1
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Zhou Y, Cui R, Zhang M, Tang F, Ma X, Wu X. Mitochondrial uptake of aristolactam I plays a critical role in its toxicity. Toxicol Lett 2024; 394:76-91. [PMID: 38428544 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2024.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI), a component of aristolochic acids, can be converted to the toxic metabolite Aristolactam I (ALI) in vivo which forms aristolactam-nitrenium with delocalized positive charges. It is widely accepted that delocalized lipophilic cations can accumulate in mitochondria due to the highly negatively charged microenvironment of the mitochondrial matrix, but the uptake of ALI by mitochondria is not known. In this study, the cell uptake and mitochondrial localization of ALI, and its subsequent impact on mitochondrial function were investigated. Results show that ALI can rapidly penetrate HK-2 cells without relying on organic anion transporters 1/3 (OAT1/3). The cellular distribution of ALI was found to align with the observed distribution of a mitochondria-selective dye in HK-2 cells. Furthermore, the cell uptake and mitochondrial uptake of ALI were both inhibited by carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone, which induces mitochondrial membrane depolarization. These results suggest that ALI is selectively taken up by mitochondria. Consequently, mitochondrial dysfunction was observed after treatment with ALI. It should be noted that inhibiting OAT1/3 could result in an increased exposure of ALI in vivo and cause more seriously nephrotoxicity. In conclusion, this research reports the mitochondrial uptake of ALI and provides new insight on potential strategies for protection against AAI-induced nephrotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Engineering Research Centre of Prevention and Control for Clinical Medication Risk, Gansu Province, China
| | - Ruirui Cui
- College of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Mingkang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; College of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Fabing Tang
- Pathology Department, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiaohua Ma
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Engineering Research Centre of Prevention and Control for Clinical Medication Risk, Gansu Province, China
| | - Xin'an Wu
- The First Clinical Medical School of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Department of Pharmacy, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China; Engineering Research Centre of Prevention and Control for Clinical Medication Risk, Gansu Province, China.
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Skullcapflavone II, a novel NQO1 inhibitor, alleviates aristolochic acid I-induced liver and kidney injury in mice. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2023:10.1038/s41401-023-01052-3. [PMID: 36697978 PMCID: PMC9876410 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01052-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a well established nephrotoxin and human carcinogen. Cytosolic NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) plays an important role in the nitro reduction of aristolochic acids, leading to production of aristoloactam and AA-DNA adduct. Application of a potent NQO1 inhibitor dicoumarol is limited by its life-threatening side effect as an anticoagulant and the subsequent hemorrhagic complications. As traditional medicines containing AAI remain available in the market, novel NQO1 inhibitors are urgently needed to attenuate the toxicity of AAI exposure. In this study, we employed comprehensive 2D NQO1 biochromatography to screen candidate compounds that could bind with NQO1 protein. Four compounds, i.e., skullcapflavone II (SFII), oroxylin A, wogonin and tectochrysin were screened out from Scutellaria baicalensis. Among them, SFII was the most promising NQO1 inhibitor with a binding affinity (KD = 4.198 μmol/L) and inhibitory activity (IC50 = 2.87 μmol/L). In human normal liver cell line (L02) and human renal proximal tubular epithelial cell line (HK-2), SFII significantly alleviated AAI-induced DNA damage and apoptosis. In adult mice, oral administration of SFII dose-dependently ameliorated AAI-induced renal fibrosis and dysfunction. In infant mice, oral administration of SFII suppressed AAI-induced hepatocellular carcinoma initiation. Moreover, administration of SFII did not affect the coagulation function in short term in adult mice. In conclusion, SFII has been identified as a novel NQO1 inhibitor that might impede the risk of AAI to kidney and liver without obvious side effect.
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Liu YZ, Lu HL, Qi XM, Xing GZ, Wang X, Yu P, Liu L, Yang FF, Ding XL, Zhang ZA, Deng ZP, Gong LK, Ren J. Aristolochic acid I promoted clonal expansion but did not induce hepatocellular carcinoma in adult rats. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2021; 42:2094-2105. [PMID: 33686245 PMCID: PMC8633323 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-021-00622-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a well-known nephrotoxic carcinogen, which is currently reported to be also associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Whether AAI is a direct hepatocarcinogen remains controversial. In this study we investigated the association between AAI exposure and HCC in adult rats using a sensitive rat liver bioassay with several cofactors. Formation of glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive (GST-P+) foci was used as the marker for preneoplastic lesions/clonal expansion. We first conducted a medium-term (8 weeks) study to investigate whether AAI had any tumor-initiating or -promoting activity. Then a long-term (52 weeks) study was conducted to determine whether AAI can directly induce HCC. We showed that oral administration of single dose of AAI (20, 50, or 100 mg/kg) in combination with partial hepatectomy (PH) to stimulate liver proliferation did not induce typical GST-P+ foci in liver. In the 8-week study, only high dose of AAI (10 mg · kg-1 · d-1, 5 days a week for 6 weeks) in combination with PH significantly increased the number and area of GST-P+ foci initiated by diethylnitrosamine (DEN) in liver. Similarly, only high dose of AAI (10 mg· kg-1· d-1, 5 days a week for 52 weeks) in combination with PH significantly increased the number and area of hepatic GST-P+ foci in the 52-week study. No any nodules or HCC were observed in liver of any AAI-treated groups. In contrast, long-term administration of AAI (0.1, 1, 10 mg· kg-1· d-1) time- and dose-dependently caused death due to the occurrence of cancers in the forestomach, intestine, and/or kidney. Besides, AAI-DNA adducts accumulated in the forestomach, kidney, and liver in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Taken together, AAI promotes clonal expansion only in the high-dose group but did not induce any nodules or HCC in liver of adult rats till their deaths caused by cancers developed in the forestomach, intestine, and/or kidney. Findings from our animal studies will pave the way for further large-scale epidemiological investigation of the associations between AA and HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Zhen Liu
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Innovation Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Heng-Lei Lu
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Innovation Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xin-Ming Qi
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Guo-Zhen Xing
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Pan Yu
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Fang-Fang Yang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xiao-Lan Ding
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ze-An Zhang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Innovation Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Zhong-Ping Deng
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Innovation Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Li-Kun Gong
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Institutes of Drug Discovery and Development, CAS, Zhongshan, 528400, China.
| | - Jin Ren
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China.
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Bárta F, Dedíková A, Bebová M, Dušková Š, Mráz J, Schmeiser HH, Arlt VM, Hodek P, Stiborová M. Co-Exposure to Aristolochic Acids I and II Increases DNA Adduct Formation Responsible for Aristolochic Acid I-Mediated Carcinogenicity in Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910479. [PMID: 34638820 PMCID: PMC8509051 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant extract aristolochic acid (AA), containing aristolochic acids I (AAI) and II (AAII) as major components, causes aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) and Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN), unique renal diseases associated with upper urothelial cancer. Recently (Chemical Research in Toxicology 33(11), 2804–2818, 2020), we showed that the in vivo metabolism of AAI and AAII in Wistar rats is influenced by their co-exposure (i.e., AAI/AAII mixture). Using the same rat model, we investigated how exposure to the AAI/AAII mixture can influence AAI and AAII DNA adduct formation (i.e., AA-mediated genotoxicity). Using 32P-postlabelling, we found that AA-DNA adduct formation was increased in the livers and kidneys of rats treated with AAI/AAII mixture compared to rats treated with AAI or AAII alone. Measuring the activity of enzymes involved in AA metabolism, we showed that enhanced AA-DNA adduct formation might be caused partially by both decreased AAI detoxification as a result of hepatic CYP2C11 inhibition during treatment with AAI/AAII mixture and by hepatic or renal NQO1 induction, the key enzyme predominantly activating AA to DNA adducts. Moreover, our results indicate that AAII might act as an inhibitor of AAI detoxification in vivo. Consequently, higher amounts of AAI might remain in liver and kidney tissues, which can be reductively activated, resulting in enhanced AAI DNA adduct formation. Collectively, these results indicate that AAII present in the plant extract AA enhances the genotoxic properties of AAI (i.e., AAI DNA adduct formation). As patients suffering from AAN and BEN are always exposed to the plant extract (i.e., AAI/AAII mixture), our findings are crucial to better understanding host factors critical for AAN- and BEN-associated urothelial malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Bárta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic; (F.B.); (A.D.); (M.B.); (P.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Alena Dedíková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic; (F.B.); (A.D.); (M.B.); (P.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Michaela Bebová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic; (F.B.); (A.D.); (M.B.); (P.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Šárka Dušková
- Centre of Occupational Health, National Institute of Public Health, Šrobárova 48, 100 42 Prague 10, Czech Republic; (Š.D.); (J.M.)
| | - Jaroslav Mráz
- Centre of Occupational Health, National Institute of Public Health, Šrobárova 48, 100 42 Prague 10, Czech Republic; (Š.D.); (J.M.)
| | - Heinz H. Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany;
| | - Volker M. Arlt
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences Division, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
- Toxicology Department, GAB Consulting GmbH, Heinrich-Fuchs-Str. 96, 69126 Heidelberg, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-6221-432018-0
| | - Petr Hodek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic; (F.B.); (A.D.); (M.B.); (P.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic; (F.B.); (A.D.); (M.B.); (P.H.); (M.S.)
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5
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Li XL, Guo XQ, Wang HR, Chen T, Mei N. Aristolochic Acid-Induced Genotoxicity and Toxicogenomic Changes in Rodents. WORLD JOURNAL OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE 2020; 6:12-25. [PMID: 32258091 PMCID: PMC7110418 DOI: 10.4103/wjtcm.wjtcm_33_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid (AA) is a group of structurally related nitrophenanthrene carboxylic acids found in many plants that are widely used by many cultures as traditional herbal medicines. AA is a causative agent for Chinese herbs nephropathy, a term replaced later by AA nephropathy. Evidence indicates that AA is nephrotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic in humans; and it also induces tumors in the forestomach, kidney, renal pelvis, urinary bladder, and lung of rats and mice. Therefore, plants containing AA have been classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In our laboratories, we have conducted a series of genotoxicity and toxicogenomic studies in the rats exposed to AA of 0.1–10 mg/kg for 12 weeks. Our results demonstrated that AA treatments induced DNA adducts and mutations in the kidney, liver, and spleen of rats, as well as significant alteration of gene expression in both its target and nontarget tissues. AA treatments altered mutagenesis- or carcinogenesis-related microRNA expression in rat kidney and resulted in significant changes in protein expression profiling. We also applied benchmark dose (BMD) modeling to the 3-month AA-induced genotoxicity data. The obtained BMDL10 (the lower 95% confidence interval of the BMD10 that is a 10% increase over the background level) for AA-induced mutations in the kidney of rats was about 7 μg/kg body weight per day. This review constitutes an overview of our investigations on AA-induced genotoxicity and toxicogenomic changes including gene expression, microRNA expression, and proteomics; and presents updated information focused on AA-induced genotoxicity in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Lin Li
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Xiao-Qing Guo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Hai-Rong Wang
- Tianjin Center for New Drug Safety Assessment and Research, Tianjin, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR, USA
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6
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Sborchia M, De Prez EG, Antoine MH, Bienfait L, Indra R, Valbuena G, Phillips DH, Nortier JL, Stiborová M, Keun HC, Arlt VM. The impact of p53 on aristolochic acid I-induced nephrotoxicity and DNA damage in vivo and in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:3345-3366. [PMID: 31602497 PMCID: PMC6823306 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02578-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to aristolochic acid (AA) is associated with human nephropathy and urothelial cancer. The tumour suppressor TP53 is a critical gene in carcinogenesis and frequently mutated in AA-induced urothelial tumours. We investigated the impact of p53 on AAI-induced nephrotoxicity and DNA damage in vivo by treating Trp53(+/+), Trp53(+/-) and Trp53(-/-) mice with 3.5 mg/kg body weight (bw) AAI daily for 2 or 6 days. Renal histopathology showed a gradient of intensity in proximal tubular injury from Trp53(+/+) to Trp53(-/-) mice, especially after 6 days. The observed renal injury was supported by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabonomic measurements, where a consistent Trp53 genotype-dependent trend was observed for urinary metabolites that indicate aminoaciduria (i.e. alanine), lactic aciduria (i.e. lactate) and glycosuria (i.e. glucose). However, Trp53 genotype had no impact on AAI-DNA adduct levels, as measured by 32P-postlabelling, in either target (kidney and bladder) or non-target (liver) tissues, indicating that the underlying mechanisms of p53-related AAI-induced nephrotoxicity cannot be explained by differences in AAI genotoxicity. Performing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) on kidney tissues showed metabolic pathways affected by AAI treatment, but again Trp53 status did not clearly impact on such metabolic profiles. We also cultured primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from Trp53(+/+), Trp53(+/-) and Trp53(-/-) mice and exposed them to AAI in vitro (50 µM for up to 48 h). We found that Trp53 genotype impacted on the expression of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (Nqo1), a key enzyme involved in AAI bioactivation. Nqo1 induction was highest in Trp53(+/+) MEFs and lowest in Trp53(-/-) MEFs; and it correlated with AAI-DNA adduct formation, with lowest adduct levels being observed in AAI-exposed Trp53(-/-) MEFs. Overall, our results clearly demonstrate that p53 status impacts on AAI-induced renal injury, but the underlying mechanism(s) involved remain to be further explored. Despite the impact of p53 on AAI bioactivation and DNA damage in vitro, such effects were not observed in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Sborchia
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Eric G De Prez
- Laboratory of Experimental Nephrology, Department of Experimental Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marie-Hélène Antoine
- Laboratory of Experimental Nephrology, Department of Experimental Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lucie Bienfait
- Department of Pathology, Erasme University Hospital, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Radek Indra
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University Prague, 128 40, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Gabriel Valbuena
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - David H Phillips
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Joëlle L Nortier
- Laboratory of Experimental Nephrology, Department of Experimental Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University Prague, 128 40, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Hector C Keun
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
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Kapelyukh Y, Henderson CJ, Scheer N, Rode A, Wolf CR. Defining the Contribution of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 to Drug Metabolism Using Humanized CYP1A1/1A2 and Cyp1a1/Cyp1a2 Knockout Mice. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 47:907-918. [PMID: 31147315 PMCID: PMC6657216 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.119.087718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450s CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 can metabolize a broad range of foreign compounds and drugs. However, these enzymes have significantly overlapping substrate specificities. To establish their relative contribution to drug metabolism in vivo, we used a combination of mice humanized for CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 together with mice nulled at the Cyp1a1 and Cyp1a2 gene loci. CYP1A2 was constitutively expressed in the liver, and both proteins were highly inducible by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) in a number of tissues, including the liver, lung, kidney, and small intestine. Using the differential inhibition of the human enzymes by quinidine, we developed a method to distinguish the relative contribution of CYP1A1 or CYP1A2 in the metabolism of drugs and foreign compounds. Both enzymes made a significant contribution to the hepatic metabolism of the probe compounds 7-methoxy and 7-ehthoxyresorufin in microsomal fractions from animals treated with TCDD. This enzyme kinetic approach allows modeling of the CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and non-CYP1A contribution to the metabolism of any substrate at any substrate, inhibitor, or enzyme concentration and, as a consequence, can be integrated into a physiologically based pharmacokinetics model. The validity of the model can then be tested in humanized mice in vivo. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Human CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 are important in defining the efficacy and toxicity/carcinogenicity of drugs and foreign compounds. In light of differences in substrate specificity and sensitivity to inhibitors, it is of central importance to understand their relative role in foreign compound metabolism. To address this issue, we have generated mice humanized or nulled at the Cyp1a gene locus and, through the use of these mouse lines and selective inhibitors, developed an enzyme kinetic-based model to enable more accurate prediction of the fate of new chemicals in humans and which can be validated in vivo using mice humanized for cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kapelyukh
- Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, United Kingdom (Y.K., C.J.H., C.R.W.) and Taconic Biosciences Inc., Rensselaer, New York (N.S., A.R.)
| | - C J Henderson
- Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, United Kingdom (Y.K., C.J.H., C.R.W.) and Taconic Biosciences Inc., Rensselaer, New York (N.S., A.R.)
| | - N Scheer
- Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, United Kingdom (Y.K., C.J.H., C.R.W.) and Taconic Biosciences Inc., Rensselaer, New York (N.S., A.R.)
| | - A Rode
- Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, United Kingdom (Y.K., C.J.H., C.R.W.) and Taconic Biosciences Inc., Rensselaer, New York (N.S., A.R.)
| | - C R Wolf
- Systems Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, United Kingdom (Y.K., C.J.H., C.R.W.) and Taconic Biosciences Inc., Rensselaer, New York (N.S., A.R.)
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8
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Crosby LM, Tatu CA, Varonka M, Charles KM, Orem WH. Toxicological and chemical studies of wastewater from hydraulic fracture and conventional shale gas wells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2018; 37:2098-2111. [PMID: 29630745 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
New technology has enabled recovery of inaccessible natural gas shale deposits; however, the potential impacts to human health from the migration of brines into drinking water or surface spills are unknown. To provide information that can inform these potential impacts, chemical characterization and in vitro toxicologic testing were conducted using pre- and postinjection waters from conventional and unconventional oil and gas wells. Wastewater concentrations may be diluted or reduced by fate and transport processes when released into the environment by unknown amounts, and laboratory studies only imply potential effects. In acute cytotoxicity and wound healing assays, there was dose-dependent toxicity in human and rat cells with growth promotion at low concentrations. Lethality was measured in time studies up to 10 d postinjection. Produced water samples from both well types were equally toxic to human cells and were corrosive at high concentrations. Measurement of protein and gene expression identified metabolic pathways responding to both well types as NADPH quinone oxidoreductase oxidative stress-responsive enzyme and tight junction protein genes. A KCl sample of matched ionic strength showed a different toxicity profile from produced waters, indicating that salts alone were not the cause of toxicity. Organic chemicals and branched alkanes were present in hydraulic fracture wells, and mainly branched alkanes were present in conventional wells. One organic substance was still present after 240 d. The known properties of these chemicals include potential toxicity to multiple human organs, sensitization, irritation, developmental effects, and tumor promotion, depending on the concentrations and synergistic effects of chemicals during exposure. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:2098-2111. © 2018 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Calin A Tatu
- US Geological Survey, Reston, VA
- Department of Biology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
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9
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Chang MM, Lin CN, Fang CC, Chen M, Liang PI, Li WM, Yeh BW, Cheng HC, Huang BM, Wu WJ, Chen YMA. Glycine N-methyltransferase inhibits aristolochic acid nephropathy by increasing CYP3A44 and decreasing NQO1 expression in female mouse hepatocytes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6960. [PMID: 29725048 PMCID: PMC5934382 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants containing aristolochic acids (AA) are nephrotoxins. Glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT) acts to bind environmental toxins such as benzo(a)pyrene and aflatoxin B1, translocate into nucleus, and alter hepatic metabolism. This study aims to determine the role of GNMT in AA-induced nephropathy. We established an AA nephropathy mouse model and found that AA type I (AAI)-induced nephropathy at a lower concentration in male than in female mice, implying sex differences in AAI resistance. Microarray analysis and AAI-treated mouse models showed that GNMT moderately reduced AAI-induced nephropathy by lowering the upregulated level of NQO1 in male, but significantly improved the nephropathy additionally by increasing Cyp3A44/3A41 in female. The protective effects of GNMT were absent in female GNMT knockout mice, in which re-expression of hepatic GNMT significantly decreased AAI-induced nephropathy. Mechanism-wise, AAI enhanced GNMT nuclear translocation, resulting in GNMT interaction with the promoter region of the genes encoding Nrf2 and CAR/PXR, the transcription factors for NQO1 and CYP3A44/3A41, respectively. Unlike the preference for Nrf2/NQO1 transcriptions at lower levels of GNMT, overexpression of GNMT preferred CAR/PXR/CYP3A44/3A41 transcriptions and alleviated kidney injury upon AAI treatment. In summary, hepatic GNMT protected mice from AAI nephropathy by enhancing CAR/PXR/CYP3A44/3A41 transcriptions and reducing Nrf2/NQO1 transcriptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Min Chang
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Ni Lin
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Chieh Fang
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Marcelo Chen
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Cosmetic Applications and Management, Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Peir-In Liang
- Department of Pathology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ming Li
- Pingtung Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Executive Yuan, Pingtung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Bi-Wen Yeh
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Chi Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Bu-Miin Huang
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Jeng Wu
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ming Arthur Chen
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research (CICAR), Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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10
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Arlt VM, Meinl W, Florian S, Nagy E, Barta F, Thomann M, Mrizova I, Krais AM, Liu M, Richards M, Mirza A, Kopka K, Phillips DH, Glatt H, Stiborova M, Schmeiser HH. Impact of genetic modulation of SULT1A enzymes on DNA adduct formation by aristolochic acids and 3-nitrobenzanthrone. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1957-1975. [PMID: 27557898 PMCID: PMC5364269 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1808-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to aristolochic acid (AA) causes aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) and Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN). Conflicting results have been found for the role of human sulfotransferase 1A1 (SULT1A1) contributing to the metabolic activation of aristolochic acid I (AAI) in vitro. We evaluated the role of human SULT1A1 in AA bioactivation in vivo after treatment of transgenic mice carrying a functional human SULT1A1-SULT1A2 gene cluster (i.e. hSULT1A1/2 mice) and Sult1a1(-/-) mice with AAI and aristolochic acid II (AAII). Both compounds formed characteristic DNA adducts in the intact mouse and in cytosolic incubations in vitro. However, we did not find differences in AAI-/AAII-DNA adduct levels between hSULT1A1/2 and wild-type (WT) mice in all tissues analysed including kidney and liver despite strong enhancement of sulfotransferase activity in both kidney and liver of hSULT1A1/2 mice relative to WT, kidney and liver being major organs involved in AA metabolism. In contrast, DNA adduct formation was strongly increased in hSULT1A1/2 mice compared to WT after treatment with 3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-NBA), another carcinogenic aromatic nitro compound where human SULT1A1/2 is known to contribute to genotoxicity. We found no differences in AAI-/AAII-DNA adduct formation in Sult1a1(-/-) and WT mice in vivo. Using renal and hepatic cytosolic fractions of hSULT1A1/2, Sult1a1(-/-) and WT mice, we investigated AAI-DNA adduct formation in vitro but failed to find a contribution of human SULT1A1/2 or murine Sult1a1 to AAI bioactivation. Our results indicate that sulfo-conjugation catalysed by human SULT1A1 does not play a role in the activation pathways of AAI and AAII in vivo, but is important in 3-NBA bioactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
| | - Walter Meinl
- Department of Nutritional Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) Potsdam-Rehbrücke, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Simone Florian
- Department of Nutritional Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) Potsdam-Rehbrücke, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Eszter Nagy
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Frantisek Barta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 12840, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Marlies Thomann
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Iveta Mrizova
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 12840, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Annette M Krais
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
- Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Lund University, 221 85, Lund, Sweden
| | - Maggie Liu
- Division of Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Meirion Richards
- Division of Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Amin Mirza
- Division of Cancer Therapeutics, Institute of Cancer Research, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Klaus Kopka
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David H Phillips
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Hansruedi Glatt
- Department of Nutritional Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) Potsdam-Rehbrücke, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
- Department of Food Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie Stiborova
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 12840, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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11
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Stiborová M, Arlt VM, Schmeiser HH. Balkan endemic nephropathy: an update on its aetiology. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:2595-2615. [PMID: 27538407 PMCID: PMC5065591 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1819-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) is a unique, chronic renal disease frequently associated with upper urothelial cancer (UUC). It only affects residents of specific farming villages located along tributaries of the Danube River in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania where it is estimated that ~100,000 individuals are at risk of BEN, while ~25,000 have the disease. This review summarises current findings on the aetiology of BEN. Over the last 50 years, several hypotheses on the cause of BEN have been formulated, including mycotoxins, heavy metals, viruses, and trace-element insufficiencies. However, recent molecular epidemiological studies provide a strong case that chronic dietary exposure to aristolochic acid (AA) a principal component of Aristolochia clematitis which grows as a weed in the wheat fields of the endemic regions is the cause of BEN and associated UUC. One of the still enigmatic features of BEN that need to be resolved is why the prevalence of BEN is only 3-7 %. This suggests that individual genetic susceptibilities to AA exist in humans. In fact dietary ingestion of AA along with individual genetic susceptibility provides a scenario that plausibly can explain all the peculiarities of BEN such as geographical distribution and high risk of urothelial cancer. For the countries harbouring BEN implementing public health measures to avoid AA exposure is of the utmost importance because this seems to be the best way to eradicate this once mysterious disease to which the residents of BEN villages have been completely and utterly at mercy for so long.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environmental and Health, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Health Impact of Environmental Hazards at King's College London in partnership with Public Health England, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry (E030), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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12
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Yamazaki H, Suemizu H, Mitsui M, Shimizu M, Guengerich FP. Combining Chimeric Mice with Humanized Liver, Mass Spectrometry, and Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling in Toxicology. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:1903-1911. [PMID: 27337115 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Species differences exist in terms of drug oxidation activities, which are mediated mainly by cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes. To overcome the problem of species extrapolation, transchromosomic mice containing a human P450 3A cluster or chimeric mice transplanted with human hepatocytes have been introduced into the human toxicology research area. In this review, drug metabolism and disposition mediated by humanized livers in chimeric mice are summarized in terms of biliary/urinary excretions of phthalate and bisphenol A and plasma clearances of the human cocktail probe drugs caffeine, warfarin, omeprazole, metoprolol, and midazolam. Simulation of human plasma concentrations of the teratogen thalidomide and its human metabolites is possible with a simplified physiologically based pharmacokinetic model based on data obtained in chimeric mice, in accordance with reported clinical thalidomide concentrations. In addition, in vivo nonspecific hepatic protein binding parameters of metabolically activated 14C-drug candidate and hepatotoxic medicines in humanized liver mice can be analyzed by accelerator mass spectrometry and are useful for predictions in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Showa Pharmaceutical University , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Suemizu
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals , Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki 210-0821, Japan
| | - Marina Mitsui
- Showa Pharmaceutical University , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Showa Pharmaceutical University , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, United States
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13
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Dračínská H, Bárta F, Levová K, Hudecová A, Moserová M, Schmeiser HH, Kopka K, Frei E, Arlt VM, Stiborová M. Induction of cytochromes P450 1A1 and 1A2 suppresses formation of DNA adducts by carcinogenic aristolochic acid I in rats in vivo. Toxicology 2016; 344-346:7-18. [PMID: 26845733 PMCID: PMC4804751 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a natural plant alkaloid causing aristolochic acid nephropathy, Balkan endemic nephropathy and their associated urothelial malignancies. One of the most efficient enzymes reductively activating AAI to species forming AAI-DNA adducts is cytosolic NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1. AAI is also either reductively activated or oxidatively detoxified to 8-hydroxyaristolochic acid (AAIa) by microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 and 1A2. Here, we investigated which of these two opposing CYP1A1/2-catalyzed reactions prevails in AAI metabolism in vivo. The formation of AAI-DNA adducts was analyzed in liver, kidney and lung of rats treated with AAI, Sudan I, a potent inducer of CYP1A1/2, or AAI after pretreatment with Sudan I. Compared to rats treated with AAI alone, levels of AAI-DNA adducts determined by the (32)P-postlabeling method were lower in liver, kidney and lung of rats treated with AAI after Sudan I. The induction of CYP1A1/2 by Sudan I increased AAI detoxification to its O-demethylated metabolite AAIa, thereby reducing the actual amount of AAI available for reductive activation. This subsequently resulted in lower AAI-DNA adduct levels in the rat in vivo. Our results demonstrate that CYP1A1/2-mediated oxidative detoxification of AAI is the predominant role of these enzymes in rats in vivo, thereby suppressing levels of AAI-DNA adducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Dračínská
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - František Bárta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Levová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alena Hudecová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Moserová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Klaus Kopka
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eva Frei
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment & Health, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
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14
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Prediction and Characterisation of the System Effects of Aristolochic Acid: A Novel Joint Network Analysis towards Therapeutic and Toxicological Mechanisms. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17646. [PMID: 26620132 PMCID: PMC4664954 DOI: 10.1038/srep17646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid (AA) is the major active component of medicinal plants from the Aristolochiaceae family of flowering plants widely utilized for medicinal purposes. However, the molecular mechanisms of AA systems effects remain poorly understood. Here, we employed a joint network analysis that combines network pharmacology, a protein–protein interaction (PPI) database, biological processes analysis and functional annotation analysis to explore system effects. Firstly, we selected 15 protein targets (14 genes) in the PubChem database as the potential target genes and used PPI knowledge to incorporate these genes into an AA-specific gene network that contains 129 genes. Secondly, we performed biological processes analysis for these AA-related targets using ClueGO, some of new targeted genes were randomly selected and experimentally verified by employing the Quantitative Real-Time PCR assay for targeting the systems effects of AA in HK-2 cells with observed dependency of concentration. Thirdly, the pathway-based functional enrichment analysis was manipulated using WebGestalt to identify the mostly significant pathways associated with AA. At last, we built an AA target pathway network of significant pathways to predict the system effects. Taken together, this joint network analysis revealed that the systematic regulatory effects of AA on multidimensional pathways involving both therapeutic action and toxicity.
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15
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Stiborová M, Bárta F, Levová K, Hodek P, Schmeiser HH, Arlt VM, Martínek V. A Mechanism of O-Demethylation of Aristolochic Acid I by Cytochromes P450 and Their Contributions to This Reaction in Human and Rat Livers: Experimental and Theoretical Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:27561-75. [PMID: 26593908 PMCID: PMC4661905 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161126047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a plant alkaloid causing aristolochic acid nephropathy, Balkan endemic nephropathy and their associated urothelial malignancies. AAI is detoxified by cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated O-demethylation to 8-hydroxyaristolochic acid I (aristolochic acid Ia, AAIa). We previously investigated the efficiencies of human and rat CYPs in the presence of two other components of the mixed-functions-oxidase system, NADPH:CYP oxidoreductase and cytochrome b₅, to oxidize AAI. Human and rat CYP1A are the major enzymes oxidizing AAI. Other CYPs such as CYP2C, 3A4, 2D6, 2E1, and 1B1, also form AAIa, but with much lower efficiency than CYP1A. Based on velocities of AAIa formation by examined CYPs and their expression levels in human and rat livers, here we determined the contributions of individual CYPs to AAI oxidation in these organs. Human CYP1A2 followed by CYP2C9, 3A4 and 1A1 were the major enzymes contributing to AAI oxidation in human liver, while CYP2C and 1A were most important in rat liver. We employed flexible in silico docking methods to explain the differences in AAI oxidation in the liver by human CYP1A1, 1A2, 2C9, and 3A4, the enzymes that all O-demethylate AAI, but with different effectiveness. We found that the binding orientations of the methoxy group of AAI in binding centers of the CYP enzymes and the energies of AAI binding to the CYP active sites dictate the efficiency of AAI oxidation. Our results indicate that utilization of experimental and theoretical methods is an appropriate study design to examine the CYP-catalyzed reaction mechanisms of AAI oxidation and contributions of human hepatic CYPs to this metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, Prague 2 CZ-12843, Czech Republic.
| | - František Bárta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, Prague 2 CZ-12843, Czech Republic.
| | - Kateřina Levová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, Prague 2 CZ-12843, Czech Republic.
| | - Petr Hodek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, Prague 2 CZ-12843, Czech Republic.
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King's College London, London SE1 9NH, UK.
| | - Václav Martínek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, Prague 2 CZ-12843, Czech Republic.
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16
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Luan Y, Xing G, Ren J, Gu J. Role of hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes in the detoxication of aristolochic acid I; effects on DNA adduct, mutation, and tumor formation. Genes Environ 2015; 37:11. [PMID: 27350808 PMCID: PMC4918019 DOI: 10.1186/s41021-015-0010-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hepatic cytochrome P450s (CYPs) play an important role in the metabolism of plant carcinogen, aristolochic acid I (AAI). In the present study, we employed hepatic NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase null (HRN) gpt delta transgenic mice to investigate the role of hepatic CYPs in the metabolism of AAI. DNA adduct formation, gene mutation, and tumor induction in the liver and kidneys were analyzed. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed and tissue levels of AAI were determined. RESULTS Pretreatment with β-naphthoflavone in wild type gpt delta transgenic mice (BNF-WT mice) could increase the rate of clearance of AAI in blood and tissues, and decrease the formation of AAI-DNA adducts in kidney. In contrast, there was reduced clearance of AAI in HRN gpt delta mice, which showed increased concentration of AAI in tissues and increased levels of DNA adducts. The mutant frequencies of gpt gene, induced by AAI, in the kidneys of HRN gpt delta mice were significantly higher than that in WT mice. In the tumor induction assay, after treatment for 2 months with daily doses of 5 mg/kg AAI, mice were kept under observation for 7 months. During this period, papillomatous changes occurred in the forestomach of both WT-AAI mice and HRN gpt delta-AAI mice. Squamous cell carcinomas were found in the forestomach of 2 HRN gpt delta-AAI mice, which had also metastasized to other tissues. In addition, adenomas were found in 2 of 8 HRN gpt delta-AAI mice, in the absence of squamous cell carcinomas. CONCLUSION These results indicated that the main role of hepatic CYPs is to aid in the excretion of AAI, and to protect the target organs against AAI induced DNA adduct formation, mutagenesis, and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Luan
- Hongqiao International Institute of Medicine, Shanghai Tongren Hospital/Faculty of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 227 South Chongqing Road, Shanghai, 200025 China
| | - Guozhen Xing
- Center for Drug Safety and Evaluation Research, State Key Laboratory of New Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Jin Ren
- Center for Drug Safety and Evaluation Research, State Key Laboratory of New Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Jun Gu
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Empire State Plaza, Box 509, Albany, NY 12201-0509 USA
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17
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Stiborová M, Bárta F, Levová K, Hodek P, Frei E, Arlt VM, Schmeiser HH. The influence of ochratoxin A on DNA adduct formation by the carcinogen aristolochic acid in rats. Arch Toxicol 2014; 89:2141-58. [PMID: 25209566 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1360-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Exposure to the plant nephrotoxin and carcinogen aristolochic acid (AA) leads to the development of AA nephropathy, Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) and upper urothelial carcinoma (UUC) in humans. Beside AA, exposure to ochratoxin A (OTA) was linked to BEN. Although OTA was rejected as a factor for BEN/UUC, there is still no information whether the development of AA-induced BEN/UUC is influenced by OTA exposure. Therefore, we studied the influence of OTA on the genotoxicity of AA (AA-DNA adduct formation) in vivo. AA-DNA adducts were formed in liver and kidney of rats treated with AA or AA combined with OTA, but no OTA-related DNA adducts were detectable in rats treated with OTA alone or OTA combined with AA. Compared to rats treated with AA alone, AA-DNA adduct levels were 5.4- and 1.6-fold higher in liver and kidney, respectively, of rats treated with AA combined with OTA. Although AA and OTA induced NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) activating AA to DNA adducts, their combined treatment did not lead to either higher NQO1 enzyme activity or higher AA-DNA adduct levels in ex vivo incubations. Oxidation of AA I (8-methoxy-6-nitrophenanthro[3,4-d]-1,3-dioxole-5-carboxylic acid) to its detoxification metabolite, 8-hydroxyaristolochic acid, was lower in microsomes from rats treated with AA and OTA, and this was paralleled by lower activities of cytochromes P450 1A1/2 and/or 2C11 in these microsomes. Our results indicate that a decrease in AA detoxification after combined exposure to AA and OTA leads to an increase in AA-DNA adduct formation in liver and kidney of rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
| | - František Bárta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Levová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Hodek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Frei
- Division of Preventive Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environmental and Health, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Division of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry (E030), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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Bárta F, Levová K, Frei E, Schmeiser HH, Arlt VM, Stiborová M. The effect of aristolochic acid I on expression of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase in mice and rats--a comparative study. MUTATION RESEARCH. GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2014; 768:1-7. [PMID: 24769487 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2014.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Aristolochic acid is the cause of aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) and Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) and their associated urothelial malignancies. Using Western blotting, we investigated the expression of NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), the most efficient cytosolic enzyme that reductively activates aristolochic acid I (AAI) in mice and rats. In addition, the effect of AAI on the expression of the NQO1 protein and its enzymatic activity in these experimental animal models was examined. We found that NQO1 protein levels in cytosolic fractions isolated from liver, kidney and lung of mice differed from those expressed in these organs of rats. In mice, the highest levels of NQO1 protein and NQO1 activity were found in the kidney, followed by lung and liver. In contrast, the NQO1 protein levels and enzyme activity were lowest in rat-kidney cytosol, whereas the highest amounts of NQO1 protein and activity were found in lung cytosols, followed by those of liver. NQO1 protein and enzyme activity were induced in liver and kidney of AAI-pretreated mice compared with those of untreated mice. NQO1 protein and enzyme activity were also induced in rat kidney by AAI. Furthermore, the increase in hepatic and renal NQO1 enzyme activity was associated with AAI bio-activation and elevated AAI-DNA adduct levels were found in ex vivo incubations of cytosolic fractions with DNA and AAI. In conclusion, our results indicate that AAI can increase its own metabolic activation by inducing NQO1, thereby enhancing its own genotoxic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Bárta
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Levová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Frei
- Division of Preventive Oncology, National Center for Tumour Diseases, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Research Group Genetic Alteration in Carcinogenesis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, King's College London, MRC-PHE Centre for Environmental & Health, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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Stiborová M, Frei E, Schmeiser HH, Arlt VM, Martínek V. Mechanisms of enzyme-catalyzed reduction of two carcinogenic nitro-aromatics, 3-nitrobenzanthrone and aristolochic acid I: Experimental and theoretical approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:10271-95. [PMID: 24918288 PMCID: PMC4100152 DOI: 10.3390/ijms150610271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the results found in studies investigating the enzymatic activation of two genotoxic nitro-aromatics, an environmental pollutant and carcinogen 3-nitrobenzanthrone (3-NBA) and a natural plant nephrotoxin and carcinogen aristolochic acid I (AAI), to reactive species forming covalent DNA adducts. Experimental and theoretical approaches determined the reasons why human NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) and cytochromes P450 (CYP) 1A1 and 1A2 have the potential to reductively activate both nitro-aromatics. The results also contributed to the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of these reactions. The contribution of conjugation enzymes such as N,O-acetyltransferases (NATs) and sulfotransferases (SULTs) to the activation of 3-NBA and AAI was also examined. The results indicated differences in the abilities of 3-NBA and AAI metabolites to be further activated by these conjugation enzymes. The formation of DNA adducts generated by both carcinogens during their reductive activation by the NOQ1 and CYP1A1/2 enzymes was investigated with pure enzymes, enzymes present in subcellular cytosolic and microsomal fractions, selective inhibitors, and animal models (including knock-out and humanized animals). For the theoretical approaches, flexible in silico docking methods as well as ab initio calculations were employed. The results summarized in this review demonstrate that a combination of experimental and theoretical approaches is a useful tool to study the enzyme-mediated reaction mechanisms of 3-NBA and AAI reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030, CZ-12843, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
| | - Eva Frei
- Division of Preventive Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Heinz H Schmeiser
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry E030, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Analytical and Environmental Sciences Division, MRC-PHE Centre for Environmental & Health, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK.
| | - Václav Martínek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 2030, CZ-12843, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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Stiborová M, Levová K, Bárta F, Šulc M, Frei E, Arlt VM, Schmeiser HH. The influence of dicoumarol on the bioactivation of the carcinogen aristolochic acid I in rats. Mutagenesis 2014; 29:189-200. [PMID: 24598128 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geu004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is the major toxic component of the plant extract AA, which leads to the development of nephropathy and urothelial cancer in human. Individual susceptibility to AAI-induced disease might reflect variability in enzymes that metabolise AAI. In vitro NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) is the most potent enzyme that activates AAI by catalyzing formation of AAI-DNA adducts, which are found in kidneys of patients exposed to AAI. Inhibition of renal NQO1 activity by dicoumarol has been shown in mice. Here, we studied the influence of dicoumarol on metabolic activation of AAI in Wistar rats in vivo. In contrast to previous in vitro findings, dicoumarol did not inhibit AAI-DNA adduct formation in rats. Compared with rats treated with AAI alone, 11- and 5.4-fold higher AAI-DNA adduct levels were detected in liver and kidney, respectively, of rats pretreated with dicoumarol prior to exposure to AAI. Cytosols and microsomes isolated from liver and kidney of these rats were analysed for activity and protein levels of enzymes known to be involved in AAI metabolism. The combination of dicoumarol with AAI induced NQO1 protein level and activity in both organs. This was paralleled by an increase in AAI-DNA adduct levels found in ex vivo incubations with cytosols from rats pretreated with dicoumarol compared to cytosols from untreated rats. Microsomal ex vivo incubations showed a lower AAI detoxication to its oxidative metabolite, 8-hydroxyaristolochic acid (AAIa), although cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A was practically unchanged. Because of these unexpected results, we examined CYP2C activity in microsomes and found that treatment of rats with dicoumarol alone and in combination with AAI inhibited CYP2C6/11 in liver. Therefore, these results indicate that CYP2C enzymes might contribute to AAI detoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 2030, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic
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Sidorenko VS, Attaluri S, Zaitseva I, Iden CR, Dickman KG, Johnson F, Grollman AP. Bioactivation of the human carcinogen aristolochic acid. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35:1814-22. [PMID: 24743514 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgu095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Aristolochic acids are potent human carcinogens; the role of phase II metabolism in their bioactivation is unclear. Accordingly, we tested the ability of the partially reduced metabolites, N-hydroxyaristolactams (AL-NOHs), and their N-O-sulfonated and N-O-acetylated derivatives to react with DNA to form aristolactam-DNA adducts. AL-NOHs displayed little or no activity in this regard while the sulfo- and acetyl compounds readily form DNA adducts, as detected by (32)P-post-labeling analysis. Mouse hepatic and renal cytosols stimulated binding of AL-NOHs to DNA in the presence of adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) but not of acetyl-CoA. Using Time of Flight liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, N-hydroxyaristolactam I formed the sulfated compound in the presence of PAPS and certain human sulfotransferases, SULT1B1 >>> SULT1A2 > SULT1A1 >>> SULT1A3. The same pattern of SULT reactivity was observed when N-hydroxyaristolactam I was incubated with these enzymes and PAPS and the reaction was monitored by formation of aristolactam-DNA adducts. In the presence of human NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase, the ability of aristolochic acid I to bind DNA covalently was increased significantly by addition of PAPS and SULT1B1. We conclude from these studies that AL-NOHs, formed following partial nitroreduction of aristolochic acids, serve as substrates for SULT1B1, producing N-sulfated esters, which, in turn, are converted to highly active species that react with DNA and, potentially, cellular proteins, resulting in the genotoxicity and nephrotoxicity associated with ingestion of aristolochic acids by humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Francis Johnson
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
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Kovacic P, Somanathan R. Nitroaromatic compounds: Environmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, therapy and mechanism. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 34:810-24. [PMID: 24532466 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vehicle pollution is an increasing problem in the industrial world. Aromatic nitro compounds comprise a significant portion of the threat. In this review, the class includes nitro derivatives of benzene, biphenyls, naphthalenes, benzanthrone and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, plus nitroheteroaromatic compounds. The numerous toxic manifestations are discussed. An appreciable number of drugs incorporate the nitroaromatic structure. The mechanistic aspects of both toxicity and therapy are addressed in the context of a unifying mechanism involving electron transfer, reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress and antioxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kovacic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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Stiborová M, Frei E, Arlt VM, Schmeiser HH. Knockout and humanized mice as suitable tools to identify enzymes metabolizing the human carcinogen aristolochic acid. Xenobiotica 2014; 44:135-45. [PMID: 24152141 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2013.848310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
1. Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is the predominant component in plant extract of Aristolochia genus that is involved in development of aristolochic acid nephropathy, Balkan endemic nephropathy and urothelial cancer. The diseases do not develop in all individuals exposed to AAI and patients exhibit different clinical outcomes. Differences in the activities of enzymes catalyzing the metabolism of AAI might be one of the reasons for this individual susceptibility. 2. Understanding which human enzymes are involved in reductive activation of AAI generating AAI-DNA adducts, and/or its detoxication to the O-demethylated metabolite, aristolochic acid Ia (AAIa), is necessary in the assessment of the susceptibility to this compound. 3. This review summarizes the results of the latest studies utilizing genetically engineered mouse models to identify which human and rodent enzymes catalyze the reductive activation of AAI to AAI-DNA adducts and its oxidative detoxication to AAIa in vivo. 4. The use of hepatic cytochrome P450 (Cyp) reductase null (HRN) mice, in which NADPH:Cyp oxidoreductase (Por) is deleted in hepatocytes, Cyp1a1((-/-)), Cyp1a2((-/-)) single-knockout, Cyp1a1/1a2((-/-)) double-knockout and CYP1A-humanized mice revealed that mouse and human CYP1A1 and 1A2, besides mouse NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase, were involved in the activation of AAI but CYP1A1 and 1A2 also oxidatively detoxified AAI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Stiborová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University , Prague , Czech Republic
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