Production of pulse protein ingredients and their application in plant-based milk alternatives

Improving physicochemical properties and gel formation mechanism of nutty plant-based yogurt with Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides

Developing nutty plant-based yogurt (NPBY) with desired texture and sensory properties has been challenging. This study sought to investigate the effects of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides (TFPS) on the physicochemical, textural, rheological, and microstructural properties of NPBY. The introduction of TFPS enhanced the accumulation of organic acids, water holding capacity, and antioxidant activity. The firmness of NPBY with 0.85 % TFPS increased from 187.77 × 10-3 N to 259.90 × 10-3 N, with significant enhancements in elastic modulus (G', G'') and apparent viscosity. Furthermore, the introduction of 0.85 % TFPS significantly improved liking scores in sensory evaluations. Microstructural analysis revealed that TFPS promoted the formation of proteins and oil body clusters, resulting in a more compact gel network. The synergetic effects of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions were identified as primary driving forces for NPBY gel formation. This study provides valuable insights into the role of natural polysaccharides in strengthening plant-based yogurt gel.

Characterization of a novel natural protein-polysaccharide complex from cashew apple bagasse and its functional implications

Cashew apple bagasse (CAB) constituting about 20 % of the cashew apple's (CA) weight, is often overlooked and considered a waste product. This study aims to valorize CAB by extracting and studying a nutritional and functional compounds from CAB, particularly proteins. Response surface methodology (RSM) design and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) are employed to optimize a protein-enriched fraction extraction process. Analysis of CAB-Protein-Pellet composition reveals that its main constituents are sugars (42.49 %) and proteins (22.10 %). HPSEC analysis confirmed the existence of a new natural protein-polysaccharide complex (PPC), an high level of Ara (11.85 g/100 g) and Gal (17.45 g/100 g) indicating the presence of polysaccharides rich in arabinose and galactose (PRAG) with the main class of polymers in the CAB-PPC being AGPs. MIR-FTIR and 1H NMR spectra allowed new insights into the structural features of the PPC derived from CA. The effects of protein-polysaccharide interactions within CAB-PPC on structure and functionality were investigated, revealing interesting functional properties and their correlation relationship. The findings highlight some similarities between CAB-PPC and gum Arabic with minor differences. The interfacial tension of CAB-PPC (21.32 mN/m) was lower than that of gum Arabic (23.71 mN/m). Therefore, CAB-PPC could be suitable for a range of food applications including thickening, stabilization, gelling, water retention, emulsification, and foaming.

Enhancement of extraction efficiency and functional properties of chickpea protein isolate using pulsed electric field combined with ultrasound treatment

Chickpea protein isolate (CPI) is a promising dietary protein with the advantages of low allergenicity, easy digestion and balanced composition of essential amino acids. However, due to the thick skin of chickpeas, the extraction of CPI is challenging, resulting in lower efficiency of the alkaline extraction-isoelectric precipitation (AE-IEP) method. Therefore, the present study investigated the effect of pulsed electric field combined with ultrasound (PEF-US) treatment on the extraction efficiency of CPI and the functional properties was characterized. Parameter optimization was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM), with the following optimized conditions: pulse duration of 87 s, electric field intensity of 0.9 kV/cm, ultrasonic time of 15 min, and ultrasonic power of 325 W. Under the optimized conditions, the yield of CPI after combined (PEF-US) treatment was 13.52 ± 0.13 %, which was a 47.28 % improvement over the AE-IEP method. This yield was better than that obtained with either individual PEF or US treatment. Additionally, the functional properties (solubility, emulsification, and foaming) of CPI were significantly enhanced compared to AE-IEP. However, the stability of emulsification and foaming did not show significant differences among the four methods. The PEF-US method efficiently extracts CPI with excellent functional properties, enabling the production of proteins as desired functional additives in the food industry.

Emulsions stabilized by pea protein-rich ingredients as an alternative to dairy proteins for food sustainability: Unveiling the key role of pea endogenous lipids in the surface-induced crystallization of milk fat

In the current context of food transition, the growing demand of consumers for sustainable plant-based protein sources has stimulated interest of food scientists in plant protein ingredients as alternatives to dairy protein ingredients. In this study, we hypothesized that the crystallization properties of dairy emulsions could be affected by the chemical complexity of commercially available pea protein-rich ingredients that contain proteins but also endogenous lipids. Dairy emulsions (30 %wt milk fat) stabilized either by a pea protein isolate or dairy proteins were prepared, their microstructure and interfacial composition were characterized. The crystallization and melting properties of milk fat in anhydrous state and in the emulsions were examined by the combination of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and synchrotron-radiation X-ray diffraction as a function of temperature (SR-XRDT). The results revealed differences in the milk fat crystallization properties in emulsion as a function of the ingredient used and highlighted a specific role played by pea endogenous lipids. The pea protein-rich ingredient contained 12.1 %wt endogenous lipids including 56.2 %wt polar lipids, 40.7 %wt triacylglycerols (TAGs) and 3.1 %wt plant sterols. The partitioning of pea endogenous lipids occurred upon emulsion formation as a function of their polarity: liquid unsaturated fatty acid rich pea TAGs mixed with milk TAGs in the core of the lipid droplets while pea polar lipids migrated at the TAGs/water interface together with pea proteins. Pea polar lipids were composed of saturated high melting temperature (Tm) and unsaturated low Tm molecular species. High Tm pea polar lipids exhibited a phase transition on cooling (from Lα/expansed to Lβ/condensed) and acted as interfacial templates for surface heterogeneous nucleation and crystal growth of high crystallization temperature milk TAGs. The key interfacial and functional roles played by pea endogenous lipids present in the protein isolate were demonstrated. This study highlights the importance to examine the chemical composition and the properties of plant-based ingredients that are increasingly used for sustainable food formulations.

Interaction of dairy and plant proteins for improving the emulsifying and gelation properties in food matrices: a review

A variety of variables influence food texture, two of which are gelation and emulsification. Protein interactions have an important role in influencing gelation and emulsifying properties. The utilization of plant proteins in the development of food systems is a prominent subject within the current protein transition paradigm. Plant proteins diminish gel strength compared to dairy proteins. Protein providers prefer to create their own networks rather than rely on tight ties. It may be feasible to resolve these challenges if the interactions between plant and dairy proteins are known at all sizes, from molecular to macroscopic. Therefore, the proteins and dairy proteins are the main emphasis of this review. The role of these proteins in interacting with food matrices is also discussed. Additionally, this data gives information on worldwide research trends. Finally, a glimpse into the future was discussed.

The composition, extraction, functional property, quality, and health benefits of coconut protein: A review

Coconut is widely appreciated for its distinctive flavor and is commonly utilized in the production of a variety of goods. Coconut protein, a by-product derived from coconut oil and coconut milk cake, is frequently underutilized or discarded. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the distribution and composition of coconut protein. Analyses reveal that coconut protein, specifically 11S globulin and 7S globulin, is predominantly found in coconut flesh. Furthermore, various extraction techniques for coconut protein, such as chemical, enzymatic, and physical methods, are discussed. The alkali dissolution and acid precipitation methods are widely utilized for extracting coconut protein, with the potential for enhancement through the incorporation of physical methods such as ultrasound. The evaluation of functional properties, quality, and health benefits of coconut protein is essential, given the limitations imposed by its solubility. Modification may be necessary to optimize its functional properties. Coconut presents a promising source of food protein, characterized by balanced amino acid composition, high digestibility, and low allergenic potential. In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive overview of the extraction methods, functional properties, quality, and nutritional benefits of coconut protein, offering insights for potential future research directions in the field. Additionally, the information presented may serve as a valuable reference for incorporating coconut protein into plant-based food products.

Introducing Bacillus natto and Propionibacterium shermanii into soymilk fermentation: A promising strategy for quality improvement and bioactive peptide production during in vitro digestion

Herein, the texture properties, polyphenol contents, and in vitro protein digestion characteristics of soymilk single- or co-fermented by non-typical milk fermenter Bacillus natto (B. natto), Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii (P. shermanii), and traditional milk fermenter were evaluated. Co-fermenting procedure containing B. natto or P. shermanii could raise the amounts of gallic acid, caffeic acid, and GABA when compared to the unfermented soymilk. Co-fermented soymilk has higher in vitro protein digestibility and nutritional protein quality. Through peptidomic analysis, the co-work of P. shermanii and Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) may release the highest relative percentage of bioactive peptides, while the intervention of B. natto and Streptococcus thermophilus (S. thermophilus) resulted in more differentiated peptides. The multi-functional bioactive peptides were mainly released from glycine-rich protein, β-conglycinin alpha subunit 1, and ACB domain-containing protein. These findings indicated the potential usage of B. natto/S. thermophilus or P. shermanii/L. plantarum in bio-enhanced soymilk fermentation.

Legumes as an alternative protein source in plant-based foods: Applications, challenges, and strategies

Since animal proteins may pose a threat to the global environment and human health, the development of alternative proteins has become an inevitable trend in the future. Legumes are considered to be one of the most promising sources of sustainable alternative animal proteins. Legume proteins are considered to exhibit excellent processing properties, including emulsification, gelation, and foaming, which have led to their widespread use in the food industry. Moreover, legume proteins are not only taken as substitutes for meat proteins, they also play an essential role in novel plant-based foods (meat, dairy, fermented food, and fat). However, there are few comprehensive overview studies on the application of legume proteins in plant-based foods. Therefore, this review provides a general overview of the main sources, functional properties, and applications in plant-based foods of legume proteins. In addition, challenges to the application of legume proteins in plant-based foods and specific strategies to address these challenges are presented. The review may provide some references for the further application of legume proteins in novel plant-based foods.

Opinion Piece: New Plant-Based Food Products Between Technology and Physiology

The rapid growth of product sectors for plant-based meat and dairy alternatives has raised significant scientific interest in their nutritional and ecological benefits. Here, it outlines the fractionation of plant-based raw materials and describes the technologies applied in the production of meat and dairy substitutes. Moreover, the study describes the effects of these new products on human nutrient supply and metabolic responses. Examples of meat-like products produced by extrusion technology and dairy alternatives are provided, addressing production challenges and the effects of processing on nutrient digestibility and bioavailability. In contrast to animal-based products, plant-based protein ingredients can contain many compounds produced by plants for defense or symbiotic interactions, such as lectins, phytates, and a wide range of secondary metabolites. The intake of these compounds as part of a plant-based diet can influence the digestion, bioaccessibility, and bioavailability of essential nutrients such as minerals and trace elements but also of amino acids. This is a critical factor, especially in regions with limited plant species for human consumption and inadequate technologies to eliminate these compounds. To fully understand these impacts and ensure that plant-based diets meet human nutritional needs, well-controlled human studies are needed.

A novel multiple plant-based milk alternative containing various preprocessed grains achieves better performance in protein digestibility and free amino acid profile via in vitro gastrointestinal digestion analysis

Plant-based milk alternatives are sustainable, hypoallergenic, and nutrient-rich, but challenges related to their lower bioavailability compared with animal-based milk still exist. In this study, we developed a multiple plant-based milk alternative using germinated soybeans and fermented cereals, and compared the protein digestible behaviors with commercial soy and bovine milk via in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. The multiple plant-based milk alternative possessed a higher level of essential amino acids and amino acid scores than the soy milk and a smaller percentage of low-molecular-weight peptides than the bovine milk. It displayed better protein-digestible responses with no apparent gastric coagulation. Moreover, the relatively larger particles in the multiple plant-based milk alternative had few effects on protein digestibility, with the highest proteolytic degree and a better free amino acid profile. The findings suggest that the multiple plant-based milk alternative presents higher protein digestibility behavior, and it could be a promising industrial plant-based product.

Advances in the formation mechanism of set-type plant-based yogurt gel: a review

Plant-based yogurt has several advantages over traditional yogurt, such as being lactose and cholesterol-free, making it more suitable for individuals with cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases. The formation mechanism of the gel in plant-based yogurt needs more attention because it is associated with the gel properties of yogurt. Most plant proteins, except for soybean protein, have poor functional abilities, such as solubility and gelling properties, which limits their application in most food items. This often results in undesirable mechanical quality of plant-based products, particularly plant-based yogurt gels, including grainy texture, high syneresis, and poor consistency. In this review, we summarize the common formation mechanism of plant-based yogurt gel. The main ingredients, including protein and non-protein components, as well as their interactions involved in the gel are discussed to understand their effects on gel formation and properties. The main interventions and their effects on gel properties are highlighted, which have been shown to improve the properties of plant-based yogurt gels effectively. Each type of intervention method may exhibit desirable advantages in different processes. This review provides new opportunities and theoretical guidance for efficiently improving the gel properties of plant-based yogurt for future consumption.

Smart proteins as a new paradigm for meeting dietary protein sufficiency of India: a critical review on the safety and sustainability of different protein sources

India, a global leader in agriculture, faces sustainability challenges in feeding its population. Although primarily a vegetarian population, the consumption of animal derived proteins has tremendously increased in recent years. Excessive dependency on animal proteins is not environmentally sustainable, necessitating the identification of alternative smart proteins. Smart proteins are environmentally benign and mimic the properties of animal proteins (dairy, egg and meat) and are derived from plant proteins, microbial fermentation, insects and cell culture meat (CCM) processes. This review critically evaluates the technological, safety, and sustainability challenges involved in production of smart proteins and their consumer acceptance from Indian context. Under current circumstances, plant-based proteins are most favorable; however, limited land availability and impending climate change makes them unsustainable in the long run. CCM is unaffordable with high input costs limiting its commercialization in near future. Microbial-derived proteins could be the most sustainable option for future owing to higher productivity and ability to grow on low-cost substrates. A circular economy approach integrating agri-horti waste valorization and C1 substrate synthesis with microbial biomass production offer economic viability. Considering the use of novel additives and processing techniques, evaluation of safety, allergenicity, and bioavailability of smart protein products is necessary before large-scale adoption.

Compatibility of pulse protein in the formulation of plant based yogurt: a review of nutri-functional properties and processing impact

With the increased environmental concerns and health awareness among consumers, there has been a notable interest in plant-based dairy alternatives. The plant-based yogurt market has experienced rapid expansion in recent years. Due to challenges related to cultivation, higher cost of production and lower protein content researchers have explored the viability of pulse-based yogurt which has arisen as an economically and nutritionally abundant solution. This review aims to examine the feasibility of utilizing pulse protein for yogurt production. The nutritional, antinutritional, and functional characteristics of various pulses were discussed in detail, alongside the modifications in these properties during the various stages of yogurt manufacturing. The review also sheds light on pivotal findings from existing literature and outlines challenges associated with the production of pulse-based yogurt. Pulses have emerged as promising base materials for yogurt manufacturing due to their favorable nutritional and functional characteristics. Further, the fermentation process can effectively reduce antinutritional components and enhance digestibility. Nonetheless, variations in sensorial and rheological properties were noted when different types of pulses were employed. This issue can be addressed by employing suitable combinations to achieve the desired properties in pulse-based yogurt.

Extraction, characterization, and utilization of mung bean starch as an edible coating material for papaya fruit shelf-life enhancement

This research was aimed to investigate the utilization of mung bean starch as an innovative edible coating material to enhance the shelf-life of cut papaya fruits. The study focused on the extraction process of mung bean starch and its subsequent characterization through various analyses. Particle size (142.3 ± 1.24 nm), zeta potential (-25.52 ± 1.02 mV), morphological images, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, and thermal stability (68.36 ± 0.15°C) were assessed to determine the mung bean starch properties. The functional properties, such as bulk density (0.51 ± 0.004 g/cm3) and tapped density (0.62 ± 0.010 g/cm3), angle of repose (21.61°), swelling power (12.26 ± 0.25%), and minimum gelation concentration (4.01 ± 1.25%), were examined to detect its potential as a coating base material. Subsequently, the prepared mung bean starch coating solution (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%) was applied to papaya fruits and the coated fruits' physicochemical characteristics evaluated during storage. These characteristics encompassed color, weight loss, pH shifts, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, vitamin C content, fruit firmness, microbial analysis, and sensory attributes. The results revealed that starch coating on papaya maintained its color, reduced weight loss, preserved vitamin C, and delayed firmness loss, enhancing shelf-life when compared to control sample. These findings demonstrated the effectiveness of mung bean starch coatings in preserving papaya fruits. The research made a significant contribution to the use of mung bean starch as a potential coating material for improving the shelf-life of papaya fruits. This finding has great promise for the field of food preservation and quality control.

Proteins from Legumes, Cereals, and Pseudo-Cereals: Composition, Modification, Bioactivities, and Applications

This review presents a comprehensive analysis of plant-based proteins from soybeans, pulses, cereals, and pseudo-cereals by examining their structural properties, modification techniques, bioactivities, and applicability in food systems. It addresses the critical need for a proper utilization strategy of proteins from various plant sources amidst the rising environmental footprint of animal protein production. The inherent composition diversity among plant proteins, their nutritional profiles, digestibility, environmental impacts, and consumer acceptance are compared. The innovative modification techniques to enhance the functional properties of plant proteins are also discussed. The review also investigates the bioactive properties of plant proteins, including their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumoral activities, and their role in developing meat analogs, dairy alternatives, baked goods, and 3D-printed foods. It underscores the consideration parameters of using plant proteins as sustainable, nutritious, and functional ingredients and advocates for research to overcome sensory and functional challenges for improved consumer acceptance and marketability.

Application of legumes in plant-based milk alternatives: a review of limitations and solutions

In recent years, a global shift has been observed toward reducing the consumption of animal-derived foods in favor of healthier and more sustainable dietary choices. This has led to a steady growth in the market for plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs). Projections suggest that this market will reach a value of USD 69.8 billion by 2030. Legumes, being traditional and nutritious ingredients for PMBAs, are rich in proteins, dietary fibers, and other nutrients, with potential health benefits such as anticancer and cardiovascular disease prevention. In this review, the application of 12 legumes in plant-based milk alternatives was thoroughly discussed for the first time. However, compared to milk, processing of legume-based beverages can lead to deficiencies such as nutritional imbalance, off-flavor, and emulsion stratification. Considering the potential and challenges associated with legume-based beverages, this review aims to provide a scientific comparison between legume-based beverages and cow's milk in terms of nutritional quality, organoleptic attributes and stability, and to summarize ways to improve the deficiencies of legume-based beverages in terms of raw materials and processing method improvements. In conclusion, the legume-based beverage industry will be better enhanced and developed by improving the issues.

Mung bean protein as an emerging source of plant protein: a review on production methods, functional properties, modifications and its potential applications

Plant protein is rapidly becoming more of a prime interest to consumers for its nutritional and functional properties, as well as the potential to replace animal protein. In the frame of alternative protein new sources, mung bean is becoming another legume crop that could provide high quality plant protein after soybean and pea. In particular, the 8S globulins in mung bean protein have high structural similarity and homology with soybean β-conglycinin (7S globulin), with 68% sequence identity. Currently, mung bean protein has gained popularity in food industry because of its high nutritional value and peculiar functional properties. In that regard, various modification technologies have been applied to further broaden its application. Here, we provide a review of the composition, nutritional value, production methods, functional properties and modification technologies of mung bean protein. Furthermore, its potential applications in the new plant-based products, meat products, noodles, edible packaging films and bioactive compound carriers are highlighted to facilitate its utilization as an alternative plant protein, thus meeting consumer demands for high quality plant protein resources. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated plant-based proteins and application in food product development: a review

Dry-fractionated protein concentrates are gaining attention because they are produced using a versatile and sustainable technology, which can be applied to a wide range of plant material. To facilitate their utilization in new product development, it is crucial to obtain a comprehensive overview of their techno-functional properties. The present review aims to examine the techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated protein concentrates and describe their primary applications in food products, considering the published works in the last decade. The techno-functional properties of proteins, including water absorption capacity, emulsifying and foaming properties, gelling ability or protein solubility, are relevant factors to consider during food formulation. However, these properties are significantly influenced by the extraction technology, the type of protein and its characteristics. Overall, dry-fractionated proteins are characterized by high protein solubility, high foaming ability and foam stability, and high gelling ability. Such properties have been exploited in the development of food, such as bakery products and pasta, with the aim of increasing the protein content and enhancing the nutritional value. Additionally, innovative foods with distinctive textural and nutritional characteristics, such as meat and dairy analogues, have been developed by using dry-fractionated proteins. The results indicate that the study of these ingredients still needs to be improved, including their application with a broader range of plant materials. Nevertheless, this review could represent an initial step to obtaining an overview of the techno-functional properties of dry-fractionated proteins, facilitating their use in foods. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Pulse Protein Isolates as Competitive Food Ingredients: Origin, Composition, Functionalities, and the State-of-the-Art Manufacturing

The ever-increasing world population and environmental stress are leading to surging demand for nutrient-rich food products with cleaner labeling and improved sustainability. Plant proteins, accordingly, are gaining enormous popularity compared with counterpart animal proteins in the food industry. While conventional plant protein sources, such as wheat and soy, cause concerns about their allergenicity, peas, beans, chickpeas, lentils, and other pulses are becoming important staples owing to their agronomic and nutritional benefits. However, the utilization of pulse proteins is still limited due to unclear pulse protein characteristics and the challenges of characterizing them from extensively diverse varieties within pulse crops. To address these challenges, the origins and compositions of pulse crops were first introduced, while an overarching description of pulse protein physiochemical properties, e.g., interfacial properties, aggregation behavior, solubility, etc., are presented. For further enhanced functionalities, appropriate modifications (including chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatment) are necessary. Among them, non-covalent complexation and enzymatic strategies are especially preferable during the value-added processing of clean-label pulse proteins for specific focus. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the interrelationships between the composition, structure, functional characteristics, and advanced modification strategies of pulse proteins, which is a pillar of high-performance pulse protein in future food manufacturing.

The influence of ionic polysaccharides on the physicochemical and techno-functional properties of soy proteins; a comprehensive review

Since the world's population has surged in recent decades, the need for sustainable as well as environmentally friendly protein sources is growing. However, there are daunting challenges in utilizing these protein sources in the food industry due to their poor techno-functional properties compared with animal proteins. Numerous procedures have been introduced to improve plant protein functionalities with related pros and cons. Among them, complexation with polysaccharides is considered a safe and effective process for modulating plant proteins' technological and industrial applications. Notwithstanding the nutritional value of soy protein (SP) as a "complete protein," it is a crucial protein commercially because of its rank as the highest-traded plant-based protein worldwide. The current review deals with SP complexation with ionic polysaccharides, including chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, and xanthan gum, and their effects on the physicochemical and techno-functional properties of SP. Accordingly, the structure of SP and the abovementioned polysaccharides have been considered for a better understanding of the possible interactions. Then, the changes in the physicochemical and functional properties of SP and their potential applications in the formulation of plant-based food products have been discussed. Overall, ionic polysaccharides at optimum conditions would improve the functional properties of SP by altering its secondary structure, making it suitable for a wide range of applications in the food industry.

Application of plant-based proteins for fortification of oat yogurt storage stability and bioactivity

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the addition of plant-based peanut protein isolate (PNP) and commercial pea protein (CPP) on the quality of oat yogurt (OY). PNP and CPP were partially characterized for techno-functional properties. PNP had higher solubility (acidic and basic regions) and emulsifying activity than CPP. The water absorption capacity of CPP is significantly (p < 0.05) higher than PNP. Amino acid profiles of PNP and CPP were promising for the nutritional enhancement of OYs. OYs with PNP or CPP (0.5, 1, 2% w/v) were stored for 21 days and compared to the control group with no protein. On the 21st day of storage, (i) PNP- or CPP-added OYs were found to be comparable to the control with respect to post-acidification and viscosity, (ii) syneresis was more evident in PNP-added OYs than in CPP-added ones, (iii) total color change of 1% CPP-added OY was equal to the control, and (iv) hardnesses of control, 2% PNP, and 2% CPP-added OYs were 0.29 ± 0.00, 0.39 ± 0.01, and 0.45 ± 0.00 N, respectively. No adverse sensory effects were detected for CPP or PNP addition. Both proteins increased the total phenolic, soluble protein, antioxidant, antihypertensive, and α-glucosidase inhibition activity of oat milk and OYs, with PNP superior to CPP overall. Compared to oat milk, the fermentation process increased ACE inhibition activity in in vitro digested samples, whereas it reduced digested yogurts' antioxidant activity. Utilization of PNP in OY can solve the waste problem of peanut producers and the texture problem of the OY producers while formulating a functional product. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Plant-based (PB) yogurts have a growing consumer demand. The low-protein content of PB yogurts results in low acceptance with respect to their undesirable textural and sensorial attributes. This study provided a technical basis for the PB yogurt manufacturers focusing on the addition of commercial pea protein and isolated peanut protein into oat yogurt formulation without any thickeners or flavors. In vitro digestion of protein-added oat milk and oat yogurts showed the benefits of fermentation on bioactivity to the consumers.

Updates on Plant-Based Protein Products as an Alternative to Animal Protein: Technology, Properties, and Their Health Benefits

Plant-based protein products, represented by "plant meat", are gaining more and more popularity as an alternative to animal proteins. In the present review, we aimed to update the current status of research and industrial growth of plant-based protein products, including plant-based meat, plant-based eggs, plant-based dairy products, and plant-based protein emulsion foods. Moreover, the common processing technology of plant-based protein products and its principles, as well as the emerging strategies, are given equal importance. The knowledge gap between the use of plant proteins and animal proteins is also described, such as poor functional properties, insufficient texture, low protein biomass, allergens, and off-flavors, etc. Furthermore, the nutritional and health benefits of plant-based protein products are highlighted. Lately, researchers are committed to exploring novel plant protein resources and high-quality proteins with enhanced properties through the latest scientific and technological interventions, including physical, chemical, enzyme, fermentation, germination, and protein interaction technology.

Formulation and Physical Stability of High Total Solids Lentil Protein-Stabilised Emulsions for Use in Plant Protein-Based Young Child Formulae

The demand for high-quality plant protein products is increasing and the aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of increasing the total solids content on the formation and stability of lentil protein stabilised oil-in-water emulsions. A series of emulsions were formulated using different proportions of total solids: 23, 26, 29, 32, and 35% (w/v). The emulsions were formulated using three ingredients-lentil protein, sunflower oil, and maltodextrin-which made up 15.85, 27.43, and 56.72% (w/w) of the total solids, respectively. The changes in apparent viscosity, particle size distribution, and colour during thermal processing were evaluated, with the physical stability investigated using an analytical centrifuge. The apparent viscosity of the solutions increased with total solids content (25.6 to 130 mPa.s^-1), as did redness colour intensity (a* value increased from 5.82 ± 0.12 to 7.70 ± 0.09). Thermal processing resulted in greater destabilisation for higher total solids samples, as evidenced by greater changes in particle size, along with decreased redness colour. These results bring a better understanding of high total solids plant protein emulsions and factors affecting their stability, which could be used for the development of cost-effective and sustainable processing solutions in the production of plant protein young child formulae.

Effects of Oat β-Glucan on the Textural and Sensory Properties of Low-Fat Set Type Pea Protein Yogurt

This study investigated the effect of oat β-glucan as a fat substitute on the structure formation, texture, and sensory properties of pea protein yogurt. The results showed that the incorporation of 0.5% β-glucan significantly accelerated the lactic acid bacteria-induced fermentation, with the time for reaching the target pH of 4.6 shortened from 3.5 h to 3 h (p < 0.05); increased the plastic module (G′) from 693 Pa to 764 Pa when fermenting 3 h (p < 0.05); and enhanced the water-holding capacity from 77.29% to 82.15% (p < 0.05). The identification of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in low-fat pea protein yogurt by GC-IMS revealed a significant decrease in aldehydes and a significant increase in alcohols, ketones and acids in the pea yogurt after fermentation (p < 0.05). Among them, the levels of acetic acid, acetone, 2,3-butanedione, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, and ethyl acetate all significantly increased with the addition of oat β-glucan (p < 0.05), thereby providing prominent fruity, sweet, and creamy flavors, respectively. Combined with the results of sensory analysis, the quality characteristics of pea protein yogurt with 1% oil by adding 1% oat β-glucan were comparable to the control sample with 3% oil. Therefore, oat β-glucan has a good potential for fat replacement in pea protein yogurt.

Isoelectric point isolation and characterization of proteins from lupine cultivars as influenced by chemical and thermal treatments

Pulses provide a significant nutritional potential for the large proportion of the population in developing countries. Lupine is among the underutilized legume crops for human food in Ethiopia and globally concomitant to its contents of bitter alkaloids. This research was initiated to investigate the effects of soaking lupine seeds of bitter and sweet varieties in water and 2% sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) solutions as grain softener on the protein extraction efficiency and its sensory acceptability. It was hypothesized that the soaking treatment results in the removal of characteristic bitterness when coupled with thermal treatment (roasting). The result showed that soaking in Na₂CO₃ significantly increased the protein extraction efficiency (both protein yield and quality (purity)) in the two lupine cultivars. The roasting treatment did not help much. The bitter variety of lupine soaked in Na₂CO₃ with no roasting treatment gave the highest protein yield (39.45%), while the sweet variety soaked in water followed by roasting exhibited the least protein yield (23.25%). The purity of the protein isolates from the lupine samples soaked in 2% Na₂CO₃ followed by roasting was the highest (92.29%). The non-soaked samples of the sweet variety after roasting resulted in the lowest purity (75.05%). The water holding, and oil absorption capacity, as well as the emulsification activity and foaming capacity of the protein isolates were significantly varied for the lupine varieties, and by the soaking and roasting treatments. Higher (314.38%) WHC was recorded for the protein isolates from sweet variety soaked in Na₂CO₃, where the bitter variety, when soaked in 2% Na₂CO₃ without roasting gave protein isolates of higher emulsion and foaming capacities. The research revealed also that soaking of lupine seeds in grain softeners shows a great potential as a pretreatment for enhanced protein extraction and functional desirability (in terms of emulsion and foaming capacities) as well as sensory acceptability and can be recommended for scaling up at industrial level.

Recent innovations and emerging technological advances used to improve quality and process of plant-based milk analogs

The worldwide challenges related to food sustainability are presently more critical than ever before due to the severe consequences of climate change, outbreak of epidemics, and wars. Many consumers are shifting their dietary habits toward consuming more plant-based foods, such as plant milk analogs (PMA) for health, sustainability, and well-being reasons. The PMA market is anticipated to reach US$38 billion within 2024, making them the largest segment in plant-based foods. Nevertheless, using plant matrices to produce PMA has numerous limitations, including, among others, low stability and short shelf life. This review addresses the main obstacles facing quality and safety of PMA formula. Moreover, this literature overview discusses the emerging approaches, e.g., pulsed electric field (PEF), cold atmospheric plasma (CAP), ultrasound (US), ultra-high-pressure homogenization (UHPH), ultraviolet C (UVC) irradiation, ozone (O3), and hurdle technology used in PMA formulations to overcome their common challenges. These emerging technologies have a vast potential at the lab scale to improve physicochemical characteristics, increase stability and extend the shelf-life, decrease food additives, increase nutritional and organoleptic qualities of the end product. Although the PMA fabrication on a large scale using these technologies can be expected in the near future to formulate novel food products that can offer green alternatives to conventional dairy products, further development is still needed for wider commercial applications.

Enhancement of pea protein solubility and thermal stability for acidic beverage applications via endogenous Maillard-induced glycation and chromatography purification

A clean-label process to endogenously glycate and purify pea protein was investigated. The production of maltodextrin from pea starch with a specific dextrose equivalent (DE) was optimized. The produced maltodextrin (14.6 DE) was used to initiate a limited and controlled Maillard-induced glycation of pea protein. The partially glycated pea protein (PG-PP) was subjected to hydrophobic interaction chromatography to remove unreacted carbohydrate, followed by characterization of the purified product. The extent of Maillard-induced glycation was monitored by assessing changes in color, free amino groups, and protein/glycoprotein profiles. The purified PG-PP was evaluated for thermal denaturation, surface properties, protein secondary structure, protein solubility, thermal stability, and digestibility. Maillard-induced glycation was limited to initial stages and resulted in a moderate blockage of amine groups (∼30%). The purified PG-PP had a relatively low surface hydrophobicity, a markedly enhanced protein solubility (∼90%) at pH 3.4, and a nonimpacted protein in vitro digestibility (∼100%). This work provided the impetus needed for future scale-up and process optimization for the production of value-added pea protein ingredient intended for high protein beverage applications.

Optimization of pea protein and citrus fiber contents for plant based stirred soymilk yogurt using response surface methodology

This study investigated the optimization of pea protein (PP) and citrus fiber (CF) contents with the goal of producing a clean-label plant-based stirred soymilk yogurt that is free of additives. If CF is absent, a greater PP concentration tends to produce soymilk yogurt with improved physical properties (viscosity, flowability and water holding capacity). A CF concentration of 0.1% helped to improve the physical properties necessary in the production of stirred yogurt; however, an increase in CF concentration to 0.2% or higher would instead cause the physical properties to become unfavorable. The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) count was unaffected by CF content and increased proportionally with PP content. Response surface methodology was employed to investigate how the physical properties were affected by the mixing ratio, and an optimization technique was used to obtain the optimal yogurt mixing ratio. According to the optimization process, the optimal contents of 4% PP and 0.1% CF was obtained with a desirability of 87.1%. This result could provide the basic and fundamental information for developing clean-label plant-based stirred soymilk yogurt as a reference in the future.

Enzymatic hydrolysis of lentil protein concentrate for modification of physicochemical and techno-functional properties

The effects of hydrolysis by commercial food-grade proteases on the physicochemical and techno-functional properties of lentil protein concentrate were investigated. Lentil protein concentrate was hydrolysed with Alcalase, Novozym 11028 or Flavourzyme, and a control was prepared without enzyme addition under the same conditions. Differences in specificity between the three proteases were evident in the electrophoretic protein profile, reversed-phase HPLC peptide profile, and free amino acid composition. Alcalase and Novozym were capable of extensively degrading all the major protein fractions. Alcalase or Novozym treatment resulted in considerably higher solubility under acidic conditions compared to the control. Flavourzyme treatment resulted in moderately improved solubility in the acidic range, but slightly lower solubility at pH 7. Alcalase treatment resulted in slightly larger particle size and slightly higher viscosity. The foaming properties of the protein concentrate were not significantly affected by hydrolysis. Increased solubility in acidic conditions with hydrolysis could broaden the range of food and beverage applications for lentil protein concentrate.

Development and Chemical-Sensory Characterization of Chickpeas-Based Beverages Fermented with Selected Starters

Legume protein ingredients are receiving continuous interest for their potential to formulate plant-based dairy analogs. In this study, a legume-based slurry was produced from an Apulian black chickpeas (BCP) protein concentrate and fermented with three starter cultures, Streptococcus thermophilus (ST), a co-culture of ST with Lactococcus lactis (STLL) and a co-culture of ST with Lactobacillus plantarum (STLP). The effect of fermentation on the biochemical, texture and sensorial parameters was evaluated. The same beverage without inoculum was used as a control (CTRL). All the obtained fermented beverages were characterized by high protein (120.00 g kg−1) and low-fat contents (17.12 g kg−1). Fermentation contributed to a decrease in the contents of phytic acid by 10 to 79% and saturated fatty acids by 30 to 43%, with the STLP fermentation exercising the major effect. The three culture starters influenced the texture and sensorial attributes and the profile of the volatile compounds differently. Fermentation increased the lightness, consistency, cohesivity and viscosity of the formulated beverages. On a sensorial level, STLL had a major effect on the acidity, sourness and astringency, while both ST and STLP affected the creaminess, solubility and stickiness. Legumes and grass aromas were masked in LAB-fermented samples, probably due to a new VOC formation. The functional properties of LAB fermentation, along with the high protein content of the black chickpeas concentrate, provide the opportunity to formulate a clean label and safe plant-based fermented beverage with higher nutritional value compared to the others currently found in the market.

A comprehensive review on pulse protein fractionation and extraction: processes, functionality, and food applications

The increasing world population requires the production of nutrient-rich foods. Protein is an essential macronutrient for healthy individuals. Interest in using plant proteins in foods has increased in recent years due to their sustainability and nutritional benefits. Dry and wet protein fractionation methods have been developed to increase protein yield, purity, and functional and nutritional qualities. This review explores the recent developments in pretreatments and fractionation processes used for producing pulse protein concentrates and isolates. Functionality differences between pulse proteins obtained from different fractionation methods and the use of fractionated pulse proteins in different food applications are also critically reviewed. Pretreatment methods improve the de-hulling efficiency of seeds prior to fractionation. Research on wet fractionation methods focuses on improving sustainability and functionality of proteins while studies on dry methods focus on increasing protein yield and purity. Hybrid methods produced fractionated proteins with higher yield and purity while also improving protein functionality and process sustainability. Dry and hybrid fractionated proteins have comparable or superior functionalities relative to wet fractionated proteins. Pulse protein ingredients are successfully incorporated into various food formulations with notable changes in their sensory properties. Future studies could focus on optimizing the fractionation process, improving protein concentrate palatability, and optimizing formulations using pulse proteins.

Quality and health dimensions of pulse-based dairy alternatives with chickpeas, lupins and mung beans

Health and environmental issues regarding dairy consumption have been highlighted in recent years leading to tremendous consumer demand for plant-based substitutes. In this review, we focused on quality and health dimensions of pulse-based dairy alternatives (PuBDA) using chickpeas, lupins and mung beans. Appraisal of existing documents show that there is limited information on PuBDA with the said pulses compared to similar materials such as soy and pea. Most of the studies focused on milk or fermented milks, either in full or partial substitution of the dairy ingredients with the pulses. Issues on stability, sensory properties, shelf life and nutritional quality were underlined by existing literature. Although it was emphasized in some reports the health potential through the bioactive components, there is scarce data on clinical studies showing actual health benefits of the featured PuBDA in this paper. There is also a scant number of these PuBDA that are currently available in the market and in general, these products have inferior nutritional quality compared to the animal-based counterparts. Technological innovations involving physical, biological and chemical techniques can potentially address the quality problems in the use of chickpeas, lupins, and mung beans as raw materials in dairy alternatives.

Effects of C/N ratio on the growth and protein accumulation of heterotrophic Chlorella in broken rice hydrolysate

BACKGROUND

Microalgae protein is considered as a sustainable alternative to animal protein in the future. Using waste for microalgal culture can upgrade low-value raw materials into high-value products, helping to offset the cost of microalgal protein production. In this study we explored the feasibility of using microalgae heterotrophic fermentation to convert broken rice hydrolysate (BRH) into protein.

RESULTS

The results showed that the increase of BRH supplemental ratio was beneficial to the increase of biomass production but not beneficial to the increase of intracellular protein content. To further improve protein production, the effect of C/N ratio on intracellular protein accumulation was studied. It was found that low C/N ratio was beneficial to the synthesis of glutamate in microalgae cells, which in turn promoted the anabolism of other amino acids and further the protein. When the C/N ratio was 12:1, the biomass productivity and protein content could reach a higher level, which were 0.90 g/L/day and 61.56%, respectively. The obtained Chlorella vulgaris biomass was rich in essential amino acids (41.80%), the essential amino acid index was as high as 89.07, and the lysine content could reach up to 4.05 g/100 g.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a theoretical basis and guidance for using Chlorella vulgaris as an industrial fermentation platform to convert broken rice into products with high nutritional value.

Rheological properties of dairy desserts: Effect of rice bran protein and fat content

Rice bran protein (RBP) is an alternative plant protein that can be used in a wide range of foods due to its unique functional, nutritional, and hypoallergenic properties. The interactions of RBP with other biopolymers have revealed its feasibility for application in dairy products such as whipped cream and dairy desserts. Therefore, the effects of RBP and fat content on the rheological properties of dairy desserts were investigated. The pH value was not influenced by protein, but the nonfat milk solid content was changed by fat and protein content. All the desserts showed thixotropic properties which were mainly related to the molecular disentanglement at high shear rates. By increasing fat like RBP, the apparent viscosity (η_a ) was increased. Rheological parameters such as n value, thixotropic index, storage (G'), and loss moduli (G'') were increased by RBP. Moreover, the dairy desserts containing RBP and whole milk presented generally higher G', G'', complex modulus, and complex viscosity values, and lower tan δ values. The RBP enriched samples also had a higher hardness and gumminess. Syneresis was decreased by RBP, which was related to the formation of ordered mesh-like structures which enabled the entrapment of more water. There was a positive correlation between the rheological, textural, and physical properties of the dessert with added RBP, and therefore dairy dessert attributes can be improved along with fat reduction. However, a sensory evaluation is needed to unravel the acceptability rate of RBP in fat reduction from the view point of consumers. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Rice bran protein (RBP) has nutritional and hypoallergenic properties which enable it to apply to many products such as dairy desserts. One of the main concerns in dairy technology is the growing interest in low-fat products due to health problems. RBP showed unique properties which makes the creamy behavior. The rheological results have elucidated the creaminess associated with RBP and can assist in the proper simulation of mouthfeel.

The Current Situation of Pea Protein and Its Application in the Food Industry

Pea (Pisum sativum) is an important source of nutritional components and is rich in protein, starch, and fiber. Pea protein is considered a high-quality protein and a functional ingredient in the global industry due to its low allergenicity, high protein content, availability, affordability, and deriving from a sustainable crop. Moreover, pea protein has excellent functional properties such as solubility, water, and oil holding capacity, emulsion ability, gelation, and viscosity. Therefore, these functional properties make pea protein a promising ingredient in the food industry. Furthermore, several extraction techniques are used to obtain pea protein isolate and concentrate, including dry fractionation, wet fractionation, salt extraction, and mild fractionation methods. Dry fractionation is chemical-free, has no loss of native functionality, no water use, and is cost-effective, but the protein purity is comparatively low compared to wet extraction. Pea protein can be used as a food emulsifier, encapsulating material, a biodegradable natural polymer, and also in cereals, bakery, dairy, and meat products. Therefore, in this review, we detail the key properties related to extraction techniques, chemistry, and structure, functional properties, and modification techniques, along with their suitable application and health attributes.

Emerging sources and applications of alternative proteins: An introduction

Food protein is an essential macronutrient. Even though daily per capita supply of protein has increased globally from 61g in 1961 to 81g in 2013, and most people in the developed world have sufficient protein intake from their diets, however, protein deficiencies continue to be pervasive globally. Protein deficiency is the single major factor responsible for impaired growth and suboptimal health worldwide. Animal proteins are high quality and contain adequate and balanced amino acids, animal protein production however is inefficient and resource intensive. Alternative proteins are expected to provide the solution to meet the growing protein demand within the environmental limits. Alternative proteins include proteins from plants (i.e., grains, legumes, pulse, and nuts), fungus (i.e., mushrooms), algae, insects and cultured (lab-grown) meat that can be used to replace conventional animal proteins. Major concerns for human consumption of alternative proteins are inferior organoleptic properties, consumer acceptability, affordability, and sustainability. There is a need to develop culturally diversified alternative proteins to mitigate global protein malnutrition. Food proteins are also found applications in biomaterials and as a source of bioactive peptides.

Alternative proteins for meat and dairy replacers: Food safety and future trends

Traditionally, meat and dairy products have been important protein sources in the human diet. Consumers are eating more plant-based proteins, which is reflected in current market trends. Assessing how alternative proteins are processed and their impact on food safety helps realize market opportunities while ensuring food safety. In this review, an analysis of the food safety hazards, along with current industry trends and processing methods associated with alternative proteins for meat and dairy products for the European Union market is described. Understanding the effects of processing and safety alternative proteins is paramount to ensuring food safety and understanding the risks to consumers. However, the data here is limited. With the expected further increase in protein alternatives in consumers' diets, the risk of food allergens is apparent. The occurrence of processing contaminants in plant-based alternatives may occur, along with anti-nutritional compounds, which interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Further, typical food safety hazards related to the plant, the product itself, or processing are relevant. Although hazards in insects and seaweed are being addressed, other protein alternatives like cultured meat and SCPs warrant attention. Our findings can aid industry and governmental authorities in understanding current trends and prioritizing hazards for future monitoring.

The Impact of Dehulling and Germination on the Physiochemical, Protein Solubility and Water and Oil Holding Capacities of Yellow Eye Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Protein Concentrates

Pulse varieties including Yellow Eye (YE) beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a rich source of protein (~26.5%) that can be utilized to create value-added protein concentrates. Pre-treatments including dehulling and germination have been shown to be effective at improving the nutritional and functional properties of extracted protein concentrates. However, the composition and functionality of these protein concentrates can vary depending on the pre-treatments and the method of extraction used (salt vs. alkaline). Furthermore, little is known about the impact of combining these different processing methods on the properties of YE bean protein concentrates. The objective of this study was to evaluate how germination and dehulling pre-treatments individually and when combined influence protein extraction efficiency, physiochemical properties (surface hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence), and the functionality (solubility, oil and water holding capacities) of salt and alkaline extracted protein concentrates. Compared to the salt extracted concentrates, the alkaline protein concentrates exhibited higher protein recovery yields (16–23% vs. 43–56%) respectively. Conversely, the salt extracted protein concentrates exhibited superior functional properties as observed by improved water holding capacities and less variation in their solubilities at different pH values (4 to 10). When the pre-treatments were combined, the salt extracted concentrates exhibited improved extraction efficiencies and improved hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence, whereas the opposite trend was observed in the alkaline protein concentrates. These observations were attributed to differences in the protein content and composition of the salt vs. alkaline protein concentrates. Overall, these findings suggest that dehulling and germination are potential processing methods that may be used to improve the physiochemical characteristics of salt extracted protein concentrates from yellow eye beans. Future research may investigate the potential application of these ingredients in different food formulations.

A Comparative Photographic Review on Higher Plants and Macro-Fungi: A Soil Restoration for Sustainable Production of Food and Energy

The Kingdom of Plantae is considered the main source of human food, and includes several edible and medicinal plants, whereas mushrooms belong to the Kingdom of fungi. There are a lot of similar characteristics between mushrooms and higher plants, but there are also many differences among them, especially from the human health point of view. The absences of both chlorophyll content and the ability to form their own food are the main differences between mushrooms and higher plants. The main similar attributes found in both mushrooms and higher plants are represented in their nutritional and medicinal activities. The findings of this review have a number of practical implications. A lot of applications in different fields could be found also for both mushrooms and higher plants, especially in the bioenergy, biorefinery, soil restoration, and pharmaceutical fields, but this study is the first report on a comparative photographic review between them. An implication of the most important findings in this review is that both mushrooms and plants should be taken into account when integrated food and energy are needed. These findings will be of broad use to the scientific and biomedical communities. Further investigation and experimentation into the integration and production of food crops and mushrooms are strongly recommended under different environmental conditions, particularly climate change.

Valorization of Starch to Biobased Materials: A Review

Many concerns are being expressed about the biodegradability, biocompatibility, and long-term viability of polymer-based substances. This prompted the quest for an alternative source of material that could be utilized for various purposes. Starch is widely used as a thickener, emulsifier, and binder in many food and non-food sectors, but research focuses on increasing its application beyond these areas. Due to its biodegradability, low cost, renewability, and abundance, starch is considered a "green path" raw material for generating porous substances such as aerogels, biofoams, and bioplastics, which have sparked an academic interest. Existing research has focused on strategies for developing biomaterials from organic polymers (e.g., cellulose), but there has been little research on its polysaccharide counterpart (starch). This review paper highlighted the structure of starch, the context of amylose and amylopectin, and the extraction and modification of starch with their processes and limitations. Moreover, this paper describes nanofillers, intelligent pH-sensitive films, biofoams, aerogels of various types, bioplastics, and their precursors, including drying and manufacturing. The perspectives reveal the great potential of starch-based biomaterials in food, pharmaceuticals, biomedicine, and non-food applications.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pulse Proteins as a Tool to Improve Techno-Functional Properties

Pulse proteins are being increasingly investigated as nutritious and functional ingredients which could provide alternatives to animal proteins; however, pulse protein ingredients do not always meet the functionality requirements necessary for various applications. Consequently, enzymatic hydrolysis can be employed as a means of improving functional properties such as solubility, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. This review aims to examine the current literature regarding modification of these properties with enzymatic hydrolysis. The effects of enzymatic hydrolysis on the functionality of pulse proteins generally varies considerably based on the enzyme, substrate, processing steps such as heat treatment, degree of hydrolysis, and pH. Differences in protease specificity as well as protein structure allow for a wide variety of peptide mixtures to be generated, with varying hydrophobic and electrostatic properties. Typically, the most significant improvements are seen when the original protein ingredient has poor initial functionality. Solubility is usually improved in the mildly acidic range, which may also correspond with improved foaming and emulsifying properties. More work should be carried out on the potential of enzymatic hydrolysis to modify gelation properties of pulse proteins, as the literature is currently lacking. Overall, careful selection of proteases and control of hydrolysis will be necessary to maximize the potential of enzymatic hydrolysis as a tool to improve pulse protein functionality and broaden the range of potential applications.

Ingredients, Processing, and Fermentation: Addressing the Organoleptic Boundaries of Plant-Based Dairy Analogues

Consumer interest and research in plant-based dairy analogues has been growing in recent years because of increasingly negative implications of animal-derived products on human health, animal wellbeing, and the environment. However, plant-based dairy analogues face many challenges in mimicking the organoleptic properties of dairy products due to their undesirable off-flavours and textures. This article thus reviews fermentation as a viable pathway to developing clean-label plant-based dairy analogues with satisfactory consumer acceptability. Discussions on complementary strategies such as raw material selection and extraction technologies are also included. An overview of plant raw materials with the potential to be applied in dairy analogues is first discussed, followed by a review of the processing steps and innovative techniques required to transform these plant raw materials into functional ingredients such as plant-based aqueous extracts or flours for subsequent fermentation. Finally, the various fermentation (bacterial, yeast, and fungal) methodologies applied for the improvement of texture and other sensory qualities of plant-based dairy analogues are covered. Concerted research efforts would be required in the future to tailor and optimise the presented wide diversity of options to produce plant-based fermented dairy analogues that are both delicious and nutritionally adequate.

Functional Performance of Plant Proteins

Increasingly, consumers are moving towards a more plant-based diet. However, some consumers are avoiding common plant proteins such as soy and gluten due to their potential allergenicity. Therefore, alternative protein sources are being explored as functional ingredients in foods, including pea, chickpea, and other legume proteins. The factors affecting the functional performance of plant proteins are outlined, including cultivars, genotypes, extraction and drying methods, protein level, and preparation methods (commercial versus laboratory). Current methods to characterize protein functionality are highlighted, including water and oil holding capacity, protein solubility, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. We propose a series of analytical tests to better predict plant protein performance in foods. Representative applications are discussed to demonstrate how the functional attributes of plant proteins affect the physicochemical properties of plant-based foods. Increasing the protein content of plant protein ingredients enhances their water and oil holding capacity and foaming stability. Industrially produced plant proteins often have lower solubility and worse functionality than laboratory-produced ones due to protein denaturation and aggregation during commercial isolation processes. To better predict the functional performance of plant proteins, it would be useful to use computer modeling approaches, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR).