transmembrane domains 4 and 5 (TM4 and TM5) are mostly found at the dimer interface of the D2R dimer and that these interfaces have a subset of key residues that are mostly nonpolar from TM4 and TM5, which was in line with experimental studies. In addition, TM2 and TM3 appear to be relevant for D2R dimers. In some cases, the inactive configuration is unaffected by the partnered protomer, whereas in others, the active protomer adopts the properties of an inactive receptor. Additionally, the β-arrestin configuration displayed the properties of an active receptor in the absence of an agonist, suggesting that a switch to another meta-state during dimerization occurred. Our findings are consistent with the experimental data, and this method can be adapted to study heterodimers and potentially extended to include additional proteins such as G proteins or β-arrestins. In summary, this approach provides insight into the impact of the conformational status of partnered protomers on the overall quaternary GPCR macromolecular structure and dynamics.

Density Functional Theory Study on the Selective Reductive Amination of Aldehydes and Ketones over Their Reductions to Alcohols Using Sodium Triacetoxyborohydride

Reductive amination is one of the most important methods to synthesize amines, having a wide application in the pharmaceutical, fine chemicals, and materials industries. In general, the reaction begins with dehydration between a carbonyl compound and an amine compound, forming an imine, which is then reduced to an alkylated amine product. Sodium triacetoxyborohydride (STAB) is a popular choice for the reducing agent as it shows selectivity for imines over aldehydes and ketones, which is particularly important in direct reductive amination where the imine and carbonyl compounds are present concurrently. Here, we analyze the reaction pathways of acid-catalyzed direct reductive amination in 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) with acetaldehyde and methylamine. We find that the transition states for the formation and subsequent reduction of Z-methylethylideneimine (resultant aldimine from acetaldehyde and methylamine) have lower energies than the reduction of acetaldehyde. Transition state structures for the hydride transfers are organized by the Lewis-acidic sodium ion. Additionally, reduction reactions with formaldehyde and acetone and their imine derivatives (with methylamine) are investigated, and again, the hydride transfer to the resultant aldimine or ketimine is lower in energy than that of their parent carbonyl compound.

Cancer-Associated Mutations of the Adenosine A2A Receptor Have Diverse Influences on Ligand Binding and Receptor Functions

The adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AAR) is a class A G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). It is an immune checkpoint in the tumor micro-environment and has become an emerging target for cancer treatment. In this study, we aimed to explore the effects of cancer-patient-derived A_2AAR mutations on ligand binding and receptor functions. The wild-type A_2AAR and 15 mutants identified by Genomic Data Commons (GDC) in human cancers were expressed in HEK293T cells. Firstly, we found that the binding affinity for agonist NECA was decreased in six mutants but increased for the V275A mutant. Mutations A165V and A265V decreased the binding affinity for antagonist ZM241385. Secondly, we found that the potency of NECA (EC₅₀) in an impedance-based cell-morphology assay was mostly correlated with the binding affinity for the different mutants. Moreover, S132L and H278N were found to shift the A_2AAR towards the inactive state. Importantly, we found that ZM241385 could not inhibit the activation of V275A and P285L stimulated by NECA. Taken together, the cancer-associated mutations of A_2AAR modulated ligand binding and receptor functions. This study provides fundamental insights into the structure–activity relationship of the A_2AAR and provides insights for A_2AAR-related personalized treatment in cancer.

Activation and allosteric regulation of the orphan GPR88-Gi1 signaling complex

GPR88 is an orphan class A G-protein-coupled receptor that is highly expressed in the striatum and regulates diverse brain and behavioral functions. Here we present cryo-EM structures of the human GPR88-Gi1 signaling complex with or without a synthetic agonist (1R, 2R)-2-PCCA. We show that (1R, 2R)-2-PCCA is an allosteric modulator binding to a herein identified pocket formed by the cytoplasmic ends of transmembrane segments 5, 6, and the extreme C terminus of the α5 helix of Gi1. We also identify an electron density in the extracellular orthosteric site that may represent a putative endogenous ligand of GPR88. These structures, together with mutagenesis studies and an inactive state model obtained from metadynamics simulations, reveal a unique activation mechanism for GPR88 with a set of distinctive structure features and a water-mediated polar network. Overall, our results provide a structural framework for understanding the ligand binding, activation and signaling mechanism of GPR88, and will facilitate the innovative drug discovery for neuropsychiatric disorders and for deorphanization of this receptor.

Slow conformational dynamics of the human A2A adenosine receptor are temporally ordered

A more complete depiction of protein energy landscapes includes the identification of different function-related conformational states and the determination of the pathways connecting them. We used total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) imaging to investigate the conformational dynamics of the human A2A adenosine receptor (A2AAR), a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), at the single-molecule level. Slow, reversible conformational exchange was observed among three different fluorescence emission states populated for agonist-bound A2AAR. Transitions among these states predominantly occurred in a specific order, and exchange between inactive and active-like conformations proceeded through an intermediate state. Models derived from molecular dynamics simulations with available A2AAR structures rationalized the relative fluorescence emission intensities for the highest and lowest emission states but not the transition state. This suggests that the functionally critical intermediate state required to achieve activation is not currently visualized among available A2AAR structures.

Unique features of different classes of G-protein-coupled receptors revealed from sequence coevolutionary and structural analysis

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of human membrane proteins and represent the primary targets of about one third of currently marketed drugs. Despite the critical importance, experimental structures have been determined for only a limited portion of GPCRs and functional mechanisms of GPCRs remain poorly understood. Here, we have constructed novel sequence coevolutionary models of the A and B classes of GPCRs and compared them with residue contact frequency maps generated with available experimental structures. Significant portions of structural residue contacts were successfully detected in the sequence-based covariational models. "Exception" residue contacts predicted from sequence coevolutionary models but not available structures added missing links that were important for GPCR activation and allosteric modulation. Moreover, we identified distinct residue contacts involving different sets of functional motifs for GPCR activation, such as the Na⁺ pocket, CWxP, DRY, PIF, and NPxxY motifs in the class A and the HETx and PxxG motifs in the class B. Finally, we systematically uncovered critical residue contacts tuned by allosteric modulation in the two classes of GPCRs, including those from the activation motifs and particularly the extracellular and intracellular loops in class A GPCRs. These findings provide a promising framework for rational design of ligands to regulate GPCR activation and allosteric modulation.

Hot Spot Mutagenesis Improves the Functional Expression of Unique Mammalian Odorant Receptors

Vertebrate animals detect odors through olfactory receptors (ORs), members of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family. Due to the difficulty in the heterologous expression of ORs, studies of their odor molecule recognition mechanisms have progressed poorly. Functional expression of most ORs in heterologous cells requires the co-expression of their chaperone proteins, receptor transporting proteins (RTPs). Yet, some ORs were found to be functionally expressed without the support of RTP (RTP-independent ORs). In this study, we investigated whether amino acid residues highly conserved among RTP-independent ORs improve the functional expression of ORs in heterologous cells. We found that a single amino acid substitution at one of two sites (N_BW3.39 and 3.43) in their conserved residues (E and L, respectively) significantly improved the functional expression of ORs in heterologous cells. E^3.39 and L^3.43 also enhanced the membrane expression of RTP-dependent ORs in the absence of RTP. These changes did not alter the odorant responsiveness of the tested ORs. Our results showed that specific sites within transmembrane domains regulate the membrane expression of some ORs.

Structures of neurokinin 1 receptor in complex with Gq and Gs proteins reveal substance P binding mode and unique activation features

The neurokinin 1 receptor (NK₁R) is involved in inflammation and pain transmission. This pathophysiologically important G protein–coupled receptor is predominantly activated by its cognate agonist substance P (SP) but also by the closely related neurokinins A and B. Here, we report cryo–electron microscopy structures of SP-bound NK₁R in complex with its primary downstream signal mediators, G_q and G_s. Our structures reveal how a polar network at the extracellular, solvent-exposed receptor surface shapes the orthosteric pocket and that NK₁R adopts a noncanonical active-state conformation with an interface for G protein binding, which is distinct from previously reported structures. Detailed comparisons with antagonist-bound NK₁R crystal structures reveal that insurmountable antagonists induce a distinct and long-lasting receptor conformation that sterically blocks SP binding. Together, our structures provide important structural insights into ligand and G protein promiscuity, the lack of basal signaling, and agonist- and antagonist-induced conformations in the neurokinin receptor family.

Deciphering conformational selectivity in the A2A adenosine G protein-coupled receptor by free energy simulations

Transmembranal G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) transduce extracellular chemical signals to the cell, via conformational change from a resting (inactive) to an active (canonically bound to a G-protein) conformation. Receptor activation is normally modulated by extracellular ligand binding, but mutations in the receptor can also shift this equilibrium by stabilizing different conformational states. In this work, we built structure-energetic relationships of receptor activation based on original thermodynamic cycles that represent the conformational equilibrium of the prototypical A_2A adenosine receptor (AR). These cycles were solved with efficient free energy perturbation (FEP) protocols, allowing to distinguish the pharmacological profile of different series of A_2AAR agonists with different efficacies. The modulatory effects of point mutations on the basal activity of the receptor or on ligand efficacies could also be detected. This methodology can guide GPCR ligand design with tailored pharmacological properties, or allow the identification of mutations that modulate receptor activation with potential clinical implications.

The design of new ligands as chemical modulators of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has benefited considerably during the last years of advances in both the structural and computational biology disciplines. Within the last area, the use of free energy calculation methods has arisen as a computational tool to predict ligand affinities to explain structure-affinity relationships and guide lead optimization campaigns. However, our comprehension of the structural determinants of ligands with different pharmacological profile is scarce, and knowledge of the chemical modifications associated with an agonistic or antagonistic profile would be extremely valuable. We herein report an original implementation of the thermodynamic cycles associated with free energy perturbation (FEP) simulations, to mimic the conformational equilibrium between active and inactive GPCRs, and establish a framework to describe pharmacological profiles as a function of the ligands selectivity for a given receptor conformation. The advantage of this method resides into its simplicity of use, and the only consideration of active and inactive conformations of the receptor, with no simulation of the transitions between them. This model can accurately predict the pharmacological profile of series of full and partial agonists as opposed to antagonists of the A_2A adenosine receptor, and moreover, how certain mutations associated with modulation of basal activity can influence this pharmacological profiles, which enables our understanding of such clinically relevant mutations.

Adenosine receptor antagonists: Recent advances and therapeutic perspective

Adenosine is an endogenous purine-based nucleoside expressed nearly in all body tissues. It regulates various body functions by activating four G-protein coupled receptors, A₁, A_2A, A_2B, and A₃. These receptors are widely acknowledged as drug targets for treating different neurological, metabolic, and inflammatory diseases. Although numerous adenosine receptor inhibitors have been developed worldwide, achieving target selectivity is still a big hurdle in drug development. However, the identification of specific radioligands-based affinity assay, fluorescent ligands, and MS-based ligand assay have contributed to the development of selective and potent adenosine ligands. In recent years various small heterocyclic-based molecules have shown some promising results. Istradefylline has been approved for treating Parkinson's in Japan, while preladenant, tozadenant, CVT-6883, MRS-1523, and many more are under different phases of clinical development. The present review is focused on the quest to develop potent and selective adenosine inhibitors from 2013 to early 2021 by various research groups. The review also highlights their biological activity, selectivity, structure-activity relationship, molecular docking, and mechanistic studies. A special emphsesis on drug designing strategies has been also given the manuscript. The comprehensive compilation of research work carried out in the field will provide inevitable scope for designing and developing novel adenosine inhibitors with improved selectivity and efficacy.

Affinity Mass Spectrometry-Based Fragment Screening Identified a New Negative Allosteric Modulator of the Adenosine A2A Receptor Targeting the Sodium Ion Pocket

Allosteric ligands provide new opportunities to modulate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) function and present therapeutic benefits over orthosteric molecules. Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) can inhibit the activation of a receptor and downstream signal transduction. Screening NAMs for a GPCR target is particularly challenging because of the difficulty in distinguishing NAMs from antagonists bound to the orthosteric site as they both show inhibitory effects in receptor signaling assays. Here we report an affinity mass spectrometry (MS)-based approach tailored to screening potential NAMs of a GPCR target especially from fragment libraries. Compared to regular surface plasmon resonance or NMR-based methods for fragment screening, our approach features a reduction of the protein and compound consumption by 2-4 orders of magnitude and an increase in the data acquisition speed by 2-3 orders of magnitude. Our affinity MS-based fragment screening led to the identification of a new NAM of the adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AAR) bearing an unprecedented azetidine moiety predicted to occupy the allosteric sodium binding site. Molecular dynamics simulations, ligand structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies, and in-solution NMR analyses further revealed the unique binding mode and antagonistic property of this compound that differs considerably from HMA (5-(N,N-hexamethylene)amiloride), a well-characterized NAM of A_2AAR. Taken together, our work would facilitate fragment-based screening of allosteric modulators, as well as guide the design of novel NAMs acting at the sodium ion pocket of class A GPCRs.

Experimental and computational analysis of biased agonism on full-length and a C-terminally truncated adenosine A2A receptor

Biased agonism, the ability of agonists to differentially activate downstream signaling pathways by stabilizing specific receptor conformations, is a key issue for G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. The C-terminal domain might influence this functional selectivity of GPCRs as it engages G proteins, GPCR kinases, β-arrestins, and several other proteins. Thus, the aim of this paper is to compare the agonist-dependent selectivity for intracellular pathways in a heterologous system expressing the full-length (A_2AR) and a C-tail truncated (A_2A^Δ40R lacking the last 40 amino acids) adenosine A_2A receptor, a GPCR that is already targeted in Parkinson’s disease using a first-in-class drug. Experimental data such as ligand binding, cAMP production, β-arrestin recruitment, ERK1/2 phosphorylation and dynamic mass redistribution assays, which correspond to different aspects of signal transduction, were measured upon the action of structurally diverse compounds (the agonists adenosine, NECA, CGS-21680, PSB-0777 and LUF-5834 and the SCH-58261 antagonist) in cells expressing A_2AR and A_2A^Δ40R. The results show that taking cAMP levels and the endogenous adenosine agonist as references, the main difference in bias was obtained with PSB-0777 and LUF-5834. The C-terminus is dispensable for both G-protein and β-arrestin recruitment and also for MAPK activation. Unrestrained molecular dynamics simulations, at the μs timescale, were used to understand the structural arrangements of the binding cavity, triggered by these chemically different agonists, facilitating G protein binding with different efficacy.

How Do Molecular Dynamics Data Complement Static Structural Data of GPCRs

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are implicated in nearly every physiological process in the human body and therefore represent an important drug targeting class. Advances in X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) have provided multiple static structures of GPCRs in complex with various signaling partners. However, GPCR functionality is largely determined by their flexibility and ability to transition between distinct structural conformations. Due to this dynamic nature, a static snapshot does not fully explain the complexity of GPCR signal transduction. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations offer the opportunity to simulate the structural motions of biological processes at atomic resolution. Thus, this technique can incorporate the missing information on protein flexibility into experimentally solved structures. Here, we review the contribution of MD simulations to complement static structural data and to improve our understanding of GPCR physiology and pharmacology, as well as the challenges that still need to be overcome to reach the full potential of this technique.

GPCRmd uncovers the dynamics of the 3D-GPCRome

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in numerous physiological processes and are the most frequent targets of approved drugs. The explosion in the number of new three-dimensional (3D) molecular structures of GPCRs (3D-GPCRome) over the last decade has greatly advanced the mechanistic understanding and drug design opportunities for this protein family. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become a widely established technique for exploring the conformational landscape of proteins at an atomic level. However, the analysis and visualization of MD simulations require efficient storage resources and specialized software. Here we present GPCRmd (http://gpcrmd.org/), an online platform that incorporates web-based visualization capabilities as well as a comprehensive and user-friendly analysis toolbox that allows scientists from different disciplines to visualize, analyze and share GPCR MD data. GPCRmd originates from a community-driven effort to create an open, interactive and standardized database of GPCR MD simulations.

HomolWat: a web server tool to incorporate 'homologous' water molecules into GPCR structures

Internal water molecules play an essential role in the structure and function of membrane proteins including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, technical limitations severely influence the number and certainty of observed water molecules in 3D structures. This may compromise the accuracy of further structural studies such as docking calculations or molecular dynamics simulations. Here we present HomolWat, a web application for incorporating water molecules into GPCR structures by using template-based modelling of homologous water molecules obtained from high-resolution structures. While there are various tools available to predict the positions of internal waters using energy-based methods, the approach of borrowing lacking water molecules from homologous GPCR structures makes HomolWat unique. The tool can incorporate water molecules into a protein structure in about a minute with around 85% of water recovery. The web server is freely available at http://lmc.uab.es/homolwat.

In Silico Drug Design for Purinergic GPCRs: Overview on Molecular Dynamics Applied to Adenosine and P2Y Receptors

Molecular modeling has contributed to drug discovery for purinergic GPCRs, including adenosine receptors (ARs) and P2Y receptors (P2YRs). Experimental structures and homology modeling have proven to be useful in understanding and predicting structure activity relationships (SAR) of agonists and antagonists. This review provides an excursus on molecular dynamics (MD) simulations applied to ARs and P2YRs. The binding modes of newly synthesized A1AR- and A3AR-selective nucleoside derivatives, potentially of use against depression and inflammation, respectively, have been predicted to recapitulate their SAR and the species dependence of A3AR affinity. P2Y12R and P2Y1R crystallographic structures, respectively, have provided a detailed understanding of the recognition of anti-inflammatory P2Y14R antagonists and a large group of allosteric and orthosteric antagonists of P2Y1R, an antithrombotic and neuroprotective target. MD of A2AAR (an anticancer and neuroprotective target), A3AR, and P2Y1R has identified microswitches that are putatively involved in receptor activation. The approach pathways of different ligands toward A2AAR and P2Y1R binding sites have also been explored. A1AR, A2AAR, and A3AR were utilizes to study allosteric phenomena, but locating the binding site of structurally diverse allosteric modulators, such as an A3AR enhancer LUF6000, is challenging. Ligand residence time, a predictor of in vivo efficacy, and the structural role of water were investigated through A2AAR MD simulations. Thus, new MD and other modeling algorithms have contributed to purinergic GPCR drug discovery.

Allosteric Antagonism of the A2A Adenosine Receptor by a Series of Bitopic Ligands

Allosteric antagonism by bitopic ligands, as reported for many receptors, is a distinct modulatory mechanism. Although several bitopic A_2A adenosine receptor (A_2AAR) ligand classes were reported as pharmacological tools, their receptor binding and functional antagonism patterns, i.e., allosteric or competitive, were not well characterized. Therefore, here we systematically characterized A_2AAR binding and functional antagonism of two distinct antagonist chemical classes. i.e., fluorescent conjugates of xanthine amine congener (XAC) and SCH442416. Bitopic ligands were potent, weak, competitive or allosteric, based on the combination of pharmacophore, linker and fluorophore. Among antagonists tested, XAC, XAC245, XAC488, SCH442416, MRS7352 showed K_i binding values consistent with K_B values from functional antagonism. Interestingly, MRS7396, XAC-X-BY630 (XAC630) and 5-(N,N-hexamethylene)amiloride (HMA) were 9–100 times weaker in displacing fluorescent MRS7416 binding than radioligand binding. XAC245, XAC630, MRS7396, MRS7416 and MRS7322 behaved as allosteric A_2AAR antagonists, whereas XAC488 and MRS7395 antagonized competitively. Schild analysis showed antagonism slopes of 0.42 and 0.47 for MRS7396 and XAC630, respectively. Allosteric antagonists HMA and MRS7396 were more potent in displacing [³H]ZM241385 binding than MRS7416 binding. Sodium site D52N mutation increased and decreased affinity of HMA and MRS7396, respectively, suggesting possible preference for different A_2AAR conformations. The allosteric binding properties of some bitopic ligands were rationalized and analyzed using the Hall two-state allosteric model. Thus, fluorophore tethering to an orthosteric ligand is not neutral pharmacologically and may confer unexpected properties to the conjugate.

Enhancing the Signaling of GPCRs via Orthosteric Ions

G protein-coupled receptors play essential roles in cellular processes such as neuronal signaling, vision, olfaction, tasting, and metabolism. As GPCRs are the most important drug targets, understanding their interactions with ligands is of utmost importance for discovering related new medicines. In many GPCRs, an allosteric sodium ion next to the highly conserved residue D^2.50 has been proposed to stabilize the inactive receptor state by mediating interactions between transmembrane helices. Here, we probed the existence of internal and functionally important sodium ions in the dopamine D2 receptor, using molecular dynamics simulations. Besides a new sodium ion at the allosteric ligand binding site, we discovered an additional sodium ion, located close to the orthosteric ligand binding site. Through cell-based activation assays, the signaling of D2 receptor with site-specific mutations was tested against a series of chemically modified agonists. We concluded an important structural role of this newly discovered orthosteric sodium ion in modulating the receptor signaling: It enables the coordination of a polar residue in the ligand binding site with an appropriately designed agonist molecule. An identical interaction was also observed in a recently released high-resolution crystal structure of mu-opioid receptor, which was reresolved in this work. Probably because of similar interactions, various metal ions have been found to increase the signaling of many other GPCRs. This unique principle and strategy could be used to optimize the drug activity of GPCR. Our findings open a new mechanistic opportunity of GPCR signaling and help design the next generation of drugs targeting GPCRs.

GPR6 Structural Insights: Homology Model Construction and Docking Studies

GPR6 is an orphan G protein-coupled receptor that has been associated with the cannabinoid family because of its recognition of a sub-set of cannabinoid ligands. The high abundance of GPR6 in the central nervous system, along with high constitutive activity and a link to several neurodegenerative diseases make GPR6 a promising biological target. In fact, diverse research groups have demonstrated that GPR6 represents a possible target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease. Several patents have claimed the use of a wide range of pyrazine derivatives as GPR6 inverse agonists for the treatment of Parkinson's disease symptoms and other dyskinesia syndromes. However, the full pharmacological importance of GPR6 has not yet been fully explored due to the lack of high potency, readily available ligands targeting GPR6. The long-term goal of the present study is to develop such ligands. In this paper, we describe our initial steps towards this goal. A human GPR6 homology model was constructed using a suite of computational techniques. This model permitted the identification of unique GPR6 structural features and the exploration of the GPR6 binding crevice. A subset of patented pyrazine analogs were docked in the resultant GPR6 inactive state model to validate the model, rationalize the structure-activity relationships from the reported patents and identify the key residues in the binding crevice for ligand recognition. We will take this structural knowledge into the next phase of GPR6 project, in which scaffold hopping will be used to design new GPR6 ligands.

Bridging non-overlapping reads illuminates high-order epistasis between distal protein sites in a GPCR

Epistasis emerges when the effects of an amino acid depend on the identities of interacting residues. This phenomenon shapes fitness landscapes, which have the power to reveal evolutionary paths and inform evolution of desired functions. However, there is a need for easily implemented, high-throughput methods to capture epistasis particularly at distal sites. Here, we combine deep mutational scanning (DMS) with a straightforward data processing step to bridge reads in distal sites within genes (BRIDGE). We use BRIDGE, which matches non-overlapping reads to their cognate templates, to uncover prevalent epistasis within the binding pocket of a human G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) yielding variants with 4-fold greater affinity to a target ligand. The greatest functional improvements in our screen result from distal substitutions and substitutions that are deleterious alone. Our results corroborate findings of mutational tolerance in GPCRs, even in conserved motifs, but reveal inherent constraints restricting tolerated substitutions due to epistasis.

Epistasis effects among amino acids at distal sites within binding pockets can have important impacts on protein fitness landscapes. Here the authors present BRIDGE, which matches non-overlapping sequence reads with their cognate DNA templates.

Harnessing Ion-Binding Sites for GPCR Pharmacology

Endogenous ions play important roles in the function and pharmacology of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Historically the evidence for ionic modulation of GPCR function dates to 1973 with studies of opioid receptors, where it was demonstrated that physiologic concentrations of sodium allosterically attenuated agonist binding. This Na+-selective effect was distinct from effects of other monovalent and divalent cations, with the latter usually counteracting sodium's negative allosteric modulation of binding. Since then, numerous studies documenting the effects of mono- and divalent ions on GPCR function have been published. While ions can act selectively and nonselectively at many sites in different receptors, the discovery of the conserved sodium ion site in class A GPCR structures in 2012 revealed the unique nature of Na+ site, which has emerged as a near-universal site for allosteric modulation of class A GPCR structure and function. In this review, we synthesize and highlight recent advances in the functional, biophysical, and structural characterization of ions bound to GPCRs. Taken together, these findings provide a molecular understanding of the unique roles of Na+ and other ions as GPCR allosteric modulators. We will also discuss how this knowledge can be applied to the redesign of receptors and ligand probes for desired functional and pharmacological profiles. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The function and pharmacology of GPCRs strongly depend on the presence of mono and divalent ions in experimental assays and in living organisms. Recent insights into the molecular mechanism of this ion-dependent allosterism from structural, biophysical, biochemical, and computational studies provide quantitative understandings of the pharmacological effects of drugs in vitro and in vivo and open new avenues for the rational design of chemical probes and drug candidates with improved properties.

Quantum Mechanical and Molecular Mechanics Modeling of Membrane-Embedded Rhodopsins

Computational chemistry provides versatile methods for studying the properties and functioning of biological systems at different levels of precision and at different time scales. The aim of this article is to review the computational methodologies that are applicable to rhodopsins as archetypes for photoactive membrane proteins that are of great importance both in nature and in modern technologies. For each class of computational techniques, from methods that use quantum mechanics for simulating rhodopsin photophysics to less-accurate coarse-grained methodologies used for long-scale protein dynamics, we consider possible applications and the main directions for improvement.

Ligand-Dependent Sodium Ion Dynamics within the A2A Adenosine Receptor: A Molecular Dynamics Study

Sodium ions have long been known to reduce the binding of agonists in many class-A GPCRs while having little effect on antagonist binding. Here, using long-time scale classical all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we explore, in atomic detail, the motion of sodium ions within the ligand-binding pocket of the A_2A adenosine receptor (A2A-AR) both in the presence and absence of ligands and in the active and inactive state. We identify novel secondary ion binding sites within the pocket and find that the types of ion motions within the pocket are highly dependent on the presence and type of ligand within the pocket. Our results provide a first step toward developing a molecular understanding of the impact of sodium ions on class-A GPCRs.

Allosteric modulation of G protein-coupled receptors by amiloride and its derivatives. Perspectives for drug discovery?

The function of G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) can be modulated by compounds that bind to other sites than the endogenous orthosteric binding site, so‐called allosteric sites. Structure elucidation of a number of GPCRs has revealed the presence of a sodium ion bound in a conserved allosteric site. The small molecule amiloride and analogs thereof have been proposed to bind in this same sodium ion site. Hence, this review seeks to summarize and reflect on the current knowledge of allosteric effects by amiloride and its analogs on GPCRs. Amiloride is known to modulate adenosine, adrenergic, dopamine, chemokine, muscarinic, serotonin, gonadotropin‐releasing hormone, GABA_B, and taste receptors. Amiloride analogs with lipophilic substituents tend to be more potent modulators than amiloride itself. Adenosine, α‐adrenergic and dopamine receptors are most strongly modulated by amiloride analogs. In addition, for a few GPCRs, more than one binding site for amiloride has been postulated. Interestingly, the nature of the allosteric effect of amiloride and derivatives varies considerably between GPCRs, with both negative and positive allosteric modulation occurring. Since the sodium ion binding site is strongly conserved among class A GPCRs it is to be expected that amiloride also binds to class A GPCRs not evaluated yet. Investigating this typical amiloride‐GPCR interaction further may yield general insight in the allosteric mechanisms of GPCR ligand binding and function, and possibly provide new opportunities for drug discovery.

Revisiting the Allosteric Regulation of Sodium Cation on the Binding of Adenosine at the Human A2A Adenosine Receptor: Insights from Supervised Molecular Dynamics (SuMD) Simulations

One of the most intriguing findings highlighted from G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) crystallography is the presence, in many members of class A, of a partially hydrated sodium ion in the middle of the seven transmembrane helices (7TM) bundle. In particular, the human adenosine A2A receptor (A2A AR) is the first GPCR in which a monovalent sodium ion was crystallized in a distal site from the canonical orthosteric one, corroborating, from a structural point of view, its role as a negative allosteric modulator. However, the molecular mechanism by which the sodium ion influences the recognition of the A2A AR agonists is not yet fully understood. In this study, the supervised molecular dynamics (SuMD) technique was exploited to analyse the sodium ion recognition mechanism and how its presence influences the binding of the endogenous agonist adenosine. Due to a higher degree of flexibility of the receptor extracellular (EC) vestibule, we propose the sodium-bound A2A AR as less efficient in stabilizing the adenosine during the different steps of binding.

Free-Energy Calculations for Bioisosteric Modifications of A3 Adenosine Receptor Antagonists

Adenosine receptors are a family of G protein-coupled receptors with increased attention as drug targets on different indications. We investigate the thermodynamics of ligand binding to the A₃ adenosine receptor subtype, focusing on a recently reported series of diarylacetamidopyridine inhibitors via molecular dynamics simulations. With a combined approach of thermodynamic integration and one-step perturbation, we characterize the impact of the charge distribution in a central heteroaromatic ring on the binding affinity prediction. Standard charge distributions according to the GROMOS force field yield values in good agreement with the experimental data and previous free energy calculations. Subsequently, we examine the thermodynamics of inhibitor binding in terms of the energetic and entropic contributions. The highest entropy penalties are found for inhibitors with methoxy substituents in meta position of the aryl groups. This bulky group restricts rotation of aromatic rings attached to the pyrimidine core which leads to two distinct poses of the ligand. Our predictions support the previously proposed binding pose for the o-methoxy ligand, yielding in this case a very good correlation with the experimentally measured affinities with deviations below 4 kJ/mol.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Adenosine Receptors: Advances, Applications and Trends

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Adenosine receptors (ARs) are transmembrane proteins that belong to the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) superfamily and mediate the biological functions of adenosine. To date, four AR subtypes are known, namely A1, A2A, A2B and A3 that exhibit different signaling pathways, tissue localization, and mechanisms of activation. Moreover, the widespread ARs and their implication in numerous physiological and pathophysiological conditions had made them pivotal therapeutic targets for developing clinically effective agents.

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The crystallographic success in identifying the 3D crystal structures of A2A and A1 ARs has dramatically enriched our understanding of their structural and functional properties such as ligand binding and signal transduction. This, in turn, has provided a structural basis for a larger contribution of computational methods, particularly molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, toward further investigation of their molecular properties and designing bioactive ligands with therapeutic potential. MD simulation has been proved to be an invaluable tool in investigating ARs and providing answers to some critical questions. For example, MD has been applied in studying ARs in terms of ligand-receptor interactions, molecular recognition, allosteric modulations, dimerization, and mechanisms of activation, collectively aiding in the design of subtype selective ligands.

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In this review, we focused on the advances and different applications of MD simulations utilized to study the structural and functional aspects of ARs that can foster the structure-based design of drug candidates. In addition, relevant literature was briefly discussed which establishes a starting point for future advances in the field of drug discovery to this pivotal group of drug targets.

Towards A Molecular Understanding of The Cannabinoid Related Orphan Receptor GPR18: A Focus on Its Constitutive Activity

The orphan G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), GPR18, has been recently proposed as a potential member of the cannabinoid family as it recognizes several endogenous, phytogenic, and synthetic cannabinoids. Potential therapeutic applications for GPR18 include intraocular pressure, metabolic disorders, and cancer. GPR18 has been reported to have high constitutive activity, i.e., activation/signaling occurs in the absence of an agonist. This activity can be reduced significantly by the A3.39N mutation. At the intracellular (IC) ends of (transmembrane helices) TMH3 and TMH6 in GPCRs, typically, a pair of oppositely charged amino acids form a salt bridge called the "ionic lock". Breaking of this salt bridge creates an IC opening for coupling with G protein. The GPR18 "ionic lock" residues (R3.50/S6.33) can form only a hydrogen bond. In this paper, we test the hypothesis that the high constitutive activity of GPR18 is due to the weakness of its "ionic lock" and that the A3.39N mutation strengthens this lock. To this end, we report molecular dynamics simulations of wild-type (WT) GPR18 and the A3.39N mutant in fully hydrated (POPC) phophatidylcholine lipid bilayers. Results suggest that in the A3.39N mutant, TMH6 rotates and brings R3.50 and S6.33 closer together, thus strengthening the GPR18 "ionic lock".

Determinants of Orexin Receptor Binding and Activation-A Molecular Dynamics Study

We assess the stability of two previously suggested binding modes for the neuropeptide orexin-A in the OX₂ receptor through extensive molecular dynamics simulations. As the activation determinants of the receptor remain unknown, we simulated an unliganded receptor and two small-molecular ligands, the antagonist suvorexant and the agonist Nag26 for comparison. Each system was simulated in pure POPC membrane as well as in the 25% cholesterol–POPC membrane. In total, we carried out 36 μs of simulations. Through this set of simulations, we report a stable binding mode for the C-terminus of orexin-A. In addition, we suggest interactions that would promote orexin receptor activation, as well as others that would stabilize the inactive state.

Peeking at G-protein-coupled receptors through the molecular dynamics keyhole

Molecular dynamics is a state of the art computational tool for the investigation of biophysics phenomenon at a molecular scale, as it enables the modeling of dynamic processes, such as conformational motions, molecular solvation and ligand binding. The recent advances in structural biology have led to a bloom in published G-protein-coupled receptor structures, representing a solid and valuable resource for molecular dynamics studies. During the last decade, indeed, a plethora of physiological and pharmacological facets of this membrane protein superfamily have been addressed by means of molecular dynamics simulations, including the activation mechanism, allosterism and, very recently, biased signaling. Here, we try to recapitulate some of the main contributions that molecular dynamics has recently produced in the field.

Allosteric Modulation of Class A GPCRs: Targets, Agents, and Emerging Concepts

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been tractable drug targets for decades with over one-third of currently marketed drugs targeting GPCRs. Of these, the class A GPCR superfamily is highly represented, and continued drug discovery for this family of receptors may provide novel therapeutics for a vast range of diseases. GPCR allosteric modulation is an innovative targeting approach that broadens the available small molecule toolbox and is proving to be a viable drug discovery strategy, as evidenced by recent FDA approvals and clinical trials. Numerous class A GPCR allosteric modulators have been discovered recently, and emerging trends such as the availability of GPCR crystal structures, diverse functional assays, and structure-based computational approaches are improving optimization and development. This Perspective provides an update on allosterically targeted class A GPCRs and their disease indications and the medicinal chemistry approaches toward novel allosteric modulators and highlights emerging trends and opportunities in the field.

Crystal structures of the human neurokinin 1 receptor in complex with clinically used antagonists

Neurokinins (or tachykinins) are peptides that modulate a wide variety of human physiology through the neurokinin G protein-coupled receptor family, implicated in a diverse array of pathological processes. Here we report high-resolution crystal structures of the human NK₁ receptor (NK₁R) bound to two small-molecule antagonist therapeutics – aprepitant and netupitant and the progenitor antagonist CP-99,994. The structures reveal the detailed interactions between clinically approved antagonists and NK₁R, which induce a distinct receptor conformation resulting in an interhelical hydrogen-bond network that cross-links the extracellular ends of helices V and VI. Furthermore, the high-resolution details of NK₁R bound to netupitant establish a structural rationale for the lack of basal activity in NK₁R. Taken together, these co-structures provide a comprehensive structural basis of NK₁R antagonism and will facilitate the design of new therapeutics targeting the neurokinin receptor family.

Neurokinin receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. Here the authors present three crystal structures of the neurokinin 1 receptor (NK₁R) in complex with small-molecule antagonists including aprepitant and netupitant and observe that these clinically approved compounds induce a conformational change in the receptor.

Structural biology and structure–function relationships of membrane proteins

The study of structure–function relationships of membrane proteins (MPs) has been one of the major goals in the field of structural biology. Many Noble Prizes regarding remarkable accomplishments in MP structure determination and biochemistry have been awarded over the last few decades. Mutations or improper folding of these proteins are associated with numerous serious illnesses. Therefore, as important drug targets, the study of their primary sequence and three-dimensional fold, combined with cell-based assays, provides vital information about their structure–function relationships. Today, this information is vital to drug discovery and medicine. In the last two decades, many have been the technical advances and breakthroughs in the field of MP structural biology that have contributed to an exponential growth in the number of unique MP structures in the Protein Data Bank. Nevertheless, given the medical importance and many unanswered questions, it will never be an excess of MP structures, regardless of the method used. Owing to the extension of the field, in this brief review, we will only focus on structure–function relationships of the three most significant pharmaceutical classes: G protein-coupled receptors, ion channels and transporters.

Could the presence of sodium ion influence the accuracy and precision of the ligand-posing in the human A2A adenosine receptor orthosteric binding site using a molecular docking approach? Insights from Dockbench

The allosteric modulation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by sodium ions has received considerable attention as crystal structures of several receptors, in their inactive conformation, show a Na⁺ ion bound to specific residues which, in the human A_2A adenosine receptor (hA_2A AR), are Ser91^3.39, Trp246^6.48, Asn280^7.45, and Asn284^7.49. A cluster of water molecules completes the coordination of the sodium ion in the putative allosteric site. It is absolutely consolidated that the progress made in the field of GPCRs structural determination has increased the adoption of docking-driven approaches for the identification or the optimization of novel potent and selective ligands. Despite the extensive use of docking protocols in virtual screening approaches, to date, almost any of these studies have been carried out without taking into account the presence of the sodium cation and its first solvation shell in the putative allosteric binding site. In this study, we have focused our attention on determining how the presence of sodium ion binding and additionally its first hydration sphere, in hA_2AAR could influence the ligand positioning accuracy during molecular docking simulations for most of the available resting and activated hA_2A AR crystal structures, using DockBench as a comparative benchmarking tool and implementing a new correlation coefficient (EM). This work provides indications on the evidence that the posing performance (accuracy and/or precision) of the docking protocols in reproducing the crystallographic poses of different hA_2A AR antagonists is generally increased in the presence of the sodium cation and its first solvation shell, in agreement with experimental observations. Consequently, the inclusion of sodium ion and its first solvation shell should be considered in order to facilitate the selection of new potential ligands in all molecular docking-based virtual screening protocols that aim to find novel GPCRs antagonists and inverse agonists.

Allosteric Na+-binding site modulates CXCR4 activation

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control most cellular communications with the environment and are the largest protein family of drug targets. As strictly regulated molecular machines, profound comprehension of their activation mechanism is expected to significantly facilitate structure-based drug design. This study provides atomistic-level description of the activation dynamics of the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), a class A GPCR and important drug target. Using molecular dynamics and enhanced sampling, we demonstrate how mutations and protonation of conserved residues trigger activation through microswitches at the receptor core, while sodium ion - a known allosteric modulator - inhibits it. The findings point to a conserved mechanism of activation and the allosteric modulation by sodium in the chemokine receptor family. From the technical aspect, the enhanced sampling protocol effectively samples receptor conformational changes toward activation, and differentiates three variants of the receptor by their basal activity. This work provides structural basis and a powerful in silico tool for CXCR4 agonist design.

Allosteric sodium binding cavity in GPR3: a novel player in modulation of Aβ production

The orphan G-protein coupled receptor 3 (GPR3) belongs to class A G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and is highly expressed in central nervous system neurons. Among other functions, it is likely associated with neuron differentiation and maturation. Recently, GPR3 has also been linked to the production of Aβ peptides in neurons. Unfortunately, the lack of experimental structural information for this receptor hampers a deep characterization of its function. Here, using an in-silico and in-vitro combined approach, we describe, for the first time, structural characteristics of GPR3 receptor underlying its function: the agonist binding site and the allosteric sodium binding cavity. We identified and validated by alanine-scanning mutagenesis the role of three functionally relevant residues: Cys267^6.55, Phe120^3.36 and Asp^2.50. The latter, when mutated into alanine, completely abolished the constitutive and agonist-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity of GPR3 receptor by disrupting its sodium binding cavity. Interestingly, this is correlated with a decrease in Aβ production in a model cell line. Taken together, these results suggest an important role of the allosteric sodium binding site for GPR3 activity and open a possible avenue for the modulation of Aβ production in the Alzheimer’s Disease.