Anti-cancer effect of bee venom toxin and melittin in ovarian cancer cells through induction of death receptors and inhibition of JAK2/STAT3 pathway

Melittin suppresses ovarian cancer growth by regulating SREBP1-mediated lipid metabolism

BACKGROUND

Melittin, a major peptide component of bee venom, has demonstrated promising anti-cancer activity across various preclinical cell models, making it a potential candidate for cancer therapy. However, its molecular mechanisms, particularly in ovarian cancer, remain largely unexplored. Ovarian cancer is a life-threatening gynecological malignancy with poor clinical outcomes and limited treatment options.

PURPOSE

This study evaluated the efficacy of melittin in suppressing ovarian cancer and elucidated its underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

A subcutaneous xenograft tumor model was established using ID8 cells in C57BL/6J mice. RNA sequencing revealed that melittin's anticancer effects were associated with the downregulation of lipid metabolism, particularly fatty acid synthesis. The impact of melittin on de novo fatty acid synthesis was assessed by measuring free fatty acid (FFA), triglyceride (TG), and total cholesterol (TC) levels in ovarian cancer cells. Lipogenic gene expression and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) were analyzed by Western blot and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The regulation of FASN transcription by SREBP1 was explored using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Plasmid DNA transfection and the SREBP1 inhibitor Fatostatin were employed to identify the signaling pathway mediating melittin's anticancer effects.

RESULTS

Our results confirmed that melittin significantly reduced de novo fatty acid synthesis, as evidenced by lower FFA, TG, and lipid droplet levels. Additionally, melittin inhibited the nuclear translocation of SREBP1 and specifically reduced SREBP1-mediated FASN transcription, demonstrating effects similar to those of Fatostatin. The motif (-424/-415) within the FASN promoter is a potential SREBP-1 binding site. SREBP1 overexpression through plasmid DNA transfection significantly counteracted melittin's downregulation of FASN promoter activity and counteracted its inhibitory effects on de novo fatty acid synthesis, cell proliferation, and colony formation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggested that melittin acts as a novel modulator of the SREBP1/FASN pathway, reducing lipogenesis and inhibiting ovarian cancer growth. This study was the first to demonstrate melittin's ability to target the SREBP1/FASN axis in ovarian cancer, identifying SREBP1 as a novel therapeutic target. These results highlighted melittin as a potential therapeutic agent for ovarian cancer by attenuating SREBP1-mediated lipid metabolism and suggested novel treatment strategies for targeting ovarian cancer.

Low-Dose Melittin Enhanced Pigment Production Through the Upregulation of Tyrosinase Activity and Dendricity in Melanocytes by Limiting Oxidative Stress: A Therapeutic Implication for Vitiligo

Melittin is a major active ingredient of the bee venom produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera) that exerts various biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, and antioxidant. The role of melittin in modulating melanin production by melanocytes is not known. Therefore, the present study aimed to study the effect of melittin on melanin production by human melanocytes along with its antioxidant status. Cultured human melanocytes were treated with melittin in a dose- and time-dependent manner, followed by the study of the cell viability, cell proliferation, and total melanin content. The effects of melittin in combination with narrow-band ultraviolet B (NB-UVB) on the total melanin content, melanocyte dendricity, oxidative stress, and the expression of genes associated with melanogenesis were investigated. An increased melanin content was observed with a low dose of melittin (LDM) (alone or in combination with NB-UVB), and there was a corresponding increase in the tyrosinase activity, melanocyte dendricity, and melanogenesis-associated genes. The present study concluded that LDM alone or LDM (+NB-UVB) can induce melanin synthesis by increasing the tyrosinase activity in melanocytes by limiting the oxidative stress, and this may be therapeutically exploited as an adjuvant therapy for vitiligo.

Targeting STAT3 signaling pathway in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease with compounds from natural products

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is difficult to cure and of global concern. Neuroinflammation is closely associated with the onset and progression of AD, making its treatment increasingly important. Compounds from natural products, with fewer side effects than synthetic drugs, are of high research interest. STAT3, a multifunctional transcription factor, is involved in various cellular processes including inflammation, cell growth, and apoptosis. Its activation and inhibition can have different effects under various pathological conditions. In AD, the STAT3 protein plays a crucial role in promoting neuroinflammation and contributing to disease progression. This occurs primarily through the JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway, which impacts microglia, astrocytes, and hippocampal neurons. This paper reviews the STAT3 signaling pathway in AD and 25 compounds targeting STAT3 up to 2024. Notably, Rutin, Paeoniflorin, and Geniposide up-regulate STAT3 in hippocampal and cortex neurons, showing neuroprotective effects in various AD models. Other 23 compounds downregulate AD by suppressing neuroinflammation through inhibition of STAT3 activation in microglia and astrocytes. These findings highlight the potential of compounds from natural products in improving AD by targeting STAT3, offering insights into the prevention and management of AD.

The therapeutic potential of bee venom-derived Apamin and Melittin conjugates in cancer treatment: A systematic review

The therapeutic potential of bee venom-derived peptides, particularly apamin and melittin, in cancer treatment has garnered significant attention as a promising avenue for advancing oncology. This systematic review examines preclinical studies highlighting the emerging role of these peptides in enhancing cancer therapies. Melittin and apamin, when conjugated with other therapeutic agents or formulated into novel delivery systems, have demonstrated improved efficacy in targeting tumor cells. Key findings indicate that melittin-based conjugates, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG)ylated versions, show potential in enhancing therapeutic outcomes and minimizing toxicity across various cancer models. Similarly, apamin-conjugated formulations have improved the efficacy of established anti-cancer drugs, contributing to enhanced targeting and reduced systemic toxicity. These developments underscore a growing interest in leveraging bee venom-derived peptides as adjuncts in cancer therapy. The integration of these peptides into treatment regimens offers a promising strategy to address current limitations in cancer treatment, such as drug resistance and off-target effects. However, comprehensive validation through clinical trials is essential to confirm their safety and effectiveness in human patients. This review highlights the global emergence of bee venom-derived peptides in cancer treatment, advocating for continued research and development to fully realize their therapeutic potential.

Melittin-incorporated nanomedicines for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a rapidly developing and effective strategy for cancer therapy. Among various immunotherapy approaches, peptides have garnered significant attention due to their potent immunomodulatory effects. In particular, melittin emerged as a promising candidate to enhance cancer immunotherapy by inducing immunogenic cell death, promoting the maturation of antigen-presenting cells, activating T cells, enhancing the infiltration and cytotoxicity of effector lymphocytes, and modulating macrophage phenotypes for relieving immunosuppression. However, the clinical application of melittin is limited by poor targeting and systemic toxicity. To overcome these challenges, melittin has been incorporated into biomaterials and related nanotechnologies, resulting in extended circulation time in vivo, improved targeting, reduced adverse effects, and enhanced anti-cancer immunological action. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the immunomodulatory effects of melittin-incorporated nanomedicines and examines their development and challenges for clinical cancer immunotherapy.

Potential mitochondrial ROS-mediated damage induced by chitosan nanoparticles bee venom-loaded on cancer cell lines

Recently, numerous studies have confirmed the importance of chitosan nanoparticles (CNP) as a viable drug delivery carrier for increasing the efficacy of anticancer drugs in cancer treatment. It is a macromolecule and natural biopolymer compound, more stable and safer in use than metal nanoparticles. Bee venom (BV), a form of defense venom, has been shown to have anti-tumor, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-infectivity properties. Moreover, the regulation of cell death has been linked to reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated cell apoptosis, which induces mitochondrial damage and ER stress through oxidative stress events. Therefore, this study aimed to illustrate the ROS-mediated effect on the cancer cells treatment with CNP-loaded BV (CNP-BV) and explained the adverse effects of ROS generation on Mitochondria and ER. We have found that the targeted CNP-BV were high in cytotoxicity against MCF-7 (IC50 437.2 μg/mL) and HepG2 (IC50 109.5 μg/mL) through the induction of massive generation of ROS, which in turn results in activating the mitochondrial cascade and ER stress. These results highlighted the role of ROS generation in inducing apoptosis in cancer cells.

Therapeutic Potential and Mechanisms of Bee Venom Therapy: A Comprehensive Review of Apitoxin Applications and Safety Enhancement Strategies

Apitoxin therapy (BVT-bee venom therapy) is an emerging complementary treatment utilizing bee venom for various medical conditions. This review explores the potential and therapeutic mechanisms of bee venom, focusing on its chemical composition and the methods for its extraction and purification to enhance safety while maintaining bioactivity. Bee venom contains amphipathic peptides such as melittin and apamin, enzymes like phospholipase A2, and bioamines including histamine and catecholamines, contributing to its pleiotropic effects. The therapeutic applications of bee venom span anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-arthritic, and anti-cancer activities. Clinical and laboratory studies have demonstrated its efficacy in treating chronic and autoimmune diseases, pain management, and improving quality of life. The immunogenic properties of bee venom necessitate ongoing research to mitigate allergic reactions, ensuring its safe and effective use in medical practice. This review summarizes the current state of research on bee venom therapy, highlighting its potential benefits and future research directions.

Melittin-The principal toxin of honeybee venom-Is also produced in the honeybee fat body

Melittin is a powerful toxin present in honeybee venom that is active in a wide range of animals, from insects to humans. Melittin exerts numerous biological, toxicological, and pharmacological effects, the most important of which is destruction of the cell membrane. The phospholipase activity of melittin and its ability to activate phospholipases in the venom contribute to these actions. Using analytical methods, we discovered that the honeybee Apis mellifera produces melittin not only in the venom gland but also in its fat body cells, which remain resistant to this toxin's effects. We suggest that melittin acts as an anti-bacterial agent, since its gene expression is significantly upregulated when honeybees are infected with Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes bacteria; additionally, melittin effectively kills these bacteria in the disc diffusion test. We hypothesize that the chemical and physicochemical properties of the melittin molecule (hydrophilicity, lipophilicity, and capacity to form tetramers) in combination with reactive conditions (melittin concentration, salt concentration, pH, and temperature) are responsible for the targeted destruction of bacterial cells and apparent tolerance towards own tissue cells. Considering that melittin is an important current and, importantly, potential broad-spectrum medication, a thorough understanding of the observed phenomena may significantly increase its use in clinical practice.

Bioactive Properties of Venoms Isolated from Whiptail Stingrays and the Search for Molecular Mechanisms and Targets

The venom-containing barb attached to their 'whip-like' tail provides stingrays a defensive mechanism for evading predators such as sharks. From human encounters, dermal stingray envenomation is characterized by intense pain often followed by tissue necrosis occurring over several days to weeks. The bioactive components in stingray venoms (SRVs) and their molecular targets and mechanisms that mediate these complex responses are not well understood. Given the utility of venom-derived proteins from other venomous species for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, we set out to characterize the bioactivity of SRV extracts from three local species that belong to the Dasyatoidea 'whiptail' superfamily. Multiple cell-based assays were used to quantify and compare the in vitro effects of these SRVs on different cell lines. All three SRVs demonstrated concentration-dependent growth-inhibitory effects on three different human cell lines tested. In contrast, a mouse fibrosarcoma cell line was markedly resistant to all three SRVs, indicating the molecular target(s) for mediating the SRV effects are not expressed on these cells. The multifunctional SRV responses were characterized by an acute disruption of cell adhesion leading to apoptosis. These findings aim to guide future investigations of individual SRV proteins and their molecular targets for potential use in biomedical applications.

Immunomodulatory activities and biomedical applications of melittin and its recent advances

Melittin (MLT), a peptide containing 26 amino acids, is a key constituent of bee venom. It comprises ∼40%-60% of the venom's dry weight and is the main pricing index for bee venom, being the causative factor of pain. The unique properties of MLT extracted from bee venom have made it a very valuable active ingredient in the pharmaceutical industry as this cationic and amphipathic peptide has propitious effects on human health in diverse biological processes. It has the ability to strongly impact the membranes of cells and display hemolytic activity with anticancer characteristics. However, the clinical application of MLT has been limited by its severe hemolytic activity, which poses a challenge for therapeutic use. By employing more efficient mechanisms, such as modifying the MLT sequence, genetic engineering, and nano-delivery systems, it is anticipated that the limitations posed by MLT can be overcome, thereby enabling its wider application in therapeutic contexts. This review has outlined recent advancements in MLT's nano-delivery systems and genetically engineered cells expressing MLT and provided an overview of where the MLTMLT's platforms are and where they will go in the future with the challenges ahead. The focus is on exploring how these approaches can overcome the limitations associated with MLT's hemolytic activity and improve its selectivity and efficacy in targeting cancer cells. These advancements hold promise for the creation of innovative and enhanced therapeutic approaches based on MLT for the treatment of cancer.

Bioactive peptides: an alternative therapeutic approach for cancer management

Cancer is still considered a lethal disease worldwide and the patients' quality of life is affected by major side effects of the treatments including post-surgery complications, chemo-, and radiation therapy. Recently, new therapeutic approaches were considered globally for increasing conventional cancer therapy efficacy and decreasing the adverse effects. Bioactive peptides obtained from plant and animal sources have drawn increased attention because of their potential as complementary therapy. This review presents a contemporary examination of bioactive peptides derived from natural origins with demonstrated anticancer, ant invasion, and immunomodulation properties. For example, peptides derived from common beans, chickpeas, wheat germ, and mung beans exhibited antiproliferative and toxic effects on cancer cells, favoring cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. On the other hand, peptides from marine sources showed the potential for inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. In this review we will discuss these data highlighting the potential befits of these approaches and the need of further investigations to fully characterize their potential in clinics.

Melittin: a possible regulator of cancer proliferation in preclinical cell culture and animal models

BACKGROUND

Melittin is a water-soluble cationic peptide derived from bee venom that has been thoroughly studied for the cure of different cancers. However, the unwanted interactions of melittin produce hemolytic and cytotoxic effects that hinder their therapeutic applications. To overcome the shortcomings, numerous research groups have adopted different approaches, including conjugation with tumor-targeting proteins, gene therapy, and encapsulation in nanoparticles, to reduce the non-specific cytotoxic effects and potentiate their anti-cancerous activity.

PURPOSE

This article aims to provide mechanistic insights into the chemopreventive activity of melittin and its nanoversion in combination with standard anti-cancer drugs for the treatment of cancer.

METHODS

We looked over the pertinent research on melittin's chemopreventive properties in online databases such as PubMed and Scopus.

CONCLUSION

In the present article, the anti-cancerous effects of melittin on different cancers have been discussed very nicely, as have their possible mechanisms of action to act against different tumors. Besides, it interacts with different signal molecules that regulate the diverse pathways of cancerous cells, such as cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, and inflammation. We also discussed the recent progress in the synergistic combination of melittin with standard anti-cancer drugs and a nano-formulated version of melittin for targeted delivery to improve its anticancer potential.

An Updated Review Summarizing the Anticancer Efficacy of Melittin from Bee Venom in Several Models of Human Cancers

Apitherapy (using bee products) has gained broad recognition in cancer therapeutics globally. Honeybee venom has a broad range of biological potential, and its utilization is rapidly emerging in apitherapy. Bee products have significant potential to strengthen the immune system and improve human health. Thus, this review is targeted toward recapitulating the chemo-preventive potential of melittin (MEL), which constitutes a substantial portion of honeybee venom. Honeybee venom (apitoxin) is produced in the venom gland of the honeybee abdomen, and adult bees utilize it as a primary colony defense mechanism. Apitoxin comprises numerous biologically active compounds, including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates, and volatile components. We are mainly focused on exploring the potential of melittin (a peptide component) of bee venom that has shown promising potential in the treatment of several human cancers, including breast, stomach, lung, prostate, ovary, kidney, colon, gastric, esophageal, cervical cancers, melanoma, osteosarcoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review has summarized all potential studies related to the anticancerous efficacy of melittin (apitoxin), its formulations, conjugates, and nano-formulations against several human carcinomas, which would further pave the way for future researchers in developing potent drugs for cancer management.

Current research status of anti-cancer peptides: Mechanism of action, production, and clinical applications

The escalating rate of cancer cases, together with treatment deficiencies and long-term side effects of currently used cancer drugs, has made this disease a global burden of the 21st century. The number of breast and lung cancer patients has sharply increased worldwide in the last few years. Presently, surgical treatment, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy strategies are used to cure cancer, which cause severe side effects, toxicities, and drug resistance. In recent years, anti-cancer peptides have become an eminent therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment due to their high specificity and fewer side effects and toxicity. This review presents an updated overview of different anti-cancer peptides, their mechanisms of action and current production strategies employed for their manufacture. In addition, approved and under clinical trials anti-cancer peptides and their applications have been discussed. This review provides updated information on therapeutic anti-cancer peptides that hold great promise for cancer treatment in the near future.

Effect of Melittin Complexes with Graphene and Graphene Oxide on Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Tumors Grown on Chicken Embryo Chorioallantoic Membrane

One of the components of bee venom is melittin (M), which has strong lysing properties on membranes. M has high toxicity to cancer cells, but it also affects healthy cells, making it necessary to use methods for targeted delivery to ensure treatment. This research is a continuation of previous studies using graphene nanomaterials as M carriers to breast cancer cells. The studies described below are conducted on a more organized biological structure than what is found in vitro cells, namely, cancerous tumors grown on a chicken embryo chorioallantoic membrane. Caspase 3 and 8 levels are analyzed, and the level of oxidative stress markers and changes in protein expression for cytokines are examined. The results show that M complexes with nanomaterials reduce the level of oxidative stress more than M alone does, but the use of graphene (GN) as a carrier increases the level of DNA damage to a greater extent than the increase caused by M alone. An analysis of cytokine levels shows that the use of the M and GN complex increases the level of proteins responsible for inhibiting tumor progression to a greater extent than the increase occasioned by a complex with graphene oxide (GO). The results suggest that the use of GN as an M carrier may increase the toxic effect of M on structures located inside a cell.

Mellitin peptide quantification in seasonally collected crude bee venom and its anticancer effects on myelogenous K562 human leukaemia cell line

BACKGROUND

Apitherapy is an emerging field in cancer research, particularly in developing communities. The potency of Melittin (MEL), a major constituent in bee venom is accounted for the cytotoxic capacity against cancer cells. It is postulated that the genotype of bees and the time of venom collection influences its specific activity against certain types of cancer.

METHOD

Hereby, Jordanian crude bee venom (JCBV) was collected during different seasons of the year, specifically spring, summer and autumn and investigated for in vitro antitumour effects. Venom collected during springtime comprised the highest quantity of MEL in comparison to venom collected some other time. Springtime-collected JCBV extract and MEL were tested on an immortal myelogenous leukaemia cell line, namely K562 leukemic cells. Treated cells were examined for cell modality via flow cytometry analysis and cell death mediating gene expressions.

RESULTS

Springtime-collected JCBV extract and MEL showed an IC₅₀ of 3.7 ± 0.37 μg/ml and 1.84 ± 0.75 μg/ml, respectively. In comparison to JCBV and positive control, MEL-treated cells exhibited late apoptotic death with a moderate cellular arrest at G0/G1 and an increase of cell number at G2/M phase. Expression of NF-κB/MAPK14 axis was inhibited in MEL and JCBV-treated cells, as well as expression of c-MYC and CDK4. Moreover, marked upregulation in ABL1, JUN and TNF was observed. In conclusion, springtime-collected JCBV showed the highest content of MEL while both JCBV and pure MEL showed apoptotic, necrotic, and cell cycle arrest efficiency against K562 leukemic cells.

CONCLUSION

Integration of bee venom in chemotherapy needs more investigation and should be carefully translated into clinical use. During such translation, the correlation of bee genotype, collection time and concentration of MEL in CBV should be profiled.

Novel Bovine Serum Albumin-Decorated-Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Able to Modulate Apoptosis and Cell-Cycle Response in Ovarian, Breast, and Colon Tumoral Cells

A novel nanoscale approach was developed for the improved cellular internalization of hybrid bovine serum albumin-lipid nanocarriers loaded with piperine (NLC-Pip-BSA) in different tumor cells. The effect of the BSA-targeted-NLC-Pip and untargeted-NLC-Pip on the viability, proliferation, and levels of cell-cycle damage and apoptosis in the colon (LoVo), ovarian (SKOV3) and breast (MCF7) adenocarcinoma cell lines was comparatively discussed. NLCs were characterized concerning particle size, morphology, zeta potential, phytochemical encapsulation efficiency, ATR-FTIR, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The results showed that NLC-Pip-BSA showed a mean size below 140 nm, a zeta potential of -60 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of 81.94% for NLC-Pip and 80.45% for NLC-Pip-BSA. Fluorescence spectroscopy confirmed the coating of the NLC with the albumin. By MTS and RTCA assays, NLC-Pip-BSA showed a more pronounced response against the LoVo colon cell line and MCF-7 breast tumor cell lines than against the ovarian SKOV-3 cell line. Flow cytometry assay demonstrated that the targeted NLC-Pip had more cytotoxicity and improved apoptosis than the untargeted ones in MCF-7 tumor cells (p < 0.05). NLC-Pip caused a significant increase in MCF-7 breast tumor cell apoptosis of ~8X, while NLC-Pip-BSA has shown an 11-fold increase in apoptosis.

Determination of the Effects of Bee Venom on Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells in Vitro

Honeybees provide multiple products such as bee venom (BV) which are used for various nutritional and medicinal purposes. BV has received great attention due to its wide range of bioactive components with potential anti-cancer effects on different cancers. Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is defined as an aggressive type of breast cancer and new therapeutic targets are required for its treatment. In the current literature information is varied about the composition and quantity of BV bioactive compounds as well as the origin of BV and its significance. In this context, the cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of BV with a higher rate of mellitin from Apis mellifera anatoliaca (Muğla ecotype) on MDA-MB-231 cells was evaluated, in vitro. The cytotoxic, apoptotic and morphological effects of BV were determined by WST-1, Annexin V, cell cycle analysis and Acridine Orange staining. The results showed that BV caused apoptotic cell death in TNBC cells at a lower dose (0.47 μg/mL, p<0.01). This study suggests that BV could be developed as a potential therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. However, the mechanism of BV-induced apoptosis death should be clarified at the molecular level.

Therapeutic Use of Bee Venom and Potential Applications in Veterinary Medicine

Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that consists of the treatment of diseases through products collected, processed, and secreted by bees, specifically pollen, propolis, honey, royal jelly, and bee venom. In traditional medicine, the virtues of honey and propolis have been well-known for centuries. The same, however, cannot be said for venom. The use of bee venom is particularly relevant for many therapeutic aspects. In recent decades, scientific studies have confirmed and enabled us to understand its properties. Bee venom has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, central nervous system inhibiting, radioprotective, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, among others. Numerous studies have often been summarised in reviews of the scientific literature that have focused on the results obtained with mouse models and their subsequent transposition to the human patient. In contrast, few reviews of scientific work on the use of bee venom in veterinary medicine exist. This review aims to take stock of the research achievements in this particular discipline, with a view to a recapitulation and stabilisation in the different research fields.

Dual Cytotoxic Responses Induced by Treatment of A549 Human Lung Cancer Cells with Sweet Bee Venom in a Dose-Dependent Manner

Objectives

Sweet bee venom (sBV) is purified from Apis mellifera, containing a high level of melittin-its main component. It has been used as a therapeutic agent for pain relief and anti-inflammation, as well as for treating neuronal abnormalities. Recently, there have been studies on the therapeutic application of sBV for anticancer treatment. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacological effect of sBV treatment in A549 human lung cancer cells.

Methods

We used microscopic analysis to observe the morphological changes in A549 cells after sBV treatment. The MTT assay was used to examine the cytotoxic effect after dose-dependent sBV treatment. Molecular changes in sBV were evaluated by the expression of apoptosis marker proteins using western blot analysis.

Results

Microscopic analysis suggested that the growth inhibitory effect occurred in a dose-dependent manner; however, cell lysis occurred at a concentration over 20 μg/mL of sBV. The MTT assay indicated that sBV treatment exhibited a growth inhibitory effect at a concentration over 5 μg/mL. On fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis, G0 dead cells were observed after G1 arrest at treatment concentrations up to 10 μg/mL. However, rapid cell rupture was observed at a concentration of 20 μg/mL. Western blot analysis demonstrated that sBV treatment modulated the expression of multiple cell death-related proteins, including cleaved-PARP, cleaved-caspase 9, p53, Bcl2, and Bax.

Conclusion

sBV induced cell death in A549 human lung cancer cells at a pharmacological concentration, albeit causing hemolytic cell death at a high concentration.

Key Genes Are Associated with the Prognosis of Glioma, and Melittin Can Regulate the Expression of These Genes in Glioma U87 Cells

Glioma is the most common primary tumor of the central nervous system. Currently, there is no effective treatment for glioma. Melittin (MT) is the main component of bee venom, which was found to have therapeutic effects on a variety of tumors. In this study, we explored the relationship between key genes regulated by MT and the prognosis of glioma. In cultured glioma U87 and U251 cells, MT inhibited cell proliferation and induces cell apoptosis in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. RNA-seq revealed that MT upregulated 11 genes and downregulated 37 genes. These genes are mainly enriched in cell membrane signaling pathways, such as surface membrane, membrane-enclosed organelles, integral component of membrane, PPAR signaling pathway, and voltage-gated potassium channel. PPI network analysis and literature analysis of 48 genes were performed, and 8 key genes were identified, and these key genes were closely associated with clinical prognosis. Overexpression of PCDH18, PPL, DEPP1, VASN, KCNE4, MYBPH, and C5AR2 genes or low expression of MARCH4 gene in glioma patients was associated with poor survival. qPCR confirmed that MT can regulate the expression of these genes in glioma U87 cells. This study indicated that MT significantly inhibited the growth and regulated the expression of PCDH18, C5AR2, VASN, DEPP1, MYBPH, KCNE4, PPL, and MARCH4 genes in glioma U87 cells in vitro. These genes are closely related to the prognosis of patients with glioma and can be used as independent prognostic factors in patients with glioma. MT is a potential drug for the treatment of glioma.

Bee Venom Triggers Autophagy-Induced Apoptosis in Human Lung Cancer Cells via the mTOR Signaling Pathway

In oriental medicine, bee venom has long been used as a therapeutic agent against inflammatory diseases. Several studies have reported that isolated and purified bee venom components are effective in treating dementia, arthritis, inflammation, bacterial infections, and cancer. In previous studies, we reported that bee venom inhibits cell growth and induces apoptotic cell death in lung cancer cells. In the present study, we assessed whether bee venom affects autophagy and thereby induces apoptosis. Bee venom treatment increased the levels of autophagy-related proteins (Atg5, Beclin-1, and LC3-II) and the accumulation of LC3 puncta. We found that bee venom could induce autophagy by inhibiting the mTOR signaling pathway. In addition, we found that hydroxychloroquine (HCQ)- or si-ATG5-induced autophagy inhibition further demoted bee venom-induced apoptosis. Bee venom-induced autophagy promotes apoptosis in lung cancer cells and may become a new approach to cancer treatment.

Periplaneta americana L. a potential source of traditional medicine: chemometric analysis, in vitro and in silico study

'Mayurbhanj is the ethnic dominant tribal population district in Odisha, India. The triabl's of Mayurbhanj depends on traditional medicines since time immemorial for health-related issues. Due to the imperative ethnic claim of traditional healers, the financial stringency of the patient community and the necessity to produce a better therapeutic effect has led to investigate ethno zoological sources and to find out the biochemical moiety responsible for the healing process. Considering the ethnic communities' acceptability of the zoological source as traditional medicine, the current evidence-based research study is conducted to investigate the biochemical moiety present in Periplaneta americana, responsible for therapeutic activity. The whole powdered Periplaneta americana was extracted using maceration techniques with n-hexane and methanol as solvent. The obtained extracts were subjected to GC-MS analysis to identify the biochemical moiety. To check the potential biological activity, an in-vitro antimicrobial test was carried out in both turbidimetry and a viable count method against E. coli. Moreover, the obtained biochemical molecules were exposed to in silico studies for their binding modes and their affinity using Discovery studio software. The major compounds were found to be hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, n-hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, octadecanoic acid along with other minor constituents. The maximum inhibitory activity of n-hexane and methanol extract against S. aureus at a concentration of 400 µg/mL was found to be 89 and 87%, respectively. The binding models of almost all identified compounds confer very good binding affinities with some key and strong non-covalent interactions with various amino acid residues of receptor active site pocket, which predict the compounds to be potent inhibitors of various infectious bacteria. These findings suggested that the hexane extract of P. americana could be exploited as a potential natural source. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Enhanced Therapeutic Effect of Optimized Melittin-dKLA, a Peptide Agent Targeting M2-like Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by a high possibility of metastasis. M2-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the main components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and play a key role in TNBC metastasis. Therefore, TAMs may be a potential target for reducing TNBC metastasis. Melittin-dKLA, a peptide composed of fused melittin and pro-apoptotic peptide d(KLAKLAK)2 (dKLA), showed a potent therapeutic effect against cancers by depleting TAMs. However, melittin has a strong adverse hemolytic effect. Hence, we attempted to improve the therapeutic potential of melittin-dKLA by reducing toxicity and increasing stability. Nine truncated melittin fragments were synthesized and examined. Of the nine peptides, the melittin-dKLA8-26 showed the best binding properties to M2 macrophages and discriminated M0/M1/M2. All fragments, except melittin, lost their hemolytic effects. To increase the stability of the peptide, melittin-dKLA8-26 fragment was conjugated with PEGylation at the amino terminus and was named PEG-melittin-dKLA8-26. This final drug candidate was assessed in vivo in a murine TNBC model and showed superior effects on tumor growth, survival rates, and lung metastasis compared with the previously used melittin-dKLA. Taken together, our study showed that the novel PEG-melittin-dKLA8-26 possesses potential as a new drug for treating TNBC and TNBC-mediated metastasis by targeting TAMs.

Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Application Value of Edible Insects: A Review

For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.

Potentiality of raloxifene loaded melittin functionalized lipidic nanovesicles against pancreatic cancer cells

Pancreatic cancer (PC) frequency and incidence have grown rapidly in recent years. One of the most serious problems with PC is the existence of asymptotic manifestations, which frequently delays early detection, and until the diagnosis is established, tumor cells progress to the metastatic stage. Another significant concern with PC is the scarcity of well-defined pharmacotherapeutic drugs. The aim of this study was to develop an efficient nanocarrier system to augment the efficacy of raloxifene (RLX) against PC cells. As a result, the current investigation was carried out in order to give an effective treatment method, in which an optimum RLX loaded phospholipid-based vesicles with melittin (PL-MEL) was chosen using experimental design software, with particle size, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency % as dependent variables. Furthermore, anticancer activity against PANC1 cells was assessed. The optimized nanovesicle parameters were 172.5 nm for the measured size, zeta potential of -0.69 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 76.91% that were in good agreement with the expected ones. RLX-raw, plain formula, and optimized RLX-PL-MEL showed IC50 concentrations of 26.07 ± 0.98, 9.166 ± 0.34, and 1.24 ± 0.05 µg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, cell cycle analysis revealed that the nanovesicle was most effective in the G2-M phase, whereas Bax, and Bcl-2 estimates revealed that optimized RLX formula had the highest apoptotic activity among treatments investigated. However, as compared to RLX alone or plain formula alone, the optimized formula demonstrated higher expression of TNFα and Bax while a significant reduction of Bcl-2 and NF-κB expression was observed. mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) analysis confirmed the apoptosis as well as the anticancer effect of the optimized formula. Thus, the present study results showed an improvement in the anti-PC effects of the RLX with phospholipid conjugated melittin, making it a novel treatment approach against PC.

Bioactive peptides from venoms against glioma progression

Venoms are complex mixtures of different molecules and ions. Among them, bioactive peptides have been found to affect cancer hallmarks, such as cell proliferation, cell invasion, cell migration, and can also modulate the immune response of normal and cancer-bearing organisms. In this article, we review the mechanisms of action on these cancer cell features, focusing on bioactive peptides being developed as potential therapeutics for one of the most aggressive and deadly brain tumors, glioblastoma (GB). Novel therapeutic approaches applying bioactive peptides may contribute to multiple targeting of GB and particularly of GB stem cells. Bioactive peptides selectively target cancer cells without harming normal cells. Various molecular targets related to the effects of bioactive peptides on GB have been proposed, including ion channels, integrins, membrane phospholipids and even immunomodulatory treatment of GB. In addition to therapy, some bioactive peptides, such as disintegrins, can also be used for diagnostics or are used as labels for cytotoxic drugs to specifically target cancer cells. Given the limitations described in the last section, successful application in cancer therapy is rather low, as only 3.4% of such peptides have been included in clinical trials and have passed successfully phases I to III. Combined approaches of added bioactive peptides to standard cancer therapies need to be explored using advanced GB in vitro models such as organoids. On the other hand, new methods are also being developed to improve translation from research to practice and provide new hope for GB patients and their families.

Therapeutic Potential of Bee and Scorpion Venom Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): A Narrative Review

Venomous arthropods such as scorpions and bees form one of the important groups with an essential role in medical entomology. Their venom possesses a mixture of diverse compounds, such as peptides, some of which have toxic effects, and enzymatic peptide Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) with a pharmacological potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bee and scorpion venom PLA2 group III has been used in immunotherapy, the treatment of neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. They were assessed for antinociceptive, wound healing, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, and anti-angiogenesis effects. PLA2 has been identified in different species of scorpions and bees. The anti-leishmania, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-malarial activities of scorpion PLA2 still need further investigation. Many pieces of research have been stopped in the laboratory stage, and several studies need vast investigation in the clinical phase to show the pharmacological potential of PLA2. In this review, the medical significance of PLA2 from the venom of two arthropods, namely bees and scorpions, is discussed.

Bio-nano scale modifications of melittin for improving therapeutic efficacy

INTRODUCTION

Melittin (MLT), a natural membrane-active component, is the most prominent cytolytic peptide from bee venom. Remarkable biological properties of MLT, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-protozoan, and antiarthritic activities, make it an up-and-coming therapeutic candidate for a wide variety of human diseases. Therapeutic applications of MLT may be hindered due to low stability, high toxicity, and weak tissue penetration. Different bio-nano scale modifications hold promise for improving its functionality and therapeutic efficacy.

AREAS COVERED

In the current review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive insight into strategies used for MLT conjugations and modifications, cellular delivery of modified forms, and their clinical perspectives by reviewing the published literature on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. We also emphasized the MLT structure modifications, mechanism of action, and cellular toxicity.

EXPERT OPINION

Developing new analogs and conjugates of MLT as a natural drug with improved functions and fewer side effects is crucial for the clinical translation of this approach worldwide, especially where the chemicals and synthetic drugs are more expensive or unavailable in the healthcare system. MLT-nanoconjugation may be one of the best-optimized strategies for improving peptide delivery, increasing its therapeutic efficacy, and providing minimal nonspecific cellular lytic activity. [Figure: see text].

Applications of Alginate-Based Nanomaterials in Enhancing the Therapeutic Effects of Bee Products

Since the ancient times, bee products (i.e., honey, propolis, pollen, bee venom, bee bread, and royal jelly) have been considered as natural remedies with therapeutic effects against a number of diseases. The therapeutic pleiotropy of bee products is due to their diverse composition and chemical properties, which is independent on the bee species. This has encouraged researchers to extensively study the therapeutic potentials of these products, especially honey. On the other hand, amid the unprecedented growth in nanotechnology research and applications, nanomaterials with various characteristics have been utilized to improve the therapeutic efficiency of these products. Towards keeping the bee products as natural and non-toxic therapeutics, the green synthesis of nanocarriers loaded with these products or their extracts has received a special attention. Alginate is a naturally produced biopolymer derived from brown algae, the desirable properties of which include biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity. This review presents an overview of alginates, including their properties, nanoformulations, and pharmaceutical applications, placing a particular emphasis on their applications for the enhancement of the therapeutic effects of bee products. Despite the paucity of studies on fabrication of alginate-based nanomaterials loaded with bee products or their extracts, recent advances in the area of utilizing alginate-based nanomaterials and other types of materials to enhance the therapeutic potentials of bee products are summarized in this work. As the most widespread and well-studied bee products, honey and propolis have garnered a special interest; combining them with alginate-based nanomaterials has led to promising findings, especially for wound healing and skin tissue engineering. Furthermore, future directions are proposed and discussed to encourage researchers to develop alginate-based stingless bee product nanomedicines, and to help in selecting suitable methods for devising nanoformulations based on multi-criteria decision making models. Also, the commercialization prospects of nanocomposites based on alginates and bee products are discussed. In conclusion, preserving original characteristics of the bee products is a critical challenge in developing nano-carrier systems. Alginate-based nanomaterials are well suited for this task because they can be fabricated without the use of harsh conditions, such as shear force and freeze-drying, which are often used for other nano-carriers. Further, conjunction of alginates with natural polymers such as honey does not only combine the medicinal properties of alginates and honey, but it could also enhance the mechanical properties and cell adhesion capacity of alginates.

Therapeutic Effect of Melittin–dKLA Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Melanoma

Melanoma is an immunogenic tumor and a serious type of skin cancer. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) express an M2-like phenotype and are involved in all stages of melanomagenesis; it is hence a promising target for cancer immunotherapy. We herein investigated whether melittin–dKLA inhibits the growth of melanoma by inducing apoptosis of M2-like macrophages. For the in vitro study, a conditioned medium of macrophages was prepared from M0, M1, or M2-differentiated THP-1 cells with and without melittin–dKLA. The affinity of melittin for M2 macrophages was studied with FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate)-conjugated melittin. For the in vivo study, murine melanoma cells were inoculated subcutaneously in the right flank of mice, melittin–dKLA was intraperitoneally injected at 200 nmol/kg every three days, and flow cytometry analysis of TAMs was performed. Since melittin binds preferentially to M2-like macrophages, melittin–dKLA induced more caspase 3 expression and cell death in M2 macrophages compared with M0 and M1 macrophages and melanoma cells. Melittin–dKLA significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of M2 macrophages, resulting in a decrease in melanoma tumor growth in vivo. The CD206+ M2-like TAMs were reduced, while the CD86+ M1-like TAMs were not affected. Melittin–dKLA is therapeutically effective against melanoma by inducing the apoptosis of M2-like TAMs.

Apis mellifera syriaca Venom: Evaluation of Its Anticoagulant Effect, Proteolytic Activity, and Cytotoxicity along with Its Two Main Compounds-MEL and PLA2-On HeLa Cancer Cells

Bee venom (BV) is one of the most remarkable natural products that has been a subject of studies since ancient times. Recent studies have shown that Apis mellifera syriaca venom possesses antibacterial as well as cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines. The venom contains a variety of bioactive molecules-mainly melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), as well as other compounds that are not well characterized. In this work, we continue the biological characterization of A. mellifera syriaca venom by testing its anticoagulant effect on human plasma using the prothrombin time (PT) test, as well as assessing its proteolytic activity. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the crude venom-and of its two main components, MEL and PLA2-was tested on HeLa cancer cell lines for the first time. The results obtained showed the capacity of A. mellifera syriaca venom to increase clotting time, thereby proving its anticoagulant effect. Moreover, the venom did not demonstrate a significant proteolytic activity unless administrated at concentrations ≥ 5 mg/mL. Finally, we showed that crude A. mellifera syriaca venom, along with MEL, exhibit a strong in vitro cytotoxic effect on HeLa cancer cell lines, even at low concentrations. In summary, our findings could serve as a basis for the development of new natural-based drug candidates in the therapeutic field.

Bee venom-loaded EGFR-targeting peptide-coupled chitosan nanoparticles for effective therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma by inhibiting EGFR-mediated MEK/ERK pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the world's most risky diseases due to the lack of clear and cost-effective therapeutic targets. Currently, the toxicity of conventional chemotherapeutic medications and the development of multidrug resistance is driving research into targeted therapies. The nano-biomedical field's potential for developing an effective therapeutic nano-sized drug delivery system is viewed as a significant pharmaceutical trend for the encapsulation and release of numerous anticancer therapies. In this regard, current research is centered on the creation of biodegradable chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) for the selective and sustained release of bee venom into liver cancer cells. Furthermore, surface modification with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and GE11 peptide-conjugated bee venom-CSNPs allows for the targeting of EGFR-overexpressed liver cancer cells. A series of in vitro and in vivo cellular analyses were used to investigate the antitumor effects and mechanisms of targeted bee venom-CSNPs. Targeted bee venom-CSNPs, in particular, were found to have higher cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells than SMMC-7721 cells, as well as stronger cellular uptake and a substantial reduction in cell migration, leading to improved cancer suppression. It also promotes cancer cell death in EGFR overexpressed HepG2 cells by boosting reactive oxygen species, activating mitochondria-dependent pathways, inhibiting EGFR-stimulated MEK/ERK pathway, and elevating p38-MAPK in comparison to native bee venom. In hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-induced mice, it has anti-cancer properties against tumor tissue. It also improved liver function and architecture without causing any noticeable toxic side effects, as well as inhibiting tumor growth by activating the apoptotic pathway. The design of this cancer-targeted nanoparticle establishes GE11-bee venom-CSNPs as a potential chemotherapeutic treatment for EGFR over-expressed malignancies. Finally, our work elucidates the molecular mechanism underlying the anticancer selectivity of targeted bee venom-CSNPs and outlines therapeutic strategies to target liver cancer.

Melittin suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis in human gastric cancer AGS cells via regulating Wnt/BMP associated pathway

Gastric cancer has a poor prognosis; once cancer has metastasized, it can easily lead to patient death. Melittin is one of the major components extracted from the bee venom. It has been shown that melittin emerges antitumor activities against many human cancer cell lines. Our results indicated that melittin at 0.2-0.5 µm significantly reduced total cell viability in human gastric cancer AGS cells. At low concentrations (0.05-0.15 µm), melittin displayed antimetastasis effects and inhibited cell adhesion and colony formation. Besides, it inhibited cell motility and suppressed cell migration and invasion. Melittin inhibited the activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 and the integrity of cell membrane in AGS cells. Furthermore, Western blotting results showed that melittin decreased the protein expressions of Wnt/BMP and MMP-2 signaling pathways. Based on these observations, melittin inhibited cell migration and invasion of AGS cells through multiple signaling pathways. It may be used to treat metastasized gastric cancers in the future.

Paracelsus' legacy in the faunal realm: Drugs deriving from animal toxins

Given the vast number of venomous and poisonous animals, it is surprising that only relatively few animal-derived toxins have been explored and made their way into marketed drugs or are being investigated in ongoing clinical trials. In this review, we highlight marketed drugs deriving from animal toxins as well as ongoing clinical trials and preclinical investigations in the field. We emphasize that more attention should be paid to the rich supply of candidates that nature provides as valuable starting points for addressing serious unmet medical needs.

Applications and evolution of melittin, the quintessential membrane active peptide

Melittin, the main venom component of the European Honeybee, is a cationic linear peptide-amide of 26 amino acid residues with the sequence: GIGAVLKVLTTGLPALISWIKRKRQQ-NH₂. Melittin binds to lipid bilayer membranes, folds into amphipathic α-helical secondary structure and disrupts the permeability barrier. Since melittin was first described, a remarkable array of activities and potential applications in biology and medicine have been described. Melittin is also a favorite model system for biophysicists to study the structure, folding and function of peptides and proteins in membranes. Melittin has also been used as a template for the evolution of new activities in membranes. Here we overview the rich history of scientific research into the many activities of melittin and outline exciting future applications.

Protective rules of natural antioxidants against gamma-induced damage-A review

Phytochemicals accessible in food have demonstrated efficiency against impairment by gamma radiation. The review presented here is an attempt to show the pharmacological outline of the activity of the natural antioxidants and its primary action of molecular mechanism against the damage induced by gamma rays. This research focused on the results of the in vitro dosage of natural antioxidants relationship, and on the correlation of this information with the statistical variables. Moreover, it deliberated the natural compounds which could decrease the unwelcome impacts of gamma radiation and safeguard biological systems from radiation-stimulated genotoxicity. The outcomes indicated that natural compounds can be utilized as an adjunct to orthodox radiotherapy and cultivate it as an effectual drug for the clinical administration of ailments.

Molecular characterization of the anticancer properties associated with bee venom and its components in glioblastoma multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a frequent form of malignant glioma. Strategic therapeutic approaches to treat this type of brain tumor currently involves a combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, survival of GBM patients remains in the 12-15 months range following diagnosis. Development of novel therapeutic approaches for this malignancy is therefore of utmost importance. Interestingly, bee venom and its components have shown promising anti-cancer activities in various types of cancer even though information pertaining to GBMs have been limited. The current work was thus undertaken to better characterize the anti-cancer properties of bee venom and its components in Hs683, T98G and U373 human glioma cells. MTT-based cell viability assays revealed IC₅₀ values of 7.12, 15.35 and 7.60 μg/mL for cell lines Hs683, T98G and U373 treated with bee venom, respectively. Furthermore, melittin treatment of these cell lines resulted in IC₅₀ values of 7.77, 31.53 and 12.34 μg/mL, respectively. Cell viability assessment by flow cytometry analysis confirmed signs of late apoptosis and necrosis after only 1 h of treatment with either bee venom or melittin in all three cell lines. Immunoblotting-based quantification of apoptotic markers demonstrated increased expression of Bak and Bax, while Caspsase-3 levels were significantly lower when compared to control cells. Quantification by qRT-PCR showed increased expression levels of long non-coding RNAs RP11-838N2.4 and XIST in glioma cells treated with either bee venom or melittin. Overall, this study provides preliminary insight on molecular mechanisms via which bee venom and its main components can impact viability of glioma cells and warrants further investigation of its anticancer potential in gliomas.

Therapeutic Role of Annona muricata Fruit and Bee Venom Against MNU-Induced Breast Cancer in Pregnant Rats and its Complications on the Ovaries

AIM

To evaluate the potential therapeutic role of Annona muricata (graviola) fruit and bee venom (BV) against N-methylnitrosourea (MNU)-induced breast cancer in pregnant female rats and complications in the ovaries.

METHODS

A total of 24 female rats were induced with a single dose of MNU (50 mg/kg body weight). After confirmation of positive tumor marker, female rats were placed with the males for mating. The pregnant rats were randomly divided into four groups (n=6): MNU-induced only (group 1), MNU-induced rats and supplemented with A. muricata 200 mg/kg diet (group 2), MNU-induced and treated with two doses of BV 75 μg/kg (group 3), and MNU-induced and treated with both A. muricata and BV (group 4).

RESULTS

In group 1, the breast tissue of mothers revealed pronounced cellular hyperplasia and histopathological signs. Also, the ovarian tissue of mothers and their offspring displayed deleterious histological changes. In groups 2 and 4, histopathological signs and cellular hyperplasia markedly disappeared in breast tissue. However, the histopathological signs induced by MNU in the ovarian tissue reversed to normal in groups 2-4. Also in groups 2-4, levels of serum MMP1, NFκB, and TNFα significantly decreased, and serum caspase 3 significantly increased either in mother rats or their offspring compared to the MNU-alone group. Levels of serum MDA significantly decreased; however, levels of serum antioxidants (CAT and SOD) significantly increased in all groups 2-4 compared to MNU-alone group.

CONCLUSION

A. muricata has a more powerful therapeutic role than BV against MNU-induced breast cancer in rats; however, both have a powerful ameliorative role against ovarian histopathological alterations induced by MNU. Such ameliorative effects of A. muricata and BV are mainly attributed to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative constituents.

Delivery of melittin-loaded niosomes for breast cancer treatment: an in vitro and in vivo evaluation of anti-cancer effect

Background

Melittin, a peptide component of honey bee venom, is an appealing candidate for cancer therapy. In the current study, melittin, melittin-loaded niosome, and empty niosome had been optimized and the anticancer effect assessed in vitro on 4T1 and SKBR3 breast cell lines and in vivo on BALB/C inbred mice. "Thin-layer hydration method" was used for preparing the niosomes; different niosomal formulations of melittin were prepared and characterized in terms of morphology, size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, release kinetics, and stability. A niosome was formulated and loaded with melittin as a promising drug carrier system for chemotherapy of the breast cancer cells. Hemolysis, apoptosis, cell cytotoxicity, invasion and migration of selected concentrations of melittin, and melittin-loaded niosome were evaluated on 4T1 and SKBR3 cells using hemolytic activity assay, flow cytometry, MTT assay, soft agar colony assay, and wound healing assay. Real-time PCR was used to determine the gene expression. 40 BALB/c inbred mice were used; then, the histopathology, P53 immunohistochemical assay and estimate of renal and liver enzyme activity for all groups had been done.

Results

This study showed melittin-loaded niosome is an excellent substitute in breast cancer treatment due to enhanced targeting, encapsulation efficiency, PDI, and release rate and shows a high anticancer effect on cell lines. The melittin-loaded niosome affects the genes expression by studied cells were higher than other samples; down-regulates the expression of Bcl2, MMP2, and MMP9 genes while they up-regulate the expression of Bax, Caspase3 and Caspase9 genes. They have also enhanced the apoptosis rate and inhibited cell migration, invasion in both cell lines compared to the melittin samples. Results of histopathology showed reduce mitosis index, invasion and pleomorphism in melittin-loaded niosome. Renal and hepatic biomarker activity did not significantly differ in melittin-loaded niosome and melittin compared to healthy control. In immunohistochemistry, P53 expression did not show a significant change in all groups.

Conclusions

Our study successfully declares that melittin-loaded niosome had more anti-cancer effects than free melittin. This project has demonstrated that niosomes are suitable vesicle carriers for melittin, compare to the free form.

Melittin inhibits the expression of key genes involved in tumor microenvironment formation by suppressing HIF-1α signaling in breast cancer cells

HIF-1α has critical roles in the formation of tumor microenvironment by regulating genes involved in angiogenesis and anaerobic respiration. TME fuels tumors' growth and metastasis and presents therapy with several challenges. Therefore, we aimed to investigate if Melittin disrupts HIF-1α signaling pathway in breast adenocarcinoma cell line MDA-MB-231. Breast adenocarcinoma cell line MDA-MB-231 was cultured in the presence of different doses of Melittin, and MTT assay was carried out to measure Melittin's cytotoxic effects. Cells were exposed to 5% O₂ to mimic hypoxic conditions and Melittin. Western blot was used to measure HIF-1α protein levels. Gene expression analysis was performed using real-time PCR to measure relative mRNA abundance of genes involved in tumor microenvironment formation. Our results revealed that Melittin effectively inhibits HIF-1α at transcriptional and translational/post-translational level. HIF-1α protein and mRNA level were significantly decreased in Melittin-treated groups. It is found that inhibition of HIF-1α by Melittin is through downregulation of NFκB gene expression. Furthermore, gene expression analysis showed a downregulation in VEGFA and LDHA expression due to inhibition of HIF-1α protein by Melittin. In addition, cell toxicity assay showed that Melittin inhibits the growth of MDA-MB-231 cell line through activation of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways by upregulating TNFA and BAX expression. Melittin suppresses the expression of genes responsible for formation of TME physiological hallmarks by suppressing HIF-1α signaling pathway. Our results suggest that Melittin can modulate tumor microenvironment by inhibition of VEGFA and LDHA.

Antimicrobial Polymer-Based Assemblies: A Review

An antimicrobial supramolecular assembly (ASA) is conspicuous in biomedical applications. Among the alternatives to overcome microbial resistance to antibiotics and drugs, ASAs, including antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and polymers (APs), provide formulations with optimal antimicrobial activity and acceptable toxicity. AMPs and APs have been delivered by a variety of carriers such as nanoparticles, coatings, multilayers, hydrogels, liposomes, nanodisks, lyotropic lipid phases, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc. They have similar mechanisms of action involving adsorption to the cell wall, penetration across the cell membrane, and microbe lysis. APs, however, offer the advantage of cheap synthetic procedures, chemical stability, and improved adsorption (due to multipoint attachment to microbes), as compared to the expensive synthetic routes, poor yield, and subpar in vivo stability seen in AMPs. We review recent advances in polymer-based antimicrobial assemblies involving AMPs and APs.

Apoptotic Effects of Melittin on 4T1 Breast Cancer Cell Line is associated with Up Regulation of Mfn1 and Drp1 mRNA Expression

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Melittin, as the main ingredient of honeybee venom, that has shown anticancer properties. The present study aimed at investigating the cytotoxic impacts of melittin on 4T1 breast cancer cells.

METHODS

Hemolytic activity of different concentrations (0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8μg/ml) of melittin was assayed and then cytotoxicity of selected concentrations of melittin (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64μg/ml), 2 and 4μg/ml of cisplatin and 0.513, 0.295 and 0.123μg/ml of doxorubicin was evaluated on 4T1 cells using MTT assay. We used Morphological evaluation and flow cytometric analysis was used. Real time PCR was also used to determine mRNA expression of Mfn1 and Drp1 genes.

RESULTS

All compounds showed anti-proliferative effects on the tumor cell line with different potencies. Melittin had higher cytotoxicity against 4T1 breast cancer cells (IC50= 32μg/ml-72h) and higher hemolytic activity (HD50= 1μg/ml), as compared to cisplatin and doxorubicin. Mellitin at 16 and 32μg/ml showed apoptotic effects on 4T1 cells according to the flow cytometric analysis. The Real time PCR analysis of Drp1 and Mfn1 expression in cells treated with 16μg/ml of melittin revealed an up-regulation in Drp1 and Mfn1 genes mRNA expression in comparison with control group. Treatment with 32μg/ml of melittin was also associated with a rise in mRNA expression of Drp1 and Mfn1 as compared to the control group.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed that melittin has anticancer effects on 4T1 cell lines in a dose and time dependent manner and can be a good candidate for further research on breast cancer treatment.

Bee Venom Components as Therapeutic Tools against Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in men. Despite the development of a variety of therapeutic agents to treat either metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer, advanced prostate cancer, or nonmetastatic/metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, the progression or spread of the disease often cannot be avoided. Additionally, the development of resistance of prostate cancer cells to available therapeutic agents is a well-known problem. Despite extensive and cost-intensive research over decades, curative therapy for metastatic prostate cancer is still not available. Therefore, additional therapeutic agents are still needed. The animal kingdom offers a valuable source of natural substances used for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Bee venom of the honeybee is a mixture of many components. It contains proteins acting as enzymes such as phospholipase A2, smaller proteins and peptides such as melittin and apamin, phospholipids, and physiologically active amines such as histamine, dopamine, and noradrenaline. Melittin has been shown to induce apoptosis in different cancer cell lines, including prostate cancer cell lines. It also influences cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and necrosis as well as motility, migration, metastasis, and invasion of tumour cells. Hence, it represents an interesting anticancer agent. In this review article, studies about the effect of bee venom components on prostate cancer cells are discussed. An electronic literature research was performed utilising PubMed in February 2021. All scientific publications, which examine this interesting subject, are discussed. Furthermore, the different types of application of these promising substances are outlined. The studies clearly indicate that bee venom or melittin exhibited anticancer effects in various prostate cancer cell lines and in xenografts. In most of the studies, a combination of bee venom or the modified melittin with another molecule was utilised in order to avoid side effects and, additionally, to target selectively the prostate cancer cells or the surrounding tissue. The studies showed that systemic side effects and unwanted damage to healthy tissue and organs could be minimised when the anticancer drug was not activated until binding to the cancer cells or the surrounding tissue. Different targets were used, such as the matrix metalloproteinase 2, hormone receptors expressed by prostate cancer cells, the extracellular domain of PSMA, and the fibroblast activation protein occurring in the stroma of prostate cancer cells. Another approach used loaded phosphate micelles, which were cleaved by the enzyme secretory phospholipase A2 produced by prostate cancer cells. In a totally different approach, targeted nanoparticles containing the melittin gene were used for prostate cancer gene therapy. By the targeted nonviral gene delivery, the gene encoding melittin was delivered to the prostate cancer cells without systemic side effects. This review of the scientific literature reveals totally different approaches using bee venom, melittin, modified melittin, or protoxin as anticancer agents. The toxic agents acted through several different mechanisms to produce their anti-prostate cancer effects. These mechanisms are not fully understood yet and more experimental studies are necessary to reveal the complete mode of action. Nevertheless, the researchers have conducted pioneering work. Based on these results, further experimental and clinical studies about melittin and modifications of this interesting agent deriving from nature are necessary and could possibly lead to a complementary treatment option for prostate cancer.

Glutamine regulates ovarian cancer cell migration and invasion through ETS1

Cancer cells are dependent on glutamine for their metabolism and growth. Despite being the most abundant amino acid in the blood, glutamine deprivation occurs in the core of the tumor rendering less access to glutamine to the nearby tumor cells. Tumor cells mostly use the glutamine for mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to produce energy and the ingredients of the biomass required for the highly proliferating and metastatic ovarian cancer cells. But there is a lack of reports on the regulation of glutamine starvation on metastatic behavior and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) of ovarian cancer cells. We found that glutamine starvation reduced the migration and invasion properties of the ovarian cancer cells, PA1 and SKOV3. The expression of the invasion-inducing proteins, like matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2 and MMP9), were downregulated upon glutamine starvation. MMP genes are mostly regulated by the ETS1 oncogenic transcription factor in invasive tumor cells. Here we demonstrated the significant involvement of ETS1 on EMT and invasion in glutamine-deprived cells. We have further shown that the regulation of ETS1 expression and nuclear localization upon glutamine starvation is controlled in a cell type-specific manner. In PA1 cells, glutamine-induced ETS1 over-expression is HIF1α-dependent, while in SKOV3, its translocation to the nucleus is regulated through the mTOR pathway. Considering all, our study suggests that glutamine plays a very significant role in migration and invasion in ovarian cancer cells and ETS1 plays a key role in inducing such oncogenic parameters.