Gallbladder cancer: past, present and an uncertain future

Research advancements on the involvement of E3 ubiquitin ligase UBR5 in gastrointestinal cancers

E3 ubiquitin ligases comprise a family of ubiquitination-catalyzing enzymes that have been extensively researched and are considered crucial components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system involved in various diseases. The ubiquitin-protein ligase E3 component n-recognition 5 (UBR5) is an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase that has garnered considerable interest of late. Recent studies demonstrate that UBR5 undergoes high-frequency mutations, chromosomal amplification, and/or abnormalities during expression of various malignant tumors. These alterations correlate with the biological behaviors and prognoses of malignancies, such as tumor invasion, metastasis, and resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. This study aimed to comprehensively elucidate the biological functions of UBR5, and its role and relevance in the context of gastrointestinal cancers. Furthermore, this article expounds a scientific basis to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying gastrointestinal cancers and developing targeted therapeutic strategies for their remediation.

RNA sequencing revealed the multi-stage transcriptome transformations during the development of gallbladder cancer associated with chronic inflammation

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a highly malignant tumor with extremely poor prognosis. Previous studies have suggested that the carcinogenesis and progression of GBC is a multi-stage and multi-step process, but most of them focused on the genome changes. And a few studies just compared the transcriptome differences between tumor tissues and adjacent noncancerous tissues. The transcriptome changes, relating to every stage of GBC evolution, have rarely been studied. We selected three cases of normal gallbladder, four cases of gallbladder with chronic inflammation induced by gallstones, five cases of early GBC, and five cases of advanced GBC, using next-generation RNA sequencing to reveal the changes in mRNAs and lncRNAs expression during the evolution of GBC. In-depth analysis of the sequencing data indicated that transcriptome changes from normal gallbladder to gallbladder with chronic inflammation were distinctly related to inflammation, lipid metabolism, and sex hormone metabolism; transcriptome changes from gallbladder with chronic inflammation to early GBC were distinctly related to immune activities and connection between cells; and the transcriptome changes from early GBC to advanced GBC were distinctly related to transmembrane transport of substances and migration of cells. Expression profiles of mRNAs and lncRNAs change significantly during the evolution of GBC, in which lipid-based metabolic abnormalities play an important promotive role, inflammation and immune activities play a key role, and membrane proteins are very highlighted molecular changes.

Risk factor analysis and construction of prediction models of gallbladder carcinoma in patients with gallstones

Background

Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is a biliary tract tumor with a high mortality rate. The objectives of this study were to explore the risk factors of GBC in patients with gallstones and to establish effective screening indicators.

Methods

A total of 588 patients from medical centers in two different regions of China were included in this study and defined as the internal test samples and the external validation samples, respectively. We retrospectively reviewed the differences in clinicopathologic data of the internal test samples to find the independent risk factors that affect the occurrence of GBC. Then, we constructed three different combined predictive factors (CPFs) through the weighting method, integral system, and nomogram, respectively, and named them CPF-A, CPF-B, and CPF-C sequentially. Furthermore, we evaluated these indicators through calibration and DCA curves. The ROC curve was used to analyze their diagnostic efficiency. Finally, their diagnostic capabilities were validated in the external validation samples.

Results

In the internal test samples, the results showed that five factors, namely, age (RR = 3.077, 95% CI: 1.731-5.496), size of gallstones (RR = 13.732, 95% CI: 5.937-31.762), course of gallstones (RR = 2.438, 95% CI: 1.350-4.403), CEA (RR = 9.464, 95% CI: 3.394-26.392), and CA199 (RR = 9.605, 95% CI: 4.512-20.446), were independent risk factors for GBC in patients with gallstones. Then, we established three predictive indicators: CPF-A, CPF-B, and CPF-C. These models were further validated using bootstrapping with 1,000 repetitions. Calibration and decision curve analysis showed that the three models fit well. Meanwhile, multivariate analysis showed that CPF-B and CPF-C were independent risk factors for GBC in patients with gallstones. In addition, the validation results of the external validation samples are essentially consistent with the internal test samples.

Conclusion

Age (≤58.5 vs. >58.5 years), size of gallstones (≤1.95 vs. >1.95cm), course of gallstones (≤10 vs. >10 years), CEA (≤5 vs. >5 ng/ml), and CA199 (≤37 vs. >37 U/ml) are independent risk factors for GBC in patients with gallstones. When positive indicators were ≥2 among the five independent risk factors or the score of the nomogram was >82.64, the risk of GBC was high in gallstone patients.

PD-1 inhibitors plus nab-paclitaxel-containing chemotherapy for advanced gallbladder cancer in a second-line setting: A retrospective analysis of a case series

Background

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a fatal cancer, and the efficacy of the current standard second-line chemotherapy for GBC is limited. Novel therapies need to be explored. This retrospective analysis was aimed to investigate the outcomes of patients treated at West China Hospital with PD-1 inhibitors combined with nab-paclitaxel-based chemotherapy (nab-paclitaxel monotherapy or nab-paclitaxel plus other cytotoxic agents) in a second-line setting.

Methods

Between April 2020 and May 2022, the patients with advanced GBC receiving PD-1 inhibitors combined with nab-paclitaxel-based chemotherapy after resistance to first-line gemcitabine-based chemotherapy at West China Hospital were retrospectively screened.

Results

Eleven patients were included, and all received gemcitabine-based chemotherapy as first-line therapy. Eight patients underwent next-generation sequencing (NGS), and all had microsatellite stability (MSS) and a low tumor mutation burden (TMB). Six patients were negative for PD-L1 expression and one patient was positive for PD-L1. Therapeutically relevant genetic alterations were not found. All patients received PD-1 inhibitors in combination with nab-paclitaxel-based chemotherapy as second-line therapy. Pembrolizumab was administered in 3 patients, and sintilimab was administered in eight patients. One patient had no measurable target lesion. Complete response (CR) was observed in one (10.0%) patient, partial response (PR) in four (40%) patients, and stable disease (SD) in four (40%) patients. The median progression-free survival (PFS) was 7.5 (95% CI: 2.5-12.5) months, and the median overall survival (OS) was 12.7 (95% CI: 5.5-19.9) months. The adverse events (AEs) were manageable.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that PD-1 inhibitors combined with nab-paclitaxel-based chemotherapy as second-line therapy for advanced GBC might be a potential treatment and deserves further evaluation.

HKI-272 contributes to gemcitabine-mediated anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic effects through EGFR suppression in gallbladder cancer

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a rare malignancy of the biliary system and characterized by early metastasis and poor prognosis. To date, no efficient treatment is available for GBC patients. Based on the data from cBioPortal, TIMER, and GDSC, we performed an unbiased screening with 25 candidate compounds that predominantly target ErbB family and identified HKI-272, a highly selective EGFR/ErbB2 inhibitor, displayed decreased IC₅₀ values in three GBC cell lines. HKI-272 not only promoted gemcitabine-mediated anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects and induced cell cycle arrest in GBC, but also enhanced gemcitabine-induced suppressive effects of GBC cell migration and invasion by inhibiting pathways downstream of EGFR. Furthermore, HKI-272, together with gemcitabine, effectively suppressed tumor growth and metastases in mouse models. Immunostaining and HE staining data from both primary tumor and lung metastasis indicated that the anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic effects were mediated through EGFR suppression. Moreover, the expression of EGFR, measured by both immunostaining and HE staining, was correlated with a poor prognosis in GBC. In addition, EGFR in tumor tissues are independent indicators for overall survival in GBC patients. Taken together, our findings suggest that HKI-272 could be a potential therapeutic agent and EGFR might serve as a potential biomarker for patients with GBC.

Risk factors associated with gall bladder cancer in high incidence areas in India: a systematic review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Gall bladder cancer (GBC) is a lethal form of malignancy of the gastrointestinal tract with a unique geographical distribution. Cases are aggregated in the river basins of Ganga-Brahmaputra, in the north, east and north-east India, collectively termed as the 'high-risk' zone for GBC. Although some studies report high prevalence of typhoid infection linking with high burden of GBC in these regions, there is no systematic review of the factors associated with GBC in the high incidence areas. To address this gap, we are conducting a systematic review to identify and organise the factors associated with GBC in the high-risk zone of India.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic review of all observational studies that report a quantitative relationship between at least one risk factor for GBC among adults (>18 years) in the high-risk zone in India will be conducted. The databases PubMed-MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus, OpenGrey and Google Scholar published in English and after 1990 will be searched. This review will follow the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses recommendations. The primary outcome is GBC. If data permit, meta-analysis will be performed. Two independent reviewers will independently screen the articles, extract the data and assess the methodological quality of the studies.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

As this will be a systematic review without human participants' involvement, there will be no requirement for ethics approval. Findings will be disseminated widely through peer-reviewed publication and media, for example, conferences and symposia.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42021256673.

Reiterating the Emergence of Noncoding RNAs as Regulators of the Critical Hallmarks of Gall Bladder Cancer

Gall bladder cancer (GBC) is a rare and one of the most aggressive types of malignancies, often associated with a poor prognosis and survival. It is a highly metastatic cancer and is often not diagnosed at the initial stages, which contributes to a poor survival rate of patients. The poor diagnosis and chemoresistance associated with the disease limit the scope of the currently available surgical and nonsurgical treatment modalities. Thus, there is a need to explore novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers that will help relieve the severity of the disease and lead to advanced therapeutic strategies. Accumulating evidence has correlated the atypical expression of various noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), including circular RNAs (circRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNA) with the increased cell proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, migration, metastasis, chemoresistance, and decreased apoptosis in GBC. Numerous reports have indicated that the dysregulated expression of ncRNAs is associated with poor prognosis and lower disease-free and overall survival in GBC patients. These reports suggest that ncRNAs might be considered novel diagnostic and prognostic markers for the management of GBC. The present review recapitulates the association of various ncRNAs in the initiation and progression of GBC and the development of novel therapeutic strategies by exploring their functional and regulatory role.

Comparing survival rate and appropriate surgery methods according to tumor location in T2 gallbladder cancer

BACKGROUND

The survival outcomes and optimal extent of surgery of T2 gallbladder cancers remain controversial. We aimed to investigate the difference in overall/disease-free survival rates and assess the prognosis of T2 gallbladder cancers.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed electronic medical records of 147 patients who underwent surgical resection for pathologically confirmed T2 gallbladder cancer between January 2003 and December 2012. Patients were categorized into two groups according to the tumor location (T2a vs. T2b) and three groups according to surgery method (simple cholecystectomy, cholecystectomy with lymph node dissection, and extended cholecystectomy). We compared the overall and disease-free survival rates according to T2 subgroups and surgery methods. Cox proportional hazard analysis was performed to evaluate prognostic factors for the overall survival of T2 gallbladder cancer.

RESULTS

Of all patients, 40 (27.2%) and 107 (72.8%) were diagnosed with T2a and T2b gallbladder cancers, respectively. The 5-year overall and disease-free survival rates were 75.0% vs. 73.8% (p = 0.653) and 72.5% vs. 70.1% (p = 0.479) in T2a and T2b gallbladder cancers, respectively. There was no difference in the survival rate among T2a gallbladder cancer according to the surgery method. However, in T2b gallbladder cancer, extended cholecystectomy showed a better overall survival than simple cholecystectomy and cholecystectomy with lymph node dissection groups (p = 0.043 and p = 0.003, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

There is no difference in overall and disease-free survival rates according to the location of T2 gallbladder cancers. Extended cholecystectomy increases overall survival rate, especially in T2b gallbladder cancers.

Preoperative serum fibrinogen as a valuable predictor in the nomogram predicting overall survival of postoperative patients with gallbladder cancer

Background

Coagulation and fibrinolysis activation are frequently observed in cancer patients, and the tumors in these cases are thought to be associated with a higher risk of invasion, metastasis and worse long-term outcome. The specific aim of this study was to develop an effective prognostic nomogram to help make individualized estimates for patients with resected gallbladder cancer (GBC).

Methods

Patients with resected GBC who were diagnosed between 2006 and 2014 at Xinhua Hospital were selected. Model performance was measured by c-index and calibration curve. The results were further validated using bootstrap and a cohort of 38 patients from a branch hospital who underwent surgery from 2006 to 2014.

Results

Backward stepwise selection and Lasso were applied respectively to select predictors. T stage, N stage, and preoperative serum fibrinogen were included in the final model. Predictions correlated well with observed 1- and 3-year survival. The c-index for predicting survival was 0.74 (95% confidence interval, 0.70-0.78), which was statistically higher than that of the AJCC 7th system and Nevin system (P=0.04, 0.04, respectively). In the validation cohort, the nomogram performed better than the other two staging systems (c-index: 0.71 vs. 0.67 and 0.67).

Conclusions

The validated nomogram is a practical tool for predicting the overall survival (OS) of postoperative GBC patients. Preoperative serum fibrinogen levels were associated with tumor progression and may be an independent predictor for GBC patients.

Association of Microbial Dysbiosis with Gallbladder Diseases Identified by Bile Microbiome Profiling

BACKGROUND

Cholecystitis is an important risk factor for gallbladder cancer, but the bile microbiome and its association with gallbladder disease has not been investigated fully. We aimed to analyze the bile microbiome in normal conditions, chronic cholecystitis, and gallbladder cancer, and to identify candidate bacteria that play an important role in gallbladder carcinogenesis.

METHODS

We performed metagenome sequencing on bile samples of 10 healthy individuals, 10 patients with chronic cholecystitis, and 5 patients with gallbladder cancer, and compared the clinical, radiological, and pathological characteristics of the participants.

RESULTS

No significant bacterial signal was identified in the normal bile. The predominant dysbiotic bacteria in both chronic cholecystitis and gallbladder cancer were those belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family. Klebsiella increased significantly in the order of normal, chronic cholecystitis, and gallbladder cancer. Patients with chronic cholecystitis and dysbiotic microbiome patterns had larger gallstones and showed marked epithelial atypia, which are considered as precancerous conditions.

CONCLUSION

We investigated the bile microbiome in normal, chronic cholecystitis, and gallbladder cancer. We suggest possible roles of Enterobacteriaceae, including Klebsiella, in gallbladder carcinogenesis. Our findings reveal a possible link between a dysbiotic bile microbiome and the development of chronic calculous cholecystitis and gallbladder cancer.

miR‑146b‑5p inhibits tumorigenesis and metastasis of gallbladder cancer by targeting Toll‑like receptor 4 via the nuclear factor‑κB pathway

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a carcinoma of the biliary tract, which is common in developing countries and is associated with a high fatality rate. The aim of the present study was to investigate the mechanisms underlying the occurrence and development of GBC. A decrease in the expression of miR‑146b‑5p and an increase in the expression of its target gene Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4) were first observed in GBC tissues. Further study demonstrated that an increase in TLR4 expression caused by a decrease in miR‑146b‑5p expression led to activation of nuclear factor (NF)‑κB signaling. GBC cells were cultured in vitro, and it was observed that overexpression of miR‑146b‑5p effectively inhibited their viability, proliferation, migration and invasion, and increased their apoptosis. Using a BALB/c nude mouse xenograft model, it was demonstrated that overexpression of miR‑146b‑5p was sufficient to reduce tumor volume and alleviate pathological characteristics. Overall, the results of the present study indicated that the decrease in the expression of miR‑146b‑5p increased TLR4 expression and indirectly activated the NF‑κB signaling pathway, thereby regulating the development of GBC.

Hepatectomy strategy for T2 gallbladder cancer between segment IVb and V resection and wedge resection: A propensity score-matched study

BACKGROUND

Liver resection is recommended for T2 gallbladder cancer, but the optimal hepatectomy strategy remains controversial. We aimed to assess the safety and effectiveness of segment IVb and V resection versus wedge resection in patients with T2 gallbladder cancer.

METHODS

This is a retrospective multicenter propensity score-matched study in China. Overall survival, disease-free survival, perioperative complications, and hospital length of stay were used to evaluate safety and effectiveness.

RESULTS

There are a total of 512 patients. 112 of 117 patients undergoing segment IVb and V resection were matched to 112 patients undergoing wedge resection. After matching, segment IVb and V resection demonstrated no statistical difference in overall survival (hazard ratio, 0.970 [0.639-1.474]; P = .886), but significance in disease-free survival (hazard ratio, 0.708 [0.506-0.991]; P = .040). Patients with incidental gallbladder cancer (hazard ratio, 0.390 [0.180-0.846]; P = .019), stage T2b (hazard ratio, 0.515 [0.302-0.878]; P = .016), and negative lymph nodes status (hazard ratio, 0.627 [0.406-0.991]; P = .043) were associated with improved disease-free survival after segment IVb and V resection, but not in wedge resection. However, perioperative complications occurred more frequently after segment IVb and V resection (28.5% vs 9.1%, P < .001) along with the longer hospital length of stay (17.3 vs 10.2 days, P < .001). Notably, patients with jaundice (odds ratio, 4.053 [1.361-12.23]; P = .013), undergoing laparoscopic resection (odds ratio, 2.387 [1.059-4.484]; P = .028) or surgeon performing per the first 10 segment IVb and V resections (odds ratio, 2.697 [1.035-6.998]; P = .041), were the independent risk factors for perioperative complications in the segment IVb and V resection group.

CONCLUSION

T2 gallbladder cancer patients undergoing segment IVb and V resection rather than wedge resection have an improved disease-free survival, especially for incidental gallbladder cancer or hepatic-sided (T2b) gallbladder cancer. However, high rates of perioperative complications and longer hospital length of stay after segment IVb and V resection indicated that surgeons must rely on their own surgical skills and the patient profile to decide the optimal hepatectomy strategy.

Plastic versus metal stents for inoperable gallbladder cancer with hilar biliary obstruction: the jury is still out

In unresectable malignant hilar obstruction, adequate biliary drainage can be achieved with endoscopic placement of plastic or metal stents. Stent patency and patient survival may differ, depending on the primary disease, disease progression and stent type. Metal and plastic stents were compared in patients with malignant hilar strictures in several studies, but these studies mainly included patients who had cholangiocarcinoma, without taking into consideration potential differences in the invasion properties of tumor cells, histological differentiation and the biological behavior of different tumors. Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common malignancy of the biliary tract, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Latin America. About half the patients with GBC present with jaundice, which usually means the tumor is inoperable. Palliative endoscopic stenting remains the first-line treatment of unresectable GBC with biliary obstruction. Primary disease progression is faster in GBC compared to cholangiocarcinoma. There is a paucity of data on the selection of stents for inoperable GBC with hilar biliary obstruction. This review focuses on the published literature related to the selection of stents for unresectable GBC with hilar obstruction.

Thrombospondin 4/integrin α2/HSF1 axis promotes proliferation and cancer stem-like traits of gallbladder cancer by enhancing reciprocal crosstalk between cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor cells

Background

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the primary component of tumor stroma in tumor microenvironments, are well-known contributors to the malignant progression of gallbladder cancer (GBC). Thrombospondins (THBSs or TSPs) comprise a family of five adhesive glycoproteins that are overexpressed in many types of cancers. However, the expression and potential roles of TSPs in the crosstalk between CAFs and GBC cells has remained unclear.

Methods

Peritumoral fibroblasts (PTFs) and CAFs were extracted from GBC tissues. Thrombospondin expression in GBC was screened by RT-qPCR. MTT viability assay, colony formation, EdU incorporation assay, flow cytometry analysis, Transwell assay, tumorsphere formation and western blot assays were performed to investigate the effects of CAF-derived TSP-4 on GBC cell proliferation, EMT and cancer stem-like features. Subcutaneous tumor formation models were established by co-implanting CAFs and GBC cells or GBC cells overexpressing heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) to evaluate the roles of TSP-4 and HSF1 in vivo. To characterize the mechanism by which TSP-4 is involved in the crosstalk between CAFs and GBC cells, the levels of a variety of signaling molecules were detected by coimmunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence staining, and ELISA assays.

Results

In the present study, we showed that TSP-4, as the stromal glycoprotein, is highly expressed in CAFs from GBC and that CAF-derived TSP-4 induces the proliferation, EMT and cancer stem-like features of GBC cells. Mechanistically, CAF-secreted TSP-4 binds to the transmembrane receptor integrin α2 on GBC cells to induce the phosphorylation of HSF1 at S326 and maintain the malignant phenotypes of GBC cells. Moreover, the TSP-4/integrin α2 axis-induced phosphorylation of HSF1 at S326 is mediated by Akt activation (p-Akt at S473) in GBC cells. In addition, activated HSF1 signaling increased the expression and paracrine signaling of TGF-β1 to induce the transdifferentiation of PTFs into CAFs, leading to their recruitment into GBC and increased TSP-4 expression in CAFs, thereby forming a positive feedback loop to drive the malignant progression of GBC.

Conclusions

Our data indicate that a complex TSP-4/integrin α2/HSF1/TGF-β cascade mediates reciprocal interactions between GBC cells and CAFs, providing a promising therapeutic target for gallbladder cancer patients.

S-adenosylmethionine induces apoptosis and cycle arrest of gallbladder carcinoma cells by suppression of JAK2/STAT3 pathways

S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) is a naturally occurring physiologic molecule found ubiquitously in all mammalian cells and an essential compound in many metabolic pathways. It has been reported to possess many pharmacological properties including cancer-preventive and anticancer effects. However, the precise molecular mechanism involved in its anticancer effect is not yet clear. The present study is conducted to investigate the anticancer activity and the underlying mechanisms of SAM on human gallbladder cancer cells (GBC-SD and SGC-996) in vitro and in vivo. Cells were dealt with SAM and subjected to cell viability, colony formation, Hoechst staining, apoptosis, cycle arrest, western blot, and xenograft tumorigenicity assay. Experimental results showed that SAM could significantly inhibit the growth and proliferation and induce the apoptosis as well as cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase of GBC-SD and SGC-996 cells in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. The expression levels of p-JAK2, p-STAT3, Mcl-1, and Bcl-XL were significantly downregulated. In addition, inhibition of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway significantly enhanced the anti-apoptotic effect of SAM, suggesting the key roles of JAK2/STAT3 in the process. More importantly, our in vivo studies demonstrated that administration of SAM could significantly decrease the tumor weight and volume and immunohistochemistry analysis proved the downregulation of p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 in tumor tissues following SAM treatment, consistent with our in vitro results. In summary, our findings indicated that SAM can inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis as well as cycle arrest of GBC cells by suppression of JAK2/STAT3 pathways and the dramatic effects of SAM hinting that SAM might be a useful therapeutic option for patients suffering from gallbladder cancer.

Prognostic value of preoperative lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio in gallbladder carcinoma patients and the establishment of a prognostic nomogram

The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential prognostic value of preoperative lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR) and establishment of a prognostic nomogram in post surgical patients with gallbladder carcinoma (GBC).Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to determine the optimal cut-off value of LMR. The correlation between preoperative LMR and overall survival (OS) was analyzed using univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses. A relevant prognostic nomogram was established.Three hundred fifteen GBC patients were retrospectively enrolled. Based on receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the optimal cutoff value of LMR was 2.685. Patients were categorized into high-LMR group (n = 143) or low-LMR group (n = 172). Low-LMR value was significantly associated with elderly age, advanced tumor, and the performance of a palliative cholecystectomy. The results of the univariate and multivariate analyses eliminated the degree of tumor differentiation, tumor-node-metastasis stages, surgery types, and LMR as independent predictors of OS. Based on those independent predictors, a predictive nomogram for OS was generated with an accuracy of 0.848.Based on our findings, the predictive nomogram should be included in the routine assessment of GBC patients.

Disparities in Treatment for Gallbladder Carcinoma: Does Treatment Site Matter?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Current treatment guidelines for gallbladder cancer range from simple cholecystectomy to regional hepatic resection. Treatment patterns for radical resection and adjuvant chemotherapy vary. We aim to determine if there is any disparity in treatment or difference in survival between academic versus community treatment centers.

METHODS

The National Cancer Database (NCDB) was queried from 2004 to 2014 for gallbladder carcinoma. Cases were stratified into treatment sites as "Community Cancer Center" (CCC) or "Academic Cancer Center" (ACC). Propensity score matching was performed for patient demographics, TNM stage, resection type, and administration of adjuvant chemotherapy. The primary outcome included 30-day mortality, 90-day mortality, and overall survival.

RESULTS

There are similar frequencies of radical versus simple resection and administration of adjuvant chemotherapy between ACC and CCC. When propensity-matched for resection type, cases treated at ACC have lower 30-day mortality (4.1% vs. 6.9%) and 90-day mortality (13.2% vs. 18.5%) and increased 5-year overall survival (26.2% vs. 22.4%) (p < 0.01). After propensity matching for adjuvant chemotherapy, cases at ACC have lower 30-day mortality (4.12% vs. 7.71%) and 90-day mortality (13.22% vs. 19.19%) and increased overall survival (13.6% vs. 11.0%) (p < 0.01).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

While treatment patterns for gallbladder cancer at ACC and CCC were similar, there was a decrease in 30-day and 90-day mortality and improved overall survival associated with patients treated at ACC. Treatment site may have an impact in the surgical outcomes of gallbladder cancer patients. This disparity warrants further research.

Betulinic acid induces apoptosis of gallbladder cancer cells via repressing SCD1

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common and aggressive malignancy of the biliary tract. Betulinic acid (BetA) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects; however, the effect of BetA on GBC is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of BetA on five GBC cell lines and found that BetA significantly inhibited the proliferation of NOZ cells but had little inhibitory effect on other GBC cells. BetA disturbed mitochondrial membrane potential and induced apoptosis in NOZ cells. Real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) was highly expressed in NOZ cells but low expressed in other GBC cells. BetA inhibited SCD1 expression in a concentration-dependent manner in NOZ cells. Downregulation of SCD1 expression by RNA interference inhibited the proliferation of NOZ cells and induced cell apoptosis. Moreover, BetA inhibited the growth of xenografted tumors and suppressed SCD1 expression in nude mice. Thus, our results showed that BetA induced apoptosis through repressing SCD1 expression in GBC, suggesting that BetA might be an effective agent for the treatment of patients with GBC that highly expresses SCD1.

TASP1 Promotes Gallbladder Cancer Cell Proliferation and Metastasis by Up-regulating FAM49B via PI3K/AKT Pathway

The highly conserved protease TASP1 not only takes part in critical site-specific proteolysis, but also plays an important role in numerous liquid and solid malignancies. However, the TASP1 expression and its biological regulation function in malignant gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) remain fully unknown. Here we observed that TASP1 levels were substantially overexpressed in GBC samples compared with non-tumor tissues. High TASP1 level was closely associated with T stage and metastasis, and was also correlated with poor prognosis in GBC patients. The depletion of TASP1 inhibited GBC cell proliferation and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we first revealed that FAM49B had biological function and was positively regulated by TASP1 activating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in GBC. At the same time, FAM49B also promoted GBC cell proliferation and migration. Inhibition of PI3K/AKT with LY294002 or FAM49B expression abrogated Myc-TASP1/Lv-shTASP1-induced GBC cell proliferation and motility. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that TASP1 is critical for GBC progression via TASP1-PI3K/AKT-FAM49B axis and it may be a novel prognostic factor. The therapeutic targeting TASP1 may be a potential treatment approach for GBC patients.

A Novel Nomogram Predicting Distant Metastasis in T1 and T2 Gallbladder Cancer: A SEER-based Study

Background: Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common malignancy of the biliary system. Early T stage GBC patients with distant metastasis are proven to have a worse prognosis. In this study, our aim was to construct and validate a novel nomogram for predicting distant metastasis in T1 and T2 GBC. Methods: Between 2004 and 2014, patients with T1 and T2 GBC were identified in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. All of the eligible patients were randomly divided into training and validation cohorts. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess significant predictive factors associated with distant metastasis. A nomogram was developed and validated by a calibration curve and receptor operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis. Results: According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 3013 patients with historically confirmed AJCC stage T1 and T2 GBC were enrolled. Younger age, high pathological grade, nonadenocarcinoma, T1, N1 and larger tumor size correlated positively with the risk of distant metastasis. A novel nomogram was established to predict distant metastasis in early T stage GBC patients. Internal validation with a calibration plot in the training cohort showed that this nomogram was well calibrated. Through ROC curve analysis, the areas under the ROC curves in the training and validation cohorts were 0.723 and 0.679, respectively. Conclusions: Although some limitations exist in this predictive model, the nomogram revealed the relationship between the clinicopathological characteristics of T1 and T2 GBC patients and the risk of distant metastasis. The novel nomogram will assist in patient counseling and guide treatment decision making for T1 and T2 GBC patients.

UCP2 promotes proliferation and chemoresistance through regulating the NF-κB/β-catenin axis and mitochondrial ROS in gallbladder cancer

Uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) is a mitochondrial anion carrier which plays a key role in energy homeostasis. UCP2 is deregulated in several human cancers and has been suggested to regulate cancer metabolism. However, the role of UCP2 in gallbladder cancer has not been defined. Using clinical samples, we found highly expressed UCP2 in gallbladder cancer tissues, and higher expression levels of UCP2 correlated with worse clinical characteristics. To study whether UCP2 promotes gallbladder cancer growth, UCP2 stable knockdown cells were generated, and cell proliferation was suppressed in these knockdown cells. Further studies demonstrated that glycolysis was inhibited and IKKβ, as well as the downstream signaling molecules NF-κB/FAK/β-catenin, were downregulated in UCP2 knockdown cells. More importantly, gallbladder cancer cells became sensitive to gemcitabine treatments when UCP2 was inhibited. UCP2 knockdown suppressed the activation of the NF-κB/β-catenin axis and promoted the increases in mitochondrial ROS in gallbladder cancer cells exposed to gemcitabine treatments. The UCP2 inhibitor genipin suppressed xenograft tumor growth and sensitized grafted tumors to gemcitabine treatments. These results suggest targeting UCP2 as a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of gallbladder cancer.

Role of stratifin (14-3-3 sigma) in adenocarcinoma of gallbladder: A novel prognostic biomarker

BACKGROUND

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a rare and fatal biliary tract malignancy. Genetic derangements are one of many factors that determine the prognosis of GBC. In this study, the expression of the stratifin (SFN) gene encoding 14-3-3 sigma protein, which is reported to be associated with the metastatic property of cholangiocarcinoma cells, was investigated in GBC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded cancer (n = 37) and non-cancer control tissues (n = 14) of gallbladders from patients who underwent surgical resection from January 2006 to May 2015 were retrieved. The expression of SFN normalized with that of ACTB was determined using RT-qPCR. Multivariate analysis of factors affecting disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) including the type of SFN expression was performed.

RESULT

The average expression level of SFN in cancer was higher than that in control tissues (p = 0.002). The relative SFN expression in cancer tissue was classified as overexpression (n = 14) and control level expression (n = 23) according to the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for discriminating early GBC recurrence or metastasis after surgery. The SFN overexpression group was associated with lower rates of distant metastasis and early tumor recurrence following resection. The univariate analysis demonstrated factors affecting DFS, including resection margin (p < 0.001), lymphovascular invasion (p = 0.040), perineural invasion (p = 0.046), and SFN expression (p < 0.001). The multivariate analysis revealed that the resection margin (p = 0.019) and SFN expression (P = 0.040) were independent prognostic factors of DFS.

CONCLUSION

To achieve the longest survival, margin-free resection is recommended. The overexpression of SFN in GBC is associated with better prognosis, lower rates of early cancer recurrence, and distant metastasis following resection. SFN expression might be a novel prognostic biomarker in GBC treatment. Further studies to elucidate the role of SFN might unveil its clinical benefit in cancer treatment regimens.

Prognostic Value Of Preoperative Systemic Inflammatory Biomarkers In Patients With Gallbladder Cancer And The Establishment Of A Nomogram

Background and aim

Preoperative systemic inflammatory biomarkers, including neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR), derived neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (dNLR), platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and lymphocyte to monocyte ratio (LMR) have been developed to predict patient outcome in several types of carcinomas. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential prognostic value of NLR, dNLR, PLR, and LMR, and establish a prognostic nomogram in postoperative GBC patients who underwent radical cholecystectomy.

Methods

169 GBC patients were retrospectively enrolled in the present study. ROC curve analysis was used to determine the optimal cut-off values of systemic inflammatory biomarkers. The prognostic value of those biomarkers was investigated according to the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression model. A relevant prognostic nomogram was established.

Results

Results showed that NLR, dNLR, PLR, and LMR were significantly associated with overall survival (OS); whereas, NLR and LMR were retained as independent indicators. Based on these independent predictors including tumor differentiation, T stage, N stage, CEA, NLR, and LMR, a nomogram was generated with an accuracy of 0.801.

Conclusion

Based on our findings, the predictive nomogram could accurately predict individualized survival probability of postoperative GBC patients, and might support clinicians in treatment optimization and clinical decision-making.

Gallbladder cancer harboring ERBB2 mutation on the primary and metastatic site: A case report

BACKGROUND

Bile duct cancer constitutes gallbladder cancer (GBC), intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICA), and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ECA). These three entities show morphological and immunohistochemical resemblance so that it is difficult to differentiate between primary ICA and liver metastasis of GBC, which sometimes becomes a point of discussion in clinical practice. Although these cancers demonstrate significant differences in their mutational landscape, several reports demonstrated shared genomic alteration in paired primary and metastatic site aids in distinguishing metastatic recurrence from second primary cancers.

CASE SUMMARY

We present a 73-year-old female patient who underwent curative resection for GBC harboring epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (ERBB2) activating mutation on next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based genomic testing. One year later, a hepatic lesion was observed on follow-up imaging and she underwent surgical resection for a pathological diagnosis. The histological findings of the hepatic lesion were similar to those of the primary lesion. Additionally, using NGS panel testing, the hepatic lesion was found to have ERBB2 activating mutation, which is the identical mutation detected in the sequencing result of the primary site. ERBB2 activating mutation occurs more frequently in GBC than ICA and ECA. Therefore, in the present case, we think this molecular finding potentiated the diagnosis of the liver mass toward a metastatic recurrence. Additionally, this patient underwent HER2-targeted treatment with lapatinib in combination with capecitabin and obtained clinical benefit.

CONCLUSION

This case illustrated NGS panel usefulness in distinguishing GBC recurrence from second primary cancer and HER2-targeted agent efficacy on ERBB2 mutated GBC.

MBD1 promotes the malignant behavior of gallbladder cancer cells and induces chemotherapeutic resistance to gemcitabine

Background

Methyl-CpG binding domain protein 1 (MBD1), which couples DNA methylation to transcriptional repression, has been implicated in transcriptional regulation, heterochromatin formation, genomic stability, cell cycle progression and development. It has also been proven that MBD1 is involved in tumor development and progression. However, whether MBD1 is involved in tumorigenesis, especially in gallbladder cancer, is totally unknown.

Methods

Human GBC-SD and SGC996 cells were used to perform experiments. Invasion, wound healing and colony formation assays were performed to evaluate cell viability. A CCK-8 assay was performed to assess gallbladder cancer cell viability after gemcitabine treatment. Western blot analysis was used to evaluate changes in protein expression. Human gallbladder cancer tissues and adjacent nontumor tissues were subjected to immunohistochemical staining to detect protein expression.

Results

We found that MBD1 expression was significantly upregulated in gallbladder cancer tissues compared with that in surrounding normal tissues according to immunohistochemical analysis of 84 surgically resected gallbladder cancer specimens. These data also indicated that higher MBD1 expression was correlated with lymph node metastasis and poor survival in gallbladder cancer patients. Overexpression and deletion in vitro validated MBD1 as a potent oncogene promoting malignant behaviors in gallbladder cancer cells, including invasion, proliferation and migration, as well as epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Studies have demonstrated that epithelial–mesenchymal transition is common in gallbladder cancer, and it is well known that drug resistance and epithelial–mesenchymal transition are very closely correlated. Herein, our data show that targeting MBD1 restored gallbladder cancer cell sensitivity to gemcitabine chemotherapy.

Conclusions

Taken together, the results of our study revealed a novel function of MBD1 in gallbladder cancer tumor development and progression through participation in the gallbladder cancer epithelial–mesenchymal transition program, which is involved in resistance to gemcitabine chemotherapy. Thus, MBD1 may be a potential therapeutic target for gallbladder cancer.

Glycochenodeoxycholate promotes the metastasis of gallbladder cancer cells by inducing epithelial to mesenchymal transition via activation of SOCS3/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

The incidence of gallbladder cancer (GBC) is relatively rare but a high degree of malignancy. The migration and invasion potential of GBC severely affects the prognosis of patients with GBC. Glycochenodeoxycholate (GCDC) is one of the most important components in GBC-associated microenvironment. However, the role of GCDC in the metastatic feature of GBC cells is not fully understood. First, the results of this study found that GCDC could effectively enhance the metastasis of GBC cells. Furthermore, GCDC could lead to the enhancement of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype in GBC cells, which is concerned to be an important mechanism of tumor metastasis. Further studies showed that GCDC treatment induced the upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP3), MMP9, and SOCS3/JAK2/p-STAT3 signal pathway in GBC cells, which could regulate the level of EMT. Beside that, we also found the positive expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in GBC cells and inhibition of FXR could significantly block the effect of GCDC on the metastasis of GBC cells. These results indicated that GCDC promoted GBC cells metastasis by enhancing the level of EMT and inhibition of FXR could significantly block the effect of GCDC. On one hand, FXR might be an indicator for predicting the metastasis of patient with GBC. On the other hand, FXR might serve as a potential antimetastasis target in GBC therapy.

Overexpression of UBR5 promotes tumor growth in gallbladder cancer via PTEN/PI3K/Akt signal pathway

As a key regulator of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, ubiquitin protein ligase E3 component N-recognin 5 (UBR5) plays an important role in various cancers. In this study, our results showed for the first time that UBR5 was overexpressed in gallbladder cancer (GBC) tumor tissues. UBR5 overexpression was significantly associated with tumor size, histological and tumor differentiation. UBR5 overexpression was also associated with poor prognosis in patients with GBC. The knockdown of UBR5 remarkably inhibited the cell proliferation and colony formation of GBC-Shandong (SD) cells in vitro and in vivo. UBR5 potentially increases the level of protein kinase B phosphorylation via the degradation of phosphatase and tensin homolog, which contributes to tumor growth in GBC. UBR5 may be an important biomarker for predicting the prognosis of patients with GBC.

Identification of LIFR, PIK3R1, and MMP12 as Novel Prognostic Signatures in Gallbladder Cancer Using Network-Based Module Analysis

Background: Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a rare and aggressive malignancy of the biliary tract with a dismal survival rate. Effective biomarkers and therapeutic targets are urgently needed.

Methods: We analyzed gene expression profiles of GBC to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and then used these DEGs to identify functional module biomarkers based on protein functional interaction (FI) networks. We further evaluated the module-gene protein expression and clinical significance with immunohistochemistry staining (IHC) in a tissue microarray (TMA) from 80 GBC samples.

Results: Five functional modules were identified. Module 0 included classical cancer signaling pathways, such as Ras and PI3K-Akt; and modules 1–4 included genes associated with muscle cells, fibrinogen, extracellular matrix, and integrins, respectively. We validated the expression of LIFR, PIK3R1, and MMP12, which were hubs or functional nodes in modules. Compared with paired peritumoural tissues, we found that the expression of LIFR (P = 0.002) and PIK3R1 (P = 0.046) proteins were significantly downregulated, and MMP12 (P = 0.006) was significantly upregulated. Further prognostic analysis showed that patients with low expression of LIFR had shorter overall survival than those with high expression (log-rank test P = 0.028), the same trend as for PIK3R1 (P = 0.053) and MMP12 (P = 0.006). Multivariate analysis indicated that expression of MMP12 protein (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.429; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.198, 0.930; P = 0.032) was one of the significant independent prognostic factors for overall survival.

Conclusions: We found a highly reliable FI network, which revealed LIFR, PIK3R1, and MMP12 as novel prognostic biomarker candidates for GBC. These findings could accelerate biomarker discovery and therapeutic development in this cancer.

Systematically Characterizing Chemical Profile and Potential Mechanisms of Qingre Lidan Decoction Acting on Cholelithiasis by Integrating UHPLC-QTOF-MS and Network Target Analysis

Qingre Lidan Decoction (QRLDD), a classic precompounded prescription, is widely used as an effective treatment for cholelithiasis clinically. However, its chemical profile and mechanism have not been characterized and elucidated. In the present study, a rapid, sensitive, and reliable ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method was established for comprehensively identifying the major constituents in QRLDD. Furthermore, a network pharmacology strategy based on the chemical profile was applied to clarify the synergetic mechanism. A total of 72 compounds containing flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acid, anthraquinones, phenethylalchohol glycosides, and other miscellaneous compounds were identified, respectively. 410 disease genes, 432 compound targets, and 71 related pathways based on cholelithiasis-related and compound-related targets databases as well as related pathways predicted by the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database were achieved. Among these pathways and genes, pathway in cancer and MAPK signaling pathway may play an important role in the development of cholelithiasis. EGFR may be a crucial target in the conversion of gallstones to gallbladder carcinoma. Regulation of PRKCB/RAF1/MAP2K1/MAPK1 is associated with cell proliferation and differentiation. Thus, the fingerprint coupled with network pharmacology analysis could contribute to simplifying the complex system and providing directions for further research of QRLDD.

Outcomes of surgical resection of gallbladder cancer in patients presenting with jaundice: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Preoperative jaundice is considered a relative contraindication to radical gallbladder cancer (GBC) resection due to poor prognosis and high postoperative morbidity. Recent reports have indicated that aggressive surgery may improve long-term survival for patients with advanced GBC who present with obstructive jaundice. The current systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare postoperative outcomes among jaundiced and non-jaundiced patients with resectable GBC.

METHODS

An electronic search was performed using several Medical Subject Headings terms: cholecyst, gallbladder, tumor, cancer, carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, neoplasia, neoplasm, jaundice, and icterus. Overall survival after surgery was the primary outcome; resectability and postoperative morbidity were the secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

Overall survival was shorter among patients who presented with jaundice (Hazard ratio [HR]: 2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.64-2.97; P < 0.001). Patients with jaundice were less likely to have resectable disease (odds ratio: 0.27, 95% CI, 0.17-0.43; P < 0.001). The jaundice group had higher odds of postoperative morbidity, bile-leak, and posthepatectomy failure versus the non-jaundiced control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Radical surgery for GBC resection for patients presenting with obstructive jaundice was associated with reduced overall survival and increased postoperative morbidity. Jaundiced patients with advanced GBC should be considered for surgical resection but need careful evaluation and counseling before undertaking extensive surgical resection.

Dysregulated Expression and Subcellular Localization of Base Excision Repair (BER) Pathway Enzymes in Gallbladder Cancer

Base excision repair (BER) pathway is one of the repair systems that has an impact on radiotherapy and chemotherapy for cancer patients. The molecular pathogenesis of gallbladder cancer is not known extensively. In the present study we investigated whether the expression of AP endonuclease 1 (APE1) and DNA polymerase β (DNA pol β), key enzymes of BER pathway has any clinical significance with gallbladder carcinogenesis. 41 gallbladder cancer, 27 chronic cholecystitis, and 3 normal gallbladder specimens were analyzed for the expression of APE1 and DNA polymerase β by western blotting, and subcellular localization studied by immunohistochemistry. The enzymatic activity of APE1 was also studied. The correlations with expression of the above proteins with clinical-pathological characteristics of gallbladder cancer patients were analyzed. The integrated density value ratio (relative expression) of total APE1 (37 kDa + 35 kDa variant) analyzed in the three groups of tissues, was 0.76±0.03 in normal gallbladder, 0.91±0.08 in chronic cholecystitis, and 1.12±0.05 in gallbladder cancer. APE1 was found to be up-regulated in 80% of gallbladder carcinoma samples (P = 0.01). A positive trend of APE1 expression with tumor stage and lymph node positivity was observed. The enzymatic activity of APE1 was found higher in gallbladder cancer samples in comparison with chronic cholecystitis. The integrated density value ratio of DNA polymerase β for normal gallbladder, chronic cholecystitis and gallbladder cancer tissue samples were 0.46±0.03, 0.7±0.06 and 1.33±0.1, respectively. DNA polymerase β was found to be upregulated in almost all gallbladder carcinoma samples (P =0.0001), and its expression was negatively correlated with age (P=0.02). DNA polymerase β expression showed a positive trend with tumor stage and nuclear differentiation of gallbladder cancer. It may be concluded that alteration of these BER pathway proteins may be the causal factors for carcinogenesis of gallbladder, and has targeted therapeutic potential.

A predictive model for survival of gallbladder adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a life-threatening disease with a poor prognosis worldwide. Although several risk factors for survival have been identified, an ideal model for predicting prognosis has still not been developed due to the low incidence of GBC. This study aims to solve this dilemma by attempting to develop an efficient survival prediction model for GBC.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study. From January 2009 to June 2016, 164 patients with a confirmed histological diagnosis of gallbladder adenocarcinoma were enrolled in this study. The cohort was randomly divided into two cohorts, the development cohort (n = 110) and validation cohort (n = 54). On the basis of the risk factors identified in the development cohort, a nomogram-based predictive model (P-risk Plus), composed of carbohydrate antigen 199 and pathological characteristics, was established for prognosis.

RESULTS

In this model, the calibration curves for the 1-, 2-, and 3-year survival probabilities were well-matched with the actual survival rates. In addition, the highest C-index and best decision curve analysis were able to be obviously determined. Meanwhile, the P-risk Plus model result yielded a better fit for survival between the development and validation groups.

CONCLUSION

Compared with conventional tumor stages, our nomogram-based P-risk Plus model for gallbladder adenocarcinoma has a better predictive capacity and thereby has a better potential to facilitate decision-making clinically.

Liquid biopsy of bile for the molecular diagnosis of gallbladder cancer

INTRODUCTION

Tissue sampling of gallbladder cancer (GBCa) is challenging because of the anatomy of the gallbladder. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of diagnosing GBCa patients by performing a liquid biopsy of bile in addition to current diagnostic methods.

METHODS

Thirty patients with GBCa were enrolled in this study. Cytological examination was performed in all patients. Using next generation sequencing (NGS), DNA isolated from the bile and tumor tissue was analyzed for mutations in 49 oncogenes. We also compared these mutations with cytology results.

RESULTS

57.1% of DNA samples from tumor tissue were positive for a mutation. In these patients, 87.5% of the bile circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) samples had the same mutation. The concordance rate between bile ctDNA and tissue DNA samples was 85.7%, and the mutation frequencies detected in ctDNA were approximately half of what was detected in tumor tissue DNA. On the other hand, the sensitivity of the cytological and bile ctDNA analyses was 45.8% and 58.3%, respectively. The concordance rate between cytology and bile ctDNA analyses was 87.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

Mutated tumor DNA could be detected in bile by NGS. Liquid biopsy of bile might help us to diagnose GBCa because of higher sensitivity and positive predict value compared to cytology with ERCP.

Diagnostic accuracy of MDCT in differentiating gallbladder cancer from acute and xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis

OBJECTIVE

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of multi-detector CT (MDCT) for differentiating gallbladder cancer from acute and xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis using previously described imaging features.

METHODS

In this IRB approved HIPAA-compliant retrospective cohort study, contrast-enhanced MDCT of histologically confirmed acute cholecystitis (n = 17), xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis (n = 25), and gallbladder cancer (n = 18) were reviewed independently by three abdominal radiologists blinded to outcome. The primary outcome was the diagnostic accuracy of MDCT for the differentiation of gallbladder cancer from cholecystitis (acute and xanthogranulomatous) using various imaging parameters. Kappa (κ) statistics and two-way mixed-model single-measure intra-class correlation statistics (ICC) were calculated for each imaging feature and the final radiologic diagnosis.

RESULTS

Inter-rater agreement was moderate to substantial (κ = 0.43-0.70), sensitivity 0.67-0.78, specificity 0.22-0.33 and the positive likelihood ratio was 4.28-8.56 for the differentiation of gallbladder cancer from benign gallbladder pathology. Only three imaging findings: disrupted gallbladder mucosa (κ = 0.68), intraluminal gallstones (κ = 0.66), and gallbladder wall thickness (ICC = 0.63) had substantial inter-rater agreement. The following had slight or no agreement: intramural hypoattenuating nodules (κ = 0.17), transient hepatic attenuation differences (κ = 0.14), gallbladder wall calcification (κ = -0.01), gallbladder wall enhancement (κ = 0.18), and omental or mesenteric invasion (κ = 0.08). In the final multivariate model, the following were significant predictors useful in making or excluding diagnosis of gallbladder cancer: focal gallbladder wall thickening (p = 0.003, OR: 13.09 [95% CI: 2.40-71.48]), pericholecystic "fat stranding" (p = 0.018, OR: 0.10 [95% CI: 0.01-0.66]), and maximum short axis lymph node diameter (p = 0.043, OR: 1.18 [95% CI: 1.00-1.38]).

CONCLUSION

MDCT has moderate sensitivity, poor specificity, and moderate-to-substantial inter-rater repeatability for the differentiation of gallbladder cancer from acute and xanthogranulomatous cholecystitis.

Prognostic significance of combined preoperative fibrinogen and CA199 in gallbladder cancer patients

AIM

To investigate the prognostic value of the combination of preoperative plasma fibrinogen and CA199 in patients with gallbladder carcinoma (GBC).

METHODS

The clinicopathological data of 154 GBC patients were retrospectively reviewed after surgery. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted to verify the optimum cut-off values for plasma fibrinogen and CA199. Univariate and multivariate survival analyses were performed to identify the factors associated with GBC prognosis. Based on the HRs calculated via multivariate survival analyses, patients with elevated plasma fibrinogen and CA199 levels were allocated a score of 2.1; those with an elevated plasma fibrinogen level only were allocated a score of 1, those with an elevated CA199 level only were allocated a score of 1.1, and those with neither of these abnormalities were allocated a score of 0.

RESULTS

ROC curve analysis showed that the optimum cut-off values for preoperative plasma fibrinogen and CA199 were 3.47 g/L and 25.45 U/mL, respectively. Multivariate analysis indicated that elevated preoperative plasma fibrinogen and CA199 levels were significantly correlated with worse overall survival (OS) (HR = 1.711, 95%CI: 1.114-2.627, P = 0.014, and HR = 1.842, 95%CI: 1.111-3.056, P = 0.018). When we combined these two parameters, the area under the ROC curve increased from 0.735 (for preoperative plasma fibrinogen only) and 0.729 (for preoperative CA199 only) to 0.765. When this combined variable was added to the multivariate analysis, the combination of plasma fibrinogen and CA199 (P < 0.001), resection margin (P < 0.001) and TNM stage (P = 0.010) were independent prognostic factors for GBC.

CONCLUSION

The combination of plasma fibrinogen and CA199 may serve as a more efficient independent prognostic biomarker for postoperative GBC patients than either parameter alone.

Gallbladder cancer with tumor thrombus in the portal vein: A case report

RATIONALE

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a highly fatal malignancy. Due to its invasiveness and delayed diagnosis, many GBC patients are diagnosed with synchronous liver and hepatoduodenal ligament involvement. In our case, we report a gallbladder cancer with portal vein thrombus.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 60-year-old woman presented with persistent upper abdominal dull pain for 2 months.

DIAGNOSES

Ultrasound examination showed gallbladder carcinoma invading liver segment IV, and a tumor thrombus in the left and right main portal trunk. Ultrasonography and contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed gallbladder carcinoma with invasion of adjacent liver, and tumor thrombus in the right branch of the portal vein and intrahepatic bile duct. Abdominal computed tomography angiography (CTA) revealed no hepatic artery invasion.

INTERVENTIONS

We made a decision to perform extended right lobectomy. Twenty-six days later, the patient underwent intravenous infusion port implantation for S-1 plus oxaliplatin (SOX) therapy.

OUTCOMES

After treatment, the patient has been doing very well and no recurrence has been found for 5 months.

LESSONS

The patient with gallbladder cancer and tumor thrombus in the portal vein described in this report provides a reminder for surgeons of the importance of early diagnosis, and adequate surgical and adjuvant treatment. Multi-disciplinary treatment is significantly beneficial for the overall survival of patients with advanced GBC.

Identification of MAP kinase pathways as therapeutic targets in gallbladder carcinoma using targeted parallel sequencing

The aim of this study was to profile somatic mutation spectrum in gallbladder cancers (GBCs), and determine the role of MAP kinase pathway in GBC by a series of in vitro and in vivo studies. We performed targeted massively parallel sequencing of DNA isolated from GBCs and matched blood from 14 GBC patients to search for mutations in 504 genes commonly altered in human cancers. We identified recurrent mutations enriched in several major signaling pathways including MAP kinase, Wnt/β-catenin and NF-κB pathways. Immunohistochemistry analysis further validated overactivation of MAP kinase and Wnt pathways in a panel of GBC samples. By treating GBC cells with MEK inhibitor trametinib, we found that trametinib not only dramatically inhibited the activity of MAPK/ERK pathway, but also blocked the Wnt/β-catenin signaling through decreasing β-catenin expression or suppressing nucleus translocation of β-catenin. Moreover, trametinib inhibited the proliferation of GBC cell in a dose- and time-dependent manner, induced GBC cell apoptosis, and inhibited GBC cell migration and invasion. Growth of xenograft tumors derived from GBC cell line NOZ in nude mice was also significantly inhibited by trametinib. Our data highlight the critical role of MAP kinase pathways in GBC pathogenesis, and may represent therapeutic targets for this cancer.

MiR-31 regulates the cisplatin resistance by targeting Src in gallbladder cancer

Background

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a malignant tumor highly resistant to chemotherapy. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are found extensively involved in modulation of carcinogenesis and chemoresistance. This study aimed to investigate cisplatin (DDP)-susceptibility regulated by expression of the miRNAs and underlying pathways in GBC.

Results

The microRNA-31 (miR-31) was selected by microarray due to the biggest fold change between DDP-resistant and parental cells. Ectopic overexpression of miR-31 decreased cell proliferation, viability and invasion capacity, but promoted apoptosis in DDP-resistant cells and in xenograft tumor models. Cell apoptosis and DDP-chemosensitivity was remarkably increased by knockdown of Src proto-oncogene (Src) expression, which was subsequently reversed by rescue of Src expression in miR-31-expressing cells.

Methods

The microarray was used to select the candidate miRNA in two DDP-resistant GBC cell lines. The effect of regulated expression of the miRNA on cell migration, invasion, proliferation and apoptosis was examined by wound healing, transwell assays, CCK-8 assays, colony formation and flow cytometry assays, respectively. Xenograft tumor models were used to validate the function of the downstream target.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrated that miR-31reduced significantly in GBC cells rendering resistance to cisplatin, and upregulated expression of miR-31 augmented chemosensitivity, presenting a therapeutic potential to overcome drug resistance in GBC.

The microRNA miR-33a suppresses IL-6-induced tumor progression by binding Twist in gallbladder cancer

Cytokine is a key molecular link between chronic inflammation and gallbladder cancer (GBC) progression. The potential mechanism of cytokine-associated modulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) expression in GBC progression is not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the biological effects and prognostic significance of interleukin-6 (IL-6) -induced miRNAs in the development of GBC. We identify that inflammatory cytokine, IL-6 promotes proliferation, migration, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of GBC both in vitro and in vivo. Among all the changed miRNAs in miRNA profiling, miR-33a expression was significantly decreased in IL-6 treated GBC cell lines, as well as in GBC tissues compared with case-matched normal tissues and cholecystitis tissues. In turn, miR-33a suppresses IL-6-induced tumor metastasis by directly binding Twist which was identified as an EMT marker. High expression of miR-33a suppressed xenograft tumor growth and dissemination in nude mice. The downregulation of miR-33a was closely associated with advanced clinical stage, lymph node metastasis, and poor clinical outcomes in patients with GBC. miR-33a acts as a tumor suppressor miRNA in GBC progression and may be considered for the development of potential therapeutics against GBC.

miR-223 increases gallbladder cancer cell sensitivity to docetaxel by downregulating STMN1

Background

MicroRNAs (miRs) are involved in cancer carcinogenesis, and certain regulatory miRs could provide promising therapeutic methods for refractory malignancies, such as gallbladder cancer (GBC). miR-223 was found to play a pivotal role in enhancing chemotherapeutic effects, therefore evoking interest in the role of miR-223 in GBC.

Results

miR-223 was decreased in GBC tissues and cell lines, and ectopic miR- 223 expression exhibited multiple anti-tumorigenic effects in GBC cells, including decreased proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro. However, treatment with a miR-223 inhibitor increased cell viability. We determined that STMN1 was negatively correlated with and regulated by miR-223 in GBC. miR-223 increased GBC sensitivity to docetaxel in vitro and in vivo, and the induced sensitivity to docetaxel was suppressed by the restoration of STMN1 expression.

Methods

We examined miR-223 expression in GBC tissue and GBC cell lines using qRT-PCR. The effects of modulated miR-223 expression in GBC cells were assayed using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8), flow cytometry, and wound-healing and invasion assays. Susceptibility to docetaxel was evaluated in miR-223/STMN1-modulated GBC cells and xenograft tumor models. The protein expression of relevant genes was examined by Western blotting.

Conclusions

These findings indicated that miR-223 might serve as an onco-suppressor that enhances susceptibility to docetaxel by downregulating STMN1 in GBC, highlighting its promising therapeutic value.

Oxymatrine induces apoptosis and inhibits invasion in Gallbladder carcinoma via PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway

Oxymatrine extracted from Sophora flavescens Ait as a natural polyphenolic phytochemical has been demonstrated to exhibit anti-tumor effects on various cancers, including Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC). However, its underlying mechanisms of function are largely unknown in GBC cells. The present study is conducted to investigate the anti-tumor effects and the underlying mechanisms of oxymatrine on GBC cells in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that oxymatrine inhibited cell viability, metastatic ability and induced cell apoptosis in dose-dependent manners. Furthermore, we found that the expression of p-AKT, MMP-2, MMP-9 and the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax were significantly down-regulated, while the expression of PTEN was up-regulated in GBC cells. In addition, pretreatment with a specific PI3K/AKT activator (IGF-1) significantly antagonized the oxymatrine-mediated inhibition of GBC-SD cells. Subsequently, our in vivo studies showed that administration of oxymatrine induced a significant dose-dependent decrease in tumor growth. In conclusion, these findings indicated that the inhibition of cells proliferation, migration, invasion and the induction of apoptosis in response to oxymatrine in GBC cells, may function through the suppression of PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway, which was considered as the vital signaling pathway in regulating tumorigenesis. These results suggested that oxymatrine might be a novel effective candidate as chemotherapeutic agent against GBC.

Minimally invasive surgical approach for radicalization of incidental post-cholecystectomy gallbladder carcinoma: safety, feasibility and outcomes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Gallbladder carcinoma is a rare but aggressive malignant neoplasm. The incidence of intra- or post-operative incidental gallbladder carcinoma diagnosis following laparoscopic cholecystectomy is estimated to be 1-2%. Aggressive re-resection is warranted as the majority of patients have residual disease either in the liver or the lymph nodes. However the use of a minimally invasive surgical approach (MISA) to perform a radicalization in these patients has not been investigated yet. We retrospectively analyzed surgical and oncologic outcome of a small selected cohort of patients with incidental gallbladder carcinoma whom underwent redo radicalization surgery by MISA.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

From April 2012 to June 2014 at our department six patients (three females and three males) with incidental findings of gallbladder carcinoma pT1b (stage I) following laparoscopic cholecystectomy, and referred to our center from other secondary-level referral hospitals, underwent a redo surgery for radicalization by means of laparoscopic (n. 3) or robotic approach (n. 3). A retrospective analysis of prospective collected data was performed.

RESULTS

The redo procedure consisted of a liver resection (segments IVb + V) and lymph nodes clearance of hepatoduodenal hilum and common hepatic artery. Conversion rate was zero. Median operative time was 290 (250-310) min. Estimate blood loss was 175 (100-350) ml. Total hospital stay was 6 (5-10) days. All liver resections were performed without inflow vascular clamping. One patient was re-operated for hemoperitoneum while peri-operative mortality was zero. Oncologically, an R0 resection was always achieved with a mean number of lymph nodes retrieved of 17,5 (14-22). The stage of the neoplasm was confirmed in all cases but one, who was found to have a pN1 status (stage IIIb). At 21 (6-32) months follow-up all patients are alive and no recurrence has been observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that radicalization of patients with stage I incidental postoperative gallbladder carcinoma can be done by a MISA without compromising the oncologic outcome. Larger studies are needed to validate these results.

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in gallbladder cancer: from clinical evidence to cellular regulatory networks

Gallbladder cancer (GBC), with late diagnosis, rapid disease progression and early metastasis, is a highly aggressive malignant tumor found worldwide. Patients with GBC have poor survival, low curative resection rates and early recurrence. For such a lethal tumor, uncovering the mechanisms and exploring new strategies to prevent tumor progression and metastasis are critically important. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has a prominent role in the early steps of tumor progression and metastasis by initiating polarized epithelial cell transition into motile mesenchymal cells. Accumulating evidence suggests that EMT can be modulated by the cooperation of multiple mechanisms affecting common targets. Signaling pathways, transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation and epigenetic alterations are involved in the stepwise EMT regulatory network in GBC. Loss of epithelial markers, acquisition of mesenchymal markers and dysregulation of EMT-inducing transcription factors (EMT-TFs) have been observed and are associated with the clinicopathology and prognosis of GBC patients. Therefore, EMT may be a detectable and predictable event for predicting GBC progression and metastasis in the clinic. In this review, we will provide an overview of EMT from the clinical evidence to cellular regulatory networks that have been studied thus far in clinical and basic GBC studies.

IMP2/IGF2BP2 expression, but not IMP1 and IMP3, predicts poor outcome in patients and high tumor growth rate in xenograft models of gallbladder cancer

Overexpression of the oncofetal insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 2 (IMP2/IGF2BP2) has been described in different cancer types. Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is a rare but highly aggressive cancer entity with late clinical detection and poor prognosis.

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of IMP2 in human GBC.

Tissue microarrays (TMAs) of an international multi-center GBC sample collection from n = 483 patients were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. IMP2 immunoreactivity was found in 74.3% of the tumor samples on TMA, of which 14.0% showed strong and 86.0% low staining intensity. 72.4% of the tumor samples were IMP1 positive, but IMP1 showed lower expression in tumor tissue compared to control tissues. IMP3 immunoreactivity was observed in 92.7% of all tumors, of which 53.6% revealed strong IMP3 expression. Kaplan-Meier analysis linked high IMP2 expression to shorter survival time (p = 0.033), whereas neither IMP1 nor IMP3 expression was linked to a decreased survival time. Eight different human biliary tract cancer (BTC) cell lines were evaluated for tumor growth kinetics in mouse xenografts. Cell lines with high IMP2 expression levels showed the fastest increase in tumor volumes in murine xenografts. Furthermore, IMP2 expression in these cells correlated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and RAC1 expression in BTC cells, suggesting RAC1-induced ROS generation as a potential mechanism of IMP2-promoted progression of GBC.

In conclusion, IMP2 is frequently overexpressed in GBC and significantly associated with poor prognosis and growth rates in vivo. IMP2 might therefore represent a new target for the treatment of advanced GBC.