Cellular localization of androgen synthesis in equine granulosa-theca cell tumors: immunohistochemical expression of 17alpha-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase cytochrome P450

Pathohistological Findings after Bilateral Ovariectomy in Mares with Behavioral Problems

Behavioral problems in reproductively healthy mares are a challenging issue that is successfully treated with bilateral ovariectomy (BO). This laparoscopic procedure represents an alternative to conservative treatment for mares not intended for breeding and results in high owner satisfaction regarding behavioral improvement. However, a pathohistological explanation to justify surgical ovarian removal regarding animal welfare is lacking. Therefore, the objective of this study was to pathohistologically evaluate bilaterally removed, clinically unremarkable ovaries of mares with behavioral problems (bOE, n = 20) and to compare them with pathohistologically confirmed granulosa cell tumors of mares with neoplastic ovaries (GCT-uOE, n = 10). A complete data set including preliminary presentation, clinical examination, and serum anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and testosterone was further analyzed in both groups. Both hormones were significantly higher in GCT-uOE compared with bOE. Immunohistochemical expression of Ki-67, AMH, aromatase, epidermal growth factor receptor, calretinin, and epithelial cadherin in granulosa cells of large follicular structures in bOE did not differ from neoplastic granulosa cells in GCT-uOE. Ultrasonographically nondetectable early neoplastic changes were pathohistologically evaluated in 15% of mares and anovulatory-like follicles in 30% of mares in bOE and might be one explanation for the high success rate of BO in 85% of bOE in this study.

Abnormal mare behaviour is rarely associated with changes in hormonal markers of granulosa cell tumours: A retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Abnormal or undesired mare behaviours are often assumed to be associated with ovarian abnormalities.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the incidence of abnormal behaviours and their association with concentrations of one or more ovarian hormones associated with a granulosa cell tumour (GCT).

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective descriptive.

METHODS

A total of 2914 hormonal profile samples submitted with the words behave, behaviour, or behaving in the submission history were analysed. The association between reported abnormal behaviours and concentrations of testosterone, anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), inhibins and inhibin-B were assessed. Statistical analysis was performed using a Chi-squared test of association.

RESULTS

Of the 2914 cases that were submitted due to behaviour issues, 2506 (86%) did not have any of the measured hormones reach GCT-like concentrations. The remaining 408 cases had either one (63%), two (25.5%), or three (11.5%) hormones with concentrations consistent with those from confirmed GCT cases. Testosterone had the lowest percent of GCT-like values among the cases (7.7%), compared with AMH (9.4%), inhibins (9.6%) and inhibin B (8.7%). Stallion-like behaviour was significantly associated with increased concentrations of all four hormones. In contrast, aggression, oestrous and other abnormal behaviours were significantly less likely to be associated with increased concentrations of the hormones.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Retrospective study, using sample submission history.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the abnormal behaviours among mares, except the stallion-like behaviour, were not associated with increased ovarian hormones. These results highlight the common misassumption about the involvement of the ovaries in 'abnormal behaviours' or 'undesirable behaviours' of mares.

Immunohistochemical markers for equine granulosa cell tumors: a pilot study

Sex cord-stromal tumors (SCSTs), generally referred to as granulosa cell tumors (GCTs) or granulosa-theca cell tumors (GTCTs) in equids, show complex compositions and variable numbers of hormone-producing cells. These tumors can be difficult to diagnose, especially in early stages. Therefore, we tested a panel of antibodies for vimentin, smooth muscle actin, laminin, Ki-67, E-cadherin, calretinin, moesin, p-ezrin, AMH, and aromatase, markers used for tumor composition and classification, progression, and prognosis in human SCSTs, on an exemplary grapefruit-size equine GCT within the left ovary of a 13-year-old mare with stallion-like behavior and elevated testosterone levels in comparison with normal ovarian tissue. The tumor showed a low proliferation rate and prominent moesin and p-ezrin staining in granulosa cells. E-cadherin, calretinin, aromatase, and AMH are suggested to be potential markers for different cell components of equine SCSTs that can support tumor diagnosis and classification.

Equine granulosa cell tumours among other ovarian conditions: Diagnostic challenges

BACKGROUND

Granulosa cell tumours (GCT) are the most common ovarian tumours in mares. While the classical presentation may not represent diagnostic challenges, diagnosis is not easy in the early stages.

OBJECTIVES

Illustrate the variability in the presentation and serum biomarkers associated with ovarian abnormalities in the mare.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

METHODS

Nonclassical cases of GCTs and other ovarian conditions were identified and behaviour, GCT endocrine results, palpation and ultrasonographic findings are described and the diagnostic value of each is discussed.

RESULTS

Mares in this case series with GCTs had been presenting clinical signs ranging from no behavioural changes to behaviours including aggression, stallion-like and inability to work under saddle. Hormonal profiles of endocrinologically functional GCTs can be erratic and unpredictable. The clinical form and ultrasonographic appearance may also vary with time from an initially enlarged/anovulatory follicular structure that later develops a multicystic 'honeycomb' appearance. Mares with GCTs can also present with persistent anovulatory follicles or apparent luteal tissue that are unresponsive to treatment. If both ovaries are of relatively normal size and symmetry, but hormonal biomarkers are markedly increased (AMH >10 ng/mL, inhibin B and/or testosterone >100 pg/mL; 0.37 nmol/L), it is likely that a functional GCT is present. Still, it can be a challenge to decide which ovary to remove. Post-surgical endocrine testing can be helpful, especially if histopathology is not performed or a GCT is not found.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Cases limited to 14.

CONCLUSIONS

Granulosa cell tumours present with a wide variety of clinical signs that do not fit what is commonly described as 'classic'. Only if AMH, testosterone and inhibin B concentrations are markedly increased, and there is an abnormally enlarged ovary, the diagnosis of a GCT is more confident. In the presence of normal size ovaries, normal hormonal biomarkers and abnormal behaviour, it is more likely that the ovaries are not involved.

hUMSCs regulate the differentiation of ovarian stromal cells via TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling pathway to inhibit ovarian fibrosis to repair ovarian function in POI rats

Objective

The basic pathological changes of primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) include ovarian tissue fibrosis and follicular development disorders. The human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (hUMSC) transplantation has been shown an effective method to improve the ovarian function in POI rat model; however, the exact mechanisms are still unclear. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the recovery of ovarian function in POI rats is related to the inhibition of tissue fibrosis following hUMSC transplantation. Furthermore, the transforming growth factor-β₁ (TGF-β₁) signaling pathway is explored to determine the mechanisms of ovarian function recovery through its inhibition of tissue fibrosis.

Methods

The primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) rat model was established by intraperitoneal injection of chemotherapy drug cisplatin (CDDP) for 7 days. The levels of serum sex hormones were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The tissue fibrosis in the ovary was examined using Masson staining and Sirius red staining. The collagen fibers in the ovarian tissues were detected by Western blot analysis. To investigate the mechanisms of ovarian function recovery following hUMSC transplantation, ovarian stromal cells were isolated from the ovarian cortex of immature rats. The expression of Cytochrome P450 17A1 (Cyp17a1) and fibrosis marker of alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) in ovarian stromal cells was examined using immunofluorescence analysis. Also, the protein levels of Cyp17a1 and α-SMA in ovarian stromal cells were examined by Western blot analysis. The expression of TGF-β₁ and Smad3 signals was measured by Western blot and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis.

Results

The results show that the function of the ovary in POI rats was significantly improved after hUMSC transplantation. The expression of fibrosis markers (α-SMA) and production of Collagen Type I (Collagen I) and Collagen Type III (Collagen III) in POI rats were significantly inhibited in POI rats following hUMSC transplantation. In the cultured ovarian stromal cells, the decrease of TGF-β₁ and p-Smad3 protein expression was observed in hUMSC-treated POI rats. The treatment with TGF-β₁ inhibitor of SB431542 further confirmed this signal pathway was involved in the process.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated that the TGF-β₁/Smad3 signaling pathway was involved in the inhibition of ovarian tissue fibrosis, which contributed to the restoration of ovarian function in POI rats following hUMSC transplantation.

hUMSC transplantation restores ovarian function in POI rats by inhibiting autophagy of theca-interstitial cells via the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway

Background

Previous studies of primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) have focused on granulosa cells (GCs) and ignored the role of theca-interstitial cells (TICs). This study aims to explore the mechanism of the protective effects of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hUMSCs) on ovarian function in POI rats by regulating autophagy of TICs.

Methods

The POI model was established in rats treated with cisplatin (CDDP). The hUMSCs were transplanted into POI rats by tail vein. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis, hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, and immunohistochemistry were used to measure the protective effects of hUMSCs. The molecular mechanisms of injury and repairment of TICs were assessed by immunofluorescence, transmission electron microscope (TEM), flow cytometry (FCM), western blot, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

Results

In vivo, hUMSC transplantation restored the ovarian function and alleviated the apoptosis of TICs in POI rats. In vitro, hUMSCs reduced the autophagy levels of TICs by reducing oxidative stress and regulating AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway, thereby alleviating the apoptosis of TICs.

Conclusion

This study indicates that hUMSCs protected ovarian function in POI by regulating autophagy signaling pathway AMPK/mTOR.

Inhibin-A and inhibin-B in cyclic and pregnant mares, and mares with granulosa-theca cell tumors: Physiological and diagnostic implications

Studies in mares have examined serum inhibin concentrations using immuno-assays unable to distinguish dimeric inhibin-A from inhibin-B isoforms. Inhibin-A and inhibin-B immuno-assays were used to investigate concentrations in cyclic mares, young and old (6 vs 19 years old, respectively) mares following hemi-ovariectomy, mares during pregnancy and in mares with confirmed granulosa cell tumors (GCTs). Mares with inter-ovulatory intervals of 26 days had ovulatory peaks of inhibin-A averaging 80 pg/mL with a mid-cycle nadir of 5 pg/mL. Inhibin-A and inhibin-B concentrations were highly correlated (r = + 0.79, P < 0.01) though peak and nadir concentrations of inhibin-B were not significantly different. However, the ratio of inhibin-A to inhibin-B (A/B) changed significantly through the cycle, highest at ovulation and <1 (more inhibin-B than -A) at mid-cycle. Two mares with grossly extended inter-ovulatory intervals demonstrated mid-cycle inhibin-A (and inhibin-B) excursions suggestive of follicular waves. Follicle-stimulating hormone was negatively correlated with inhibin-A and -B concentrations in all 6 mares. Hemi-ovariectomy in young mares resulted in a significant decrease in inhibin-A and inhibin-B concentrations one day later (P < 0.05) but older mares did not, suggesting a possible extra-ovarian source(s) of these hormones. Both inhibin isoforms dropped to very low levels during pregnancy (P < 0.0001), inhibin-A (P < 0.0001) more rapidly than -B (P < 0.05), so that inhibin-B became the predominant measured form throughout most of gestation (P < 0.05). Mares with confirmed GCTs had elevated inhibin-B concentrations more reliably than inhibin-A but neither inhibin-A or -B was correlated with anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations. Collectively, concentrations of inhibin-A and -B were aligned with physiological events in healthy mares, though more pronounced cyclic changes were seen with inhibin-A. Inhibin-B concentrations were significantly associated with GCTs (P < 0.01), inhibin-A concentrations were not. While both inhibin-A and -B concentrations track physiological events such as cyclic follicular activity, only inhibin-B concentrations effectively signal ovarian neoplasia in mares.

Role of cytochrome b5 in the modulation of the enzymatic activities of cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450 17A1)

Cytochrome b5 (cyt b5) is a small hemoprotein that plays a significant role in the modulation of activities of an important steroidogenic enzyme, cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450 17A1, CYP17A1). Located in the zona fasciculata and zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex and in the gonads, P450 17A1 catalyzes two different reactions in the steroidogenic pathway; the 17α-hydroxylation and 17,20-lyase, in the endoplasmic reticulum of these respective tissues. The activities of P450 17A1 are regulated by cyt b5 that enhances the 17,20-lyase reaction by promoting the coupling of P450 17A1 and cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), allosterically. Cyt b5 can also act as an electron donor to enhance the 16-ene-synthase activity of human P450 17A1. In this review, we discuss the many roles of cyt b5 and focus on the modulation of CYP17A1 activities by cyt b5 and the mechanisms involved.

Adrenal glands of Spix's yellow-toothed cavy (Galea spixii, Wagler, 1831): morphological and morphometric aspects

Abstract Considering the physiological importance and need of greater morphophysiological knowledge of adrenal glands, the aims of present study were compare the morphometric data between left and right adrenal of male and female; perform a histological, scanning and transmission electron microscopy study showing tissue constitution of glands; finally, in order to define the presence and correct site of the cytochrome P450c17 expression in adrenal glands, immunohistochemical study of this enzyme was performed in 18 adrenal glands (right n=9 and left n=9) of nine adult Galea spixii (four males and five females). Right adrenal was more cranially positioned than left adrenal; dimensions (weight, length and width) of right adrenal was larger than left adrenal; no differences between male and female body and adrenal measurements were found; the morphology of cells and different amounts of lipid droplets may be related to the different demands of steroid hormones production, related to each zone of the adrenal cortex; and, the cytochrome P450c17 immunolocalization in fasciculate and reticular zone may be related with synthesis of 17-hydroxy-pregnenolone, 17-hydroxy-progesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone or androstenedione.

The dynamic steroid landscape of equine pregnancy mapped by mass spectrometry

Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) allowed comprehensive analysis of various steroids detectable in plasma throughout equine gestation. Mares (n=9) were bled serially until they foaled. Certain steroids dominated the profile at different stages of gestation, clearly defining key physiological and developmental transitions. The period (weeks 6–20) coincident with equine chorionic gonadotropic (eCG) stimulation of primary corpora lutea and subsequent formation of secondary luteal structures was defined by increased progesterone, 17OH-progesterone and androstenedione, all Δ4 steroids. The 5α-reduced metabolite of progesterone, dihydroprogesterone (DHP) paralleled progesterone secretion at less than half the concentration until week 12 of gestation when progesterone began to decline but DHP concentrations continued to increase. DHP exceeded progesterone concentrations by week 16, clearly defining the luteo-placental shift in pregnane synthesis from primarily ovarian to primarily placental. The period corresponding to the growth of fetal gonads was defined by increasing dehydroepiandrosterone and pregnenolone (Δ5 steroids) concentrations from week 14, peaking at week 34 and declining to term. Metabolites of DHP (including allopregnanolone) dominated the steroid profile in late gestation, some exceeding DHP by weeks 13 or 14 and near term by almost tenfold. Thus Δ4 steroids dominated during ovarian stimulation by eCG, inversion of the ratio of progesterone: DHP (increasing 5α-pregnanes) marked the luteo-placental shift, Δ5 steroids defined fetal gonadal growth and 5α-reduced metabolites of DHP dominated the steroid profile in mid- to late-gestation. Comprehensive LC–MS/MS steroid analysis provides opportunities to better monitor the physiology and the progress of equine pregnancies, including fetal development.

Ontogeny of the adrenal gland in the spiny mouse, with particular reference to production of the steroids cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone

Synthesis of the androgen dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) by the fetal adrenal gland is important for placental estrogen production and may also be important for modulating the effects of glucocorticoids on the developing brain. The presence of cortisol in spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus) blood led us to determine whether the adrenal gland of this precocial rodent also synthesized DHEA. Cytochrome P450 enzyme 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450c17), cytochrome-b5 (Cytb5), and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD) were detected in the adrenal gland from 30 days gestation (term = 39 days), and DHEA, cortisol, and aldosterone were detected in fetal plasma from this time. Plasma DHEA concentrations increased 4-fold, whereas cortisol concentrations decreased from day 30 of gestation until the day of birth. Explant culture of fetal adrenal tissue showed that DHEA was produced from exogenous pregnenolone, and thus, the DHEA in the fetal circulation is likely to be of fetal origin. Clear zonation of the fetal adrenal cortex was evident by 38 days gestation when expression of Cytb5 was present throughout the cortex, and coexpression of P450c17 and Cytb5 occurred in the zona reticularis and fasciculata. 3βHSD was expressed in the cortex from at least 30 days gestation and decreased as term approached, consistent with the fall of cortisol in late gestation in this species. These results show that the spiny mouse adrenal gland, like that of the human fetus, can synthesize and secrete DHEA from at least 30 days (relative gestation length, 30 days of a 39-day gestation, 0.76) of gestation, and DHEA may have important roles in placental biosynthesis of estrogens and in modulating the actions of glucocorticoids in the developing brain in this species.

Determination of serum anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations for the diagnosis of granulosa-cell tumours in mares

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY

Endocrinological assays are important for evaluation of mares with granulosa-cell tumours (GCTs), and our research in mares indicates that anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) may be a good biomarker for this type of ovarian tumour.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the use of serum AMH concentrations for endocrine diagnosis of GCTs in mares.

METHODS

Archived serum samples (n = 403) previously assayed for determination of serum inhibin, testosterone and progesterone concentrations (GCT panel) were assayed for serum AMH concentrations using a heterologous enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay previously validated by our laboratory. For a subset (n = 44) of these samples, a clinical diagnosis of GCT was confirmed by histopathology.

RESULTS

Overall, the sensitivity of AMH (98%) for detection of histologically confirmed GCTs was significantly (P<0.05) greater than that of either inhibin (80%) or testosterone (48%) or the combination of inhibin and testosterone (84%).

CONCLUSIONS

Determination of serum AMH concentrations is a useful biomarker for detection of GCTs in the mare.

POTENTIAL RELEVANCE

Measurement of serum AMH concentrations can be used for diagnosis of GCTs in the mare. As serum AMH concentrations do not vary significantly during the oestrous cycle or pregnancy, interpretation of these results is not confounded by these physiological states.

Biological and clinical significance of anti-Müllerian hormone determination in blood serum of the mare

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily of growth and differentiation factors, is expressed in granulosa cells of preantral and small antral ovarian follicles. In humans, AMH appeared to regulate recruitment and growth of small ovarian follicles. Furthermore, circulating AMH concentrations were elevated in women with granulosa-cell tumors (GCT). In the horse, GCTs are the most common tumor of the ovary, and a variety of endocrine assays have been used to diagnose presumptive GCTs. The objectives of the present study were to validate a heterologous enzyme immunoassay for determination of serum AMH in the horse, and to determine concentrations of AMH in the blood of mares during the estrous cycle, pregnancy, and in mares with granulosa-cell tumors. Mares with normal estrous cycles (n = 6) and pregnant mares (n = 6) had blood samples collected throughout one interovulatory period and monthly throughout gestation, respectively. Mares diagnosed with GCT had blood samples taken before (n = 11) and after ovariectomy (n = 5). Tumors were sectioned and fixed for immunohistochemistry and snap frozen for immunoblot analyses and RT-qPCR. In normal cyclic mares and in pregnant mares, there was no effect of cycle stage or month of gestation on serum AMH concentrations. In GCT mares, serum concentrations of AMH (1901.4 ± 1144.6 ng/mL) were higher than those in cyclic (0.96 ± 0.08 ng/mL) or pregnant (0.72 ± 0.05 ng/mL) mares and decreased after tumor removal. Both AMH and AMH receptor (AMHR2) immunolabeling and expression were detected by immunohistochemistry in the tumor and cyst fluid obtained from mares with GCTs. Therefore, we concluded that AMH was a useful biomarker for detection of granulosa-cell tumors in mares.