1
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Kim T, Hearn C, Heidari M. Efficacy of Recombinant Marek's Disease Virus Vaccine 301B/1 Expressing Membrane-Anchored Chicken Interleukin-15. Avian Dis 2024; 68:117-128. [PMID: 38885053 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-23-00068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Cytokines are co-administrated with vaccines or co-expressed in the vaccine virus genome to improve protective efficacy by stimulating immune responses. Using glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring by attachment to the target cytokine, we constructed recombinant Marek's disease virus (MDV) vaccine strain 301B/1 (v301B/1-rtg-IL-15) that expresses chicken interleukin-15 (IL-15) as the membrane-bound form at the cell surface. We evaluated the vaccine efficacy of v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 given as a bivalent Marek's disease (MD) vaccine in combination with turkey herpesvirus (HVT) against a very virulent plus MDV strain 648A challenge. The efficacy was compared with that of conventional bivalent MD vaccine, as a mixture with HVT plus parental v301B/1 or v301B/1-IL-15, which expresses a natural form of IL-15. The membrane-bound IL-15 expression did not interfere with the virus growth of recombinant v301B/1-rtg-IL-15. However, the MD incidence in birds vaccinated with v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 was higher than that of birds given the conventional bivalent MD vaccine containing parental v301B/1 virus, although the v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 vaccinated group showed increased natural killer cell activation at day 5 postvaccination, the same day as challenge. Overall, the protection of v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 was not improved from that of v301B/1 against very virulent plus MDV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taejoong Kim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605,
| | - Cari Hearn
- Avian Diseases and Oncology Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, East Lansing, MI 48823
| | - Mohammad Heidari
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
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2
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Daniels P, Cassoday S, Gupta K, Giurini E, Leifheit ME, Zloza A, Marzo AL. Intratumoral Influenza Vaccine Administration Attenuates Breast Cancer Growth and Restructures the Tumor Microenvironment through Sialic Acid Binding of Vaccine Hemagglutinin. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:225. [PMID: 38203396 PMCID: PMC10779129 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer continues to have a high disease burden worldwide and presents an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies to improve outcomes. The influenza vaccine offers a unique approach to enhance the anti-tumor immune response in patients with breast cancer. Our study explores the intratumoral use of the influenza vaccine in a triple-negative 4T1 mouse model of breast cancer. We show that the influenza vaccine attenuated tumor growth using a three-dose intratumoral regimen. More importantly, prior vaccination did not alter this improved anti-tumor response. Furthermore, we characterized the effect that the influenza vaccine has on the tumor microenvironment and the underlying mechanisms of action. We established that the vaccine facilitated favorable shifts in restructuring the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, we show that the vaccine's ability to bind sialic acid residues, which have been implicated in having oncogenic functions, emerged as a key mechanism of action. Influenza hemagglutinin demonstrated binding ability to breast cancer cells through sialic acid expression. When administered intratumorally, the influenza vaccine offers a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer patients by reshaping the tumor microenvironment and modestly suppressing tumor growth. Its interaction with sialic acids has implications for effective therapeutic application and future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preston Daniels
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (P.D.); (M.E.L.); (A.Z.)
| | - Stefanie Cassoday
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA;
| | - Kajal Gupta
- Department of Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (K.G.); (E.G.)
| | - Eileena Giurini
- Department of Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (K.G.); (E.G.)
| | - Malia E. Leifheit
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (P.D.); (M.E.L.); (A.Z.)
| | - Andrew Zloza
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (P.D.); (M.E.L.); (A.Z.)
| | - Amanda L. Marzo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (P.D.); (M.E.L.); (A.Z.)
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3
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Meissner R, Wixler V, Wulfert FP, Jacob JC, Hale BG, Robeck T, Masemann D, Boergeling Y, Ludwig S. Replication-incompetent influenza A viruses armed with IFN-γ effectively mediate immune modulation and tumor destruction in mice harboring lung cancer. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2023; 31:100741. [PMID: 38020062 PMCID: PMC10679949 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2023.100741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Low pathogenic influenza A viruses (IAVs) have shown promising oncolytic potential in lung cancer-bearing mice. However, as replication-competent pathogens, they may cause side effects in immunocompromised cancer patients. To circumvent this problem, we genetically engineered nonreplicating IAVs lacking the hemagglutinin (HA) gene (ΔHA IAVs), but reconstituted the viral envelope with recombinant HA proteins to allow a single infection cycle. To optimize the therapeutic potential and improve immunomodulatory properties, these replication-incompetent IAVs were complemented with a murine interferon-gamma (mIFN-γ) gene. After intratracheal administration to transgenic mice that develop non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the ΔHA IAVs induced potent tumor destruction. However, ΔHA IAVs armed with mIFN-γ exhibited an even stronger and more sustained effect, achieving 85% tumor reduction at day 12 postinfection. In addition, ΔHA-mIFN-γ viruses were proven to be efficient in recruiting and activating natural killer cells and macrophages from the periphery and in inducing cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Most important, both viruses, and particularly IFN-γ-encoding viruses, activated tumor-associated alveolar macrophages toward a proinflammatory M1-like phenotype. Therefore, replication-incompetent ΔHA-mIFN-γ-IAVs are safe and efficient oncolytic viruses that additionally exhibit immune cell activating properties and thus represent a promising innovative therapeutic option in the fight against NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramona Meissner
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Viktor Wixler
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Franziska Paulina Wulfert
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Jasmin Carina Jacob
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Benjamin G. Hale
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Robeck
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Dörthe Masemann
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Yvonne Boergeling
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Stephan Ludwig
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Centre for Molecular Biology of Inflammation, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, Westfaelische Wilhelms University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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4
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Ogasawara S. Replication-competent influenza virus with a protein-responsive multiplication ability. N Biotechnol 2023; 77:100-110. [PMID: 37586547 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Applications of influenza A viruses (IAV) for virotherapy and biotechnology have accelerated substantially with the development of reverse genetic technology and advances in the understanding of packaging signals. While the use of a replication-competent IAV is particularly promising, owing to its efficient transmission to organ depths with high infectivity, there is also a risk that its multiplication cannot be controlled in a cell-type-specific manner, causing an infectious disease. Therefore, here a simple and effective replication-competent IAV-based cell-targeting system has been developed. It was demonstrated that the activity of the ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP) of IAV could be regulated by the interaction between the endogenous protein and a nanobody fused to the subunit of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). To validate the feasibility of the method, it was demonstrated that RNP containing RdRp fused with Nb139, a nanobody against p53, is inactive in HEK293T cells expressing endogenous p53, but active in p53-defective Saos-2 cells. Finally, a replication-competent IAV was successfully generated that multiplies only in p53-defective tumor cells and an IAV vector was developed that can deliver a foreign gene in cell type-specific manner. The method is flexible because the nanobody can be easily altered to target a different cell type, offering a valuable platform for virotherapy and biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinzi Ogasawara
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto, Nagano 390-8621, Japan.
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5
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Hamdan F, Fusciello M, Cerullo V. Personalizing Oncolytic Virotherapy. Hum Gene Ther 2023; 34:870-877. [PMID: 37698876 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2023.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of oncolytic viruses has become an attractive tool in the clinics for the treatment of various tumor types. Such viruses are genetically modified to conditionally replicate in malignant cells while unharming healthy cells. This platform offers a highly specific tumor killing with exceptional safety profiles. However, the use of oncolytic viruses as sole oncolytic platforms has not achieved full tumor clearance in murine models and in the clinics. In fact, the formation of anti-tumor immune responses is attributed to the effectiveness of oncolytic viruses. In this review, we will discuss the various strategies that scientists have employed to enhance the anti-tumor immune responses driven by oncolytic viruses. Moreover, focus will be drawn into personalizing such anti-tumor responses by the addition of tumor-associated peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas Hamdan
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Drug Delivery, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Manlio Fusciello
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Drug Delivery, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vincenzo Cerullo
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Drug Delivery, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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6
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You L, Liu Y, Chen N, Zhu L, Xu G, Lv Z, Zhou Y, Li C, Tong H, Jin J, Meng H. Influenza A (H1N1) virus induced long-term remission in a refractory acute myeloid leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2023; 202:745-748. [PMID: 37230766 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.18876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
There have been reports of haematological cancer patients achieving spontaneous remission after being infected with the influenza A or SARS-COV-2 virus. Here, we present the first case of long-term complete remission (CR) induced by influenza A (IAV, H1N1 subtype) in a refractory AML patient and have functionally validated this finding in two different animal disease models. We observed a significant increase in the proportion of helper T cells in the patient after IAV infection. The levels of cytokines, including IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, IFN-γ and TNF-α, were higher in IAV-infected patients compared with control groups. These findings indicate that the anti-tumour effects induced by IAV are closely related to the modification of the immune response. Our study provides new evidence of the anti-tumour effects of IAV from a clinical practice perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangshun You
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Yi Liu
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Nianci Chen
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Li Zhu
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Gaixiang Xu
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Zuopo Lv
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Yile Zhou
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Chenying Li
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Hongyan Tong
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Jie Jin
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Haitao Meng
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Hematopoietic Malignancy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Hematological Disorders, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
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7
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Miladinovic M, Klusmann JH. Influenza A (H1N1) virus induced long-term remission in a refractory acute myeloid leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2023; 202:713-714. [PMID: 37423608 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.18911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
You et al. present an extraordinary case of a refractory acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) patient who achieved long-term complete remission after infection with Influenza A. Using mouse models, the researchers examined the underlying immunological mechanisms and discovered a decrease in leukaemia proliferation and improved survival in Influenza-A virus-infected mice. These results indicate the potential therapeutic relevance of Influenza A in the treatment of haematological cancers. Commentary on: You et al. Influenza A (H1N1) virus induced long-term remission in a refractory acute myeloid leukemia. Br J Haematol 2023;202:745-748.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Miladinovic
- Department of Pediatrics, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan-Henning Klusmann
- Department of Pediatrics, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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8
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Wang S, Liang B, Wang W, Li L, Feng N, Zhao Y, Wang T, Yan F, Yang S, Xia X. Viral vectored vaccines: design, development, preventive and therapeutic applications in human diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:149. [PMID: 37029123 PMCID: PMC10081433 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01408-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human diseases, particularly infectious diseases and cancers, pose unprecedented challenges to public health security and the global economy. The development and distribution of novel prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines are the prioritized countermeasures of human disease. Among all vaccine platforms, viral vector vaccines offer distinguished advantages and represent prominent choices for pathogens that have hampered control efforts based on conventional vaccine approaches. Currently, viral vector vaccines remain one of the best strategies for induction of robust humoral and cellular immunity against human diseases. Numerous viruses of different families and origins, including vesicular stomatitis virus, rabies virus, parainfluenza virus, measles virus, Newcastle disease virus, influenza virus, adenovirus and poxvirus, are deemed to be prominent viral vectors that differ in structural characteristics, design strategy, antigen presentation capability, immunogenicity and protective efficacy. This review summarized the overall profile of the design strategies, progress in advance and steps taken to address barriers to the deployment of these viral vector vaccines, simultaneously highlighting their potential for mucosal delivery, therapeutic application in cancer as well as other key aspects concerning the rational application of these viral vector vaccines. Appropriate and accurate technological advances in viral vector vaccines would consolidate their position as a leading approach to accelerate breakthroughs in novel vaccines and facilitate a rapid response to public health emergencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Bo Liang
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Weiqi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ling Li
- China National Research Center for Exotic Animal Diseases, China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - Na Feng
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Yongkun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Tiecheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Feihu Yan
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China.
| | - Songtao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China.
| | - Xianzhu Xia
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, China.
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9
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Huang Z, Guo H, Lin L, Li S, Yang Y, Han Y, Huang W, Yang J. Application of oncolytic virus in tumor therapy. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28729. [PMID: 37185868 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) can selectively kill tumor cells without affecting normal cells, as well as activate the innate and adaptive immune systems in patients. Thus, they have been considered as a promising measure for safe and effective cancer treatment. Recently, a few genetically engineered OVs have been developed to further improve the effect of tumor elimination by expressing specific immune regulatory factors and thus enhance the body's antitumor immunity. In addition, the combined therapies of OVs and other immunotherapies have been applied in clinical. Although there are many studies on this hot topic, a comprehensive review is missing on illustrating the mechanisms of tumor clearance by OVs and how to modify engineered OVs to further enhance their antitumor effects. In this study, we provided a review on the mechanisms of immune regulatory factors in OVs. In addition, we reviewed the combined therapies of OVs with other therapies including radiotherapy and CAR-T or TCR-T cell therapy. The review is useful in further generalize the usage of OV in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijian Huang
- Department of Breast Surgical Oncology, Clinical Oncology School of Fujian Medical University, Fujian Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Hongen Guo
- Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Hospital of Fuzhou, Fujian, Fuzhou, China
| | - Lin Lin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Clinical Oncology School of Fujian Medical University, Fujian Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Shixiong Li
- Department of Breast Surgical Oncology, Clinical Oncology School of Fujian Medical University, Fujian Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yong Yang
- Department of Liver Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Han
- Center of Tree Shrew Germplasm Resources, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China
| | - Weiwei Huang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Clinical Oncology School of Fujian Medical University, Fujian Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jialiang Yang
- Geneis Beijing Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
- Academician Workstation, Changsha Medical University, Changsha, China
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10
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Koellhoffer EC, Steinmetz NF. Cowpea Mosaic Virus and Natural Killer Cell Agonism for In Situ Cancer Vaccination. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:5348-5356. [PMID: 35713326 PMCID: PMC9665426 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We have previously shown the plant virus Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) to be an efficacious in situ cancer vaccine, providing elimination of tumors and tumor-specific immune memory. Additionally, we have shown that CPMV recruits Natural Killer (NK) cells within the tumor microenvironment. Here we aimed to determine whether a combination of CPMV and anti-4-1BB monoclonal antibody agonist to stimulate tumor-resident and CPMV-recruited NK cells is an effective dual therapy approach to improve NK cell function and in situ cancer vaccination efficacy. Using murine models of metastatic colon carcinomatosis and intradermal melanoma, intratumorally administered CPMV + anti-4-1BB dual therapy provided a robust antitumor response, improved elimination of primary tumors, and reduced mortality compared to CPMV and anti-4-1BB monotherapies. Additionally, on tumor rechallenge there was significant delay/prevention of tumor development and improved survival, highlighting that the CPMV + anti-4-1BB dual therapy enables potent and durable antitumor efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Koellhoffer
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Institute for Materials Design and Discovery, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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11
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Petricevic B, Kabiljo J, Zirnbauer R, Walczak H, Laengle J, Bergmann M. Neoadjuvant Immunotherapy in Gastrointestinal Cancers - The New Standard of Care? Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:834-850. [PMID: 35671877 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2022.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The development of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) offers novel treatment possibilities for solid cancers, with the crucial benefit of providing higher cure rates. These agents have become part of standard treatments in the metastatic and adjuvant setting for select cancers, such as melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) or urological malignancies. Currently, there is ample clinical interest in employing ICI in a neoadjuvant setting with a curative intent. This approach is especially supported by the scientific rationale that ICI primarily stimulate the host immune system to eradicate tumor cells, rather than being inherently cytotoxic. Aside from tumor downstaging, neoadjuvant immunotherapy offers the potential of an in situ cancer vaccination, leading to a systemic adjuvant immunological effect after tumor resection. Moreover, preclinical data clearly demonstrate a synergistic effect of ICI with radiotherapy (RT), chemoradiotherapy (CRT) or chemotherapy (ChT). This review harmonizes preclinical concepts with real world data (RWD) in the field of neoadjuvant ICI in gastrointestinal (GI) cancers and discusses their limitations. We believe this is a crucial approach, since up to now, neoadjuvant strategies have been primarily developed by clinicians, whereas the advances in immunotherapy primarily originate from preclinical research. Currently there is limited published data on neoadjuvant ICI in GI cancers, even though neoadjuvant treatments including RT, CRT or ChT are frequently employed in locally advanced/oligometastatic GI cancers (i.e. rectal, pancreatic, esophagus, stomach, etc.). Utilizing established therapies in combination with ICI provides an abundance of opportunities for innovative treatment regimens to further improve survival rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branka Petricevic
- Division of Visceral Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julijan Kabiljo
- Division of Visceral Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Applied Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rebecca Zirnbauer
- Division of Visceral Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Henning Walczak
- Institute for Biochemistry I, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Centre for Cell Death, Cancer, and Inflammation (CCCI), UCL Cancer Institute, University College, London, WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Johannes Laengle
- Division of Visceral Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Applied Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Michael Bergmann
- Division of Visceral Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Applied Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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12
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Tracking fluorescently labeled IL-15 and anti-PD-1 in the tumor microenvironment and draining lymph nodes. J Immunol Methods 2022; 505:113253. [PMID: 35358495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2022.113253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the dynamics of the tumor microenvironment (TME) has become vital in discovering new targets for effective immunotherapies and enhancing current treatments. However, localization and distribution of immune cells and treatment biomolecules are poorly characterized to date. In this study, a murine Luminal B mammary adenocarcinoma model received a combinatorial treatment of fluorescently labeled anti-PD-1-Cy3 and IL-15 complex-Cy5 injected interperitoneally and intratumorally, respectively. Fluorescent labeling allowed for the visualization of the distribution of IL-15 complexes and anti-PD-1, as well as their localization to immune cells in the TME and tumor-draining lymph node. Using fluorescent microscopy and light sheet microscopy of whole-clarified tumors and draining lymph nodes, the localization of IL-15 complexes was found to be distributed around the periphery of the tumor at 4 h post injection and medially located at the center of the tumor at 24 h post injection, corresponding with high densities of CD8 cells in the tumor present at 48 h and 72 h post injection. Anti-PD-1 was distributed around the perimeter of the tumor and colocalized to IL-15 in the draining lymph nodes 24 h post injection. Colocalization of IL-15 was also established with NK cells, CD8+ T cells, and macrophages. This study develops a novel method to spatiotemporally track fluorescently labeled immunotherapeutic biomolecules in vivo, with implications for optimizing and further understanding the pharmacokinetics of clinical immunotherapies.
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13
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Peng Y, Fu S, Zhao Q. 2022 update on the scientific premise and clinical trials for IL-15 agonists as cancer immunotherapy. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 112:823-834. [PMID: 35616357 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.5mr0422-506r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse cytokines and their receptors on immune cells constitute a highly complex network in the immune system. Some therapeutic cytokines and their derivatives have been approved for cancer treatment. IL-15 is an immune-regulating cytokine with multiple functions, among which the function of activating the immunity of cancer patients has great potential in cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we introduce the functions of IL-15 and discuss its role in regulating the immune system in different immune cells. Meanwhile, we will address the applications of IL-15 agonists in cancer immunotherapy and provide prospects for the next generation of therapeutic designs. Although many challenges remain, IL-15 agonists offer a new therapeutic option in the future direction of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjun Peng
- Cancer Centre, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Shengyu Fu
- Cancer Centre, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Cancer Centre, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China.,MoE Frontiers Science Center for Precision Oncology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China
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14
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Tian Y, Xie D, Yang L. Engineering strategies to enhance oncolytic viruses in cancer immunotherapy. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:117. [PMID: 35387984 PMCID: PMC8987060 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-00951-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are emerging as potentially useful platforms in treatment methods for patients with tumors. They preferentially target and kill tumor cells, leaving healthy cells unharmed. In addition to direct oncolysis, the essential and attractive aspect of oncolytic virotherapy is based on the intrinsic induction of both innate and adaptive immune responses. To further augment this efficacious response, OVs have been genetically engineered to express immune regulators that enhance or restore antitumor immunity. Recently, combinations of OVs with other immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), antigen-specific T-cell receptors (TCRs) and autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), have led to promising progress in cancer treatment. This review summarizes the intrinsic mechanisms of OVs, describes the optimization strategies for using armed OVs to enhance the effects of antitumor immunity and highlights rational combinations of OVs with other immunotherapies in recent preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaomei Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Section 3, South Renmin Road, 610041, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,College of Bioengineering, Sichuan University of Science & Engineering, No. 519, Huixing Road, 643000, Zigong, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Daoyuan Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Section 3, South Renmin Road, 610041, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 17, Section 3, South Renmin Road, 610041, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
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15
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Kim T, Hearn C. Vaccinal Efficacy of Recombinant Marek's Disease Vaccine 301B/1 Expressing Chicken Interleukin-15. Avian Dis 2022; 66:79-84. [DOI: 10.1637/21-00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taejoong Kim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Cari Hearn
- Avian Diseases and Oncology Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 4279 E. Mt. Hope Road, East Lansing, MI 48823
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16
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Boagni DA, Ravirala D, Zhang SX. Current strategies in engaging oncolytic viruses with antitumor immunity. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2021; 22:98-113. [PMID: 34514092 PMCID: PMC8411207 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy has produced promising yet limited results in preclinical and clinical studies. Besides direct oncolytic activity, a significant therapeutic mechanism of oncolytic virotherapy is the induction of tumor-specific immunity. Consequently, the efficacy of oncolytic viruses can be improved by the insertion of immune stimulator genes and rational combinatorial therapy with other immunotherapies. This article reviews recent efforts on arming oncolytic viruses with a variety of immune stimulator molecules, immune cell engagers, and other immune potentiating molecules. We outline what is known about the mechanisms of action and the corresponding results. The review also discusses recent preclinical and clinical studies of combining oncolytic virotherapy with immune-checkpoint inhibitors and the role of oncolytic virotherapy in changing the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Ashton Boagni
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Divya Ravirala
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Shaun Xiaoliu Zhang
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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17
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Lei GL, Wang LP, Dong SH, Sun F, Cheng JX, Yang XL, Zhang SG, Wang XL, Wang XX, Yang PH. A recombinant influenza virus with a CTLA4-specific scFv inhibits tumor growth in a mouse model. Cell Biol Int 2021; 45:1202-1210. [PMID: 33501754 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OV) have shown excellent safety and efficacy in preclinical and clinical studies. Influenza A virus (IAV) is considered a promising oncolytic virus. In this report, we generated a recombinant influenza virus expressing an immune checkpoint blockade agent targeting CTLA4. Using reverse genetics, a recombinant influenza virus, termed rFlu-CTLA4, encoding the heavy chain of a CTLA4 antibody on the PB1 segment and the light chain of the CTLA4 antibody on the PA segment was produced. RFlu-CTLA4 could replicate to high titers, and antibodies were produced in the allantoic fluid of infected eggs. Furthermore, the selective cytotoxicity of the virus was higher in various hepatocellular carcinoma cancer cell lines than in the normal cell line L02 in vitro, as indicated by MTS assays. More importantly, in a subcutaneous H22 mouse hepatocarcinoma model, intratumoral injections of rFlu-CTLA4 inhibited the growth of treated tumors and increased the overall survival of mice compared with injections of the PR8 virus. Taken together, these results warrant further exploration of this novel recombinant influenza virus for its potential use as a single or combination agent for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Lin Lei
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Li-Peng Wang
- 66400 Military Hospital, Beijing, China.,First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Suo-Hua Dong
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Sun
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Xia Cheng
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Lan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogens and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Shao-Geng Zhang
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xi-Liang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogens and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Xin-Xin Wang
- First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Peng-Hui Yang
- Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
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18
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Jin KT, Du WL, Liu YY, Lan HR, Si JX, Mou XZ. Oncolytic Virotherapy in Solid Tumors: The Challenges and Achievements. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040588. [PMID: 33546172 PMCID: PMC7913179 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) is a promising approach in cancer immunotherapy. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) could be applied in cancer immunotherapy without in-depth knowledge of tumor antigens. The capability of genetic modification makes OVs exciting therapeutic tools with a high potential for manipulation. Improving efficacy, employing immunostimulatory elements, changing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) to inflammatory TME, optimizing their delivery system, and increasing the safety are the main areas of OVs manipulations. Recently, the reciprocal interaction of OVs and TME has become a hot topic for investigators to enhance the efficacy of OVT with less off-target adverse events. Current investigations suggest that the main application of OVT is to provoke the antitumor immune response in the TME, which synergize the effects of other immunotherapies such as immune-checkpoint blockers and adoptive cell therapy. In this review, we focused on the effects of OVs on the TME and antitumor immune responses. Furthermore, OVT challenges, including its moderate efficiency, safety concerns, and delivery strategies, along with recent achievements to overcome challenges, are thoroughly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Tao Jin
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua 321000, China; (K.-T.J.); (Y.-Y.L.)
| | - Wen-Lin Du
- Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital, People’s Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China;
- Clinical Research Institute, Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital, People’s Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yu-Yao Liu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua 321000, China; (K.-T.J.); (Y.-Y.L.)
| | - Huan-Rong Lan
- Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua 321000, China;
| | - Jing-Xing Si
- Clinical Research Institute, Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital, People’s Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
- Correspondence: (J.-X.S.); (X.-Z.M.); Tel./Fax: +86-571-85893781 (J.-X.S.); +86-571-85893985 (X.-Z.M.)
| | - Xiao-Zhou Mou
- Clinical Research Institute, Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital, People’s Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, China
- Correspondence: (J.-X.S.); (X.-Z.M.); Tel./Fax: +86-571-85893781 (J.-X.S.); +86-571-85893985 (X.-Z.M.)
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19
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Development and application of reverse genetic technology for the influenza virus. Virus Genes 2021; 57:151-163. [PMID: 33528730 PMCID: PMC7851324 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-020-01822-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Influenza virus is a common virus in people's daily lives, and it has certain infectivity in humans and animals. Influenza viruses have the characteristics of a high mutation rate and wide distribution. Reverse genetic technology is primarily used to modify viruses at the DNA level through targeted modification of the virus cDNA. Genetically modified influenza viruses have a unique advantage when researching the transmission and pathogenicity of influenza. With the continuous development of oncolytic viruses in recent years, studies have found that influenza viruses also have certain oncolytic activity. Influenza viruses can specifically recognize tumor cells; activate cytotoxic T cells, NK cells, dendritic cells, etc.; and stimulate the body to produce an immune response, thereby killing tumor cells. This article will review the development and application of influenza virus reverse genetic technology.
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20
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Abstract
Tumors represent a hostile environment for the effector cells of cancer immunosurveillance. Immunosuppressive receptors and soluble or membrane-bound ligands are abundantly exposed and released by malignant entities and their stromal accomplices. As a consequence, executioners of antitumor immunity inefficiently navigate across cancer tissues and fail to eliminate malignant targets. By inducing immunogenic cancer cell death, oncolytic viruses profoundly reshape the tumor microenvironment. They trigger the local spread of danger signals and tumor-associated (as well as viral) antigens, thus attracting antigen-presenting cells, promoting the activation and expansion of lymphocytic populations, facilitating their infiltration in the tumor bed, and reinvigorating cytotoxic immune activity. The present review recapitulates key chemokines, growth factors and other cytokines that orchestrate this ballet of antitumoral leukocytes upon oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Pol
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, INSERM, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Villejuif, France.
| | - Samuel T Workenhe
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Prathyusha Konda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Shashi Gujar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada; Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, INSERM, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Villejuif, France; Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France; Suzhou Institute for Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Suzhou, China; Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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21
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Marotel M, Hasim MS, Hagerman A, Ardolino M. The two-faces of NK cells in oncolytic virotherapy. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2020; 56:59-68. [PMID: 32586674 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are immunotherapeutics capable of directly killing cancer cells and with potent immunostimulatory properties. OVs exert their antitumor effect, at least partially, by activating the antitumor immune response, of which NK cells are an important component. However, if on the one hand increasing evidence revealed that NK cells are important mediators of oncolytic virotherapy, on the other hand, NK cells have evolved to fight viral infections, and therefore they can have a detrimental effect for the efficacy of OVs. In this review, we will discuss the dichotomy between the antitumor and antiviral functions of NK cells related to oncolytic virotherapy. We will also review NK cell-based and OV-based therapies, engineered OVs aimed at enhancing immune stimulation, and combination therapies involving OVs and NK cells currently used in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marotel
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - M S Hasim
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - A Hagerman
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada; University of Ottawa, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Ottawa, Canada
| | - M Ardolino
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa, Canada; Centre for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada; University of Ottawa, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Ottawa, Canada.
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22
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Kabiljo J, Laengle J, Bergmann M. From threat to cure: understanding of virus-induced cell death leads to highly immunogenic oncolytic influenza viruses. Cell Death Discov 2020; 6:48. [PMID: 32542113 PMCID: PMC7288254 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-020-0284-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses constitute an emerging strategy in immunomodulatory cancer treatment. The first oncolytic virus, Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), based on herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) in 2015. The field of oncolytic virotherapy is still in its beginnings, since many promising viruses remain only superficially explored. Influenza A virus causes a highly immunogenic acute infection but never leads to a chronic disease. While oncolytic influenza A viruses are in preclinical development, they have not made the transition into clinical practice yet. Recent insights into different types of cell death caused by influenza A virus infection illuminate novel possibilities of enhancing its therapeutic effect. Genetic engineering and experience in influenza A virus vaccine development allow safe application of the virus in patients. In this review we give a summary of efforts undertaken to develop oncolytic influenza A viruses. We discuss strategies for targeting viral replication to cancerous lesions and arming them with immunogenic transgenes. We furthermore describe which modes of cell death are induced by influenza A virus infection and how these insights may be utilized to optimize influenza A virus-based oncolytic virus design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julijan Kabiljo
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Laengle
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Applied Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Bergmann
- Division of General Surgery, Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Applied Diagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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23
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Development of oncolytic virotherapy: from genetic modification to combination therapy. Front Med 2020; 14:160-184. [PMID: 32146606 PMCID: PMC7101593 DOI: 10.1007/s11684-020-0750-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) is a novel form of immunotherapy using natural or genetically modified viruses to selectively replicate in and kill malignant cells. Many genetically modified oncolytic viruses (OVs) with enhanced tumor targeting, antitumor efficacy, and safety have been generated, and some of which have been assessed in clinical trials. Combining OVT with other immunotherapies can remarkably enhance the antitumor efficacy. In this work, we review the use of wild-type viruses in OVT and the strategies for OV genetic modification. We also review and discuss the combinations of OVT with other immunotherapies.
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24
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Ylösmäki E, Cerullo V. Design and application of oncolytic viruses for cancer immunotherapy. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2019; 65:25-36. [PMID: 31874424 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2019.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The approval of the first oncolytic virus (OV) for the treatment of metastatic melanoma and the recent discovery that the use of oncolytic viruses may enhance cancer immunotherapies targeted against various immune checkpoint proteins have attracted great interest in the field of cancer virotherapy. OVs are designed to target and kill cancer cells leaving normal cell unharmed. OV infection and concomitant cancer cell killing stimulate anti-tumour immunity and modulates tumour microenvironment towards less immunosuppressive phenotype. The intrinsic capacity of OVs to turn immunologically cold tumours into immunologically hot tumours, and to increase immune cell and cytokine infiltration, can be further enhanced by arming OVs with transgenes that increase their immunostimulatory activities and direct immune responses specifically towards cancer cells. These OVs, specifically engineered to be used as cancer immunotherapeutics, can be synergized with other immune modulators or cytotoxic agents to achieve the most potent immunotherapy for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erkko Ylösmäki
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Vincenzo Cerullo
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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25
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A Recombinant Antibody-Expressing Influenza Virus Delays Tumor Growth in a Mouse Model. Cell Rep 2019; 22:1-7. [PMID: 29298413 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) has shown promise as an oncolytic agent. To improve IAV as an oncolytic virus, we sought to design a transgenic virus expressing an immune checkpoint-inhibiting antibody during the viral life cycle. To test whether it was possible to express an antibody during infection, an influenza virus was constructed encoding the heavy chain of an antibody on the PB1 segment and the light chain of an antibody on the PA segment. This antibody-expressing IAV grows to high titers, and the antibodies secreted from infected cells exhibit comparable functionality with hybridoma-produced antibodies. To enhance the anti-cancer activity of IAV, an influenza virus was engineered to express a single-chain antibody antagonizing the immune checkpoint CTLA4 (IAV-CTLA4). In mice implanted with the aggressive B16-F10 melanoma, intratumoral injection with IAV-CTLA4 delayed the growth of treated tumors, mediated an abscopal effect, and increased overall survival.
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Pearl TM, Markert JM, Cassady KA, Ghonime MG. Oncolytic Virus-Based Cytokine Expression to Improve Immune Activity in Brain and Solid Tumors. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2019; 13:14-21. [PMID: 30997392 PMCID: PMC6453942 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viral therapy has gained significant traction as cancer therapy over the past 2 decades. Oncolytic viruses are uniquely designed both to lyse tumor cells through their replication and to recruit immune responses against virally infected cells. Increasingly, investigators are leveraging this immune response to target the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and improve immune effector response against bystander tumor cells. In this article, we review the spectrum of preclinical, early-stage clinical, and potential future efforts with cytokine-secreting oncolytic viruses, with a focus on the treatment of brain tumors and solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor M. Pearl
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - James M. Markert
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Kevin A. Cassady
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
- Corresponding author: Kevin A. Cassady, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA.
| | - Mohammed G. Ghonime
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
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MUW researcher of the month. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00508-019-1477-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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28
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Pol JG, Lévesque S, Workenhe ST, Gujar S, Le Boeuf F, Clements DR, Fahrner JE, Fend L, Bell JC, Mossman KL, Fucikova J, Spisek R, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial Watch: Oncolytic viro-immunotherapy of hematologic and solid tumors. Oncoimmunology 2018; 7:e1503032. [PMID: 30524901 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1503032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses selectively target and kill cancer cells in an immunogenic fashion, thus supporting the establishment of therapeutically relevant tumor-specific immune responses. In 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the oncolytic herpes simplex virus T-VEC for use in advanced melanoma patients. Since then, a plethora of trials has been initiated to assess the safety and efficacy of multiple oncolytic viruses in patients affected with various malignancies. Here, we summarize recent preclinical and clinical progress in the field of oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Pol
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Sarah Lévesque
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Samuel T Workenhe
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Shashi Gujar
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Health Sciences Research, Quality and System Performance, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Fabrice Le Boeuf
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Derek R Clements
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Jean-Eudes Fahrner
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Villejuif, France.,Transgene S.A., Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
| | | | - John C Bell
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Karen L Mossman
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jitka Fucikova
- Sotio a.c., Prague, Czech Republic.,Department of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Spisek
- Sotio a.c., Prague, Czech Republic.,Department of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Villejuif, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France.,Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France.,Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.,Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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29
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de Graaf JF, de Vor L, Fouchier RAM, van den Hoogen BG. Armed oncolytic viruses: A kick-start for anti-tumor immunity. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2018; 41:28-39. [PMID: 29576283 PMCID: PMC7108398 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2018.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs), viruses that specifically result in killing tumor cells, represent a promising class of cancer therapy. Recently, the focus in the OV therapy field has shifted from their direct oncolytic effect to their immune stimulatory effect. OV therapy can function as a "kick start" for the antitumor immune response by releasing tumor associated antigens and release of inflammatory signals. Combining OVs with immune modulators could enhance the efficacy of both immune and OV therapies. Additionally, genetic engineering of OVs allows local expression of immune therapeutics, thereby reducing related toxicities. Different options to modify the tumor microenvironment in combination with OV therapy have been explored. The possibilities and obstacles of these combinations will be discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F de Graaf
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - L de Vor
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - R A M Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
A group of impressive immunotherapies for cancer treatment, including immune checkpoint-blocking antibodies, gene therapy and immune cell adoptive cellular immunotherapy, have been established, providing new weapons to fight cancer. Natural killer (NK) cells are a component of the first line of defense against tumors and virus infections. Studies have shown dysfunctional NK cells in patients with cancer. Thus, restoring NK cell antitumor functionality could be a promising therapeutic strategy. NK cells that are activated and expanded ex vivo can supplement malfunctional NK cells in tumor patients. Therapeutic antibodies, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR), or bispecific proteins can all retarget NK cells precisely to tumor cells. Therapeutic antibody blockade of the immune checkpoints of NK cells has been suggested to overcome the immunosuppressive signals delivered to NK cells. Oncolytic virotherapy provokes antitumor activity of NK cells by triggering antiviral immune responses. Herein, we review the current immunotherapeutic approaches employed to restore NK cell antitumor functionality for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangxi Li
- Institute of Immunology and the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Rui Sun
- Institute of Immunology and the CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
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31
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Turbocharging vaccines: emerging adjuvants for dendritic cell based therapeutic cancer vaccines. Curr Opin Immunol 2017; 47:35-43. [PMID: 28732279 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Development of therapeutic cancer vaccines has been hindered by the many pro-tumorigenic mechanisms at play in cancer patients that serve to suppress both antigen presenting cells and T cells. In face of these obstacles, cancer vaccines are most likely to promote anti-tumorigenic immune responses only when formulated with strong adjuvants, and in combination with new immune interventions designed to reverse immune suppression and exhaustion of T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Dendritic cells (DCs) are often termed 'nature's adjuvant' due to their exceptional capacity for initiating both innate and adaptive immune responses. Hence, the past decade has witnessed a flurry of activity in testing DC based immunotherapies for cancer intervention. In this review we will discuss advances in conventional adjuvants and provide insight into new adjuvants as they pertain to DC cancer therapy.
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