Subversion of Retrograde Trafficking by Translocated Pathogen Effectors

Nitric oxide signaling through three receptors regulates virulence, biofilm formation, and phenotypic heterogeneity of Legionella pneumophila

The causative agent of Legionnaires' disease, Legionella pneumophila, is an environmental bacterium, that replicates in macrophages, parasitizes amoeba, and forms biofilms. L. pneumophila employs the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system and the transcription factor LvbR to control various bacterial traits, including virulence and biofilm architecture. LvbR negatively regulates the nitric oxide (NO) receptor Hnox1, linking quorum sensing to NO signaling. Here, we assessed the response of L. pneumophila to NO and investigated bacterial receptors underlying this process. Chemical NO donors, such as dipropylenetriamine (DPTA) NONOate and sodium nitroprusside (SNP), delayed and reduced the expression of the promoters for flagellin (PflaA) and the 6S small regulatory RNA (P6SRNA). Marker-less L. pneumophila mutant strains lacking individual (Hnox1, Hnox2, or NosP) or all three NO receptors (triple knockout, TKO) grew like the parental strain in media. However, in the TKO strain, the reduction of PflaA expression by DPTA NONOate was less pronounced, suggesting that the NO receptors are implicated in NO signaling. In the ΔnosP mutant, the lvbR promoter was upregulated, indicating that NosP negatively regulates LvbR. The single and triple NO receptor mutant strains were impaired for growth in phagocytes, and phenotypic heterogeneity of non-growing/growing bacteria in amoebae was regulated by the NO receptors. The single NO receptor and TKO mutant strains showed altered biofilm architecture and lack of response of biofilms to NO. In summary, we provide evidence that L. pneumophila regulates virulence, intracellular phenotypic heterogeneity, and biofilm formation through NO and three functionally non-redundant NO receptors, Hnox1, Hnox2, and NosP.

IMPORTANCE

The highly reactive diatomic gas molecule nitric oxide (NO) is produced by eukaryotes and bacteria to promote short-range and transient signaling within and between neighboring cells. Despite its importance as an inter-kingdom and intra-bacterial signaling molecule, the bacterial response and the underlying components of the signaling pathways are poorly characterized. The environmental bacterium Legionella pneumophila forms biofilms and replicates in protozoan and mammalian phagocytes. L. pneumophila harbors three putative NO receptors, one of which crosstalks with the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs)-LvbR network to regulate various bacterial traits, including virulence and biofilm architecture. In this study, we used pharmacological, genetic, and cell biological approaches to assess the response of L. pneumophila to NO and to demonstrate that the putative NO receptors are implicated in NO detection, bacterial replication in phagocytes, intracellular phenotypic heterogeneity, and biofilm formation.

Legionella effectors SidC/SdcA ubiquitinate multiple small GTPases and SNARE proteins to promote phagosomal maturation

Protein ubiquitination is one of the most important posttranslational modifications (PTMs) in eukaryotes and is involved in the regulation of almost all cellular signaling pathways. The intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila translocates at least 26 effectors to hijack host ubiquitination signaling via distinct mechanisms. Among these effectors, SidC/SdcA are novel E3 ubiquitin ligases with the adoption of a Cys-His-Asp catalytic triad. SidC/SdcA are critical for the recruitment of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived vesicles to the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). However, the ubiquitination targets of SidC/SdcA are largely unknown, which restricts our understanding of the mechanisms used by these effectors to hijack the vesicle trafficking pathway. Here, we demonstrated that multiple Rab small GTPases and target soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNARE) proteins are bona fide ubiquitination substrates of SidC/SdcA. SidC/SdcA-mediated ubiquitination of syntaxin 3 and syntaxin 4 promotes their unconventional pairing with the vesicle-SNARE protein Sec22b, thereby contributing to the membrane fusion of ER-derived vesicles with the phagosome. In addition, our data reveal that ubiquitination of Rab7 by SidC/SdcA is critical for its association with the LCV membrane. Rab7 ubiquitination could impair its binding with the downstream effector Rab-interacting lysosomal protein (RILP), which partially explains why LCVs avoid fusion with lysosomes despite the acquisition of Rab7. Taken together, our study reveals the biological mechanisms employed by SidC/SdcA to promote the maturation of the LCVs.

Pathogenic rickettsiae utilize the phosphatidylserine binding receptor CD300f on macrophages for host invasion and pathogenesis

Some arthropod-borne obligate intracellular rickettsiae are among the most virulent human pathogens. Upon entry, Rickettsia species modulate immune (e.g., macrophages; MΦ) and non-immune cell (e.g., endothelial cells) responses to create a habitable environment for host colonization. In particular, MΦ play a crucial role in either terminating an infection at an early stage or succumbing to bacterial replication and colonization. However, our understanding on how Rickettsia species modulate crucial cellular processes within MΦ, including phagocytosis, and host cell defenses, to establish an intracytosolic replication niche, remain poorly defined. In this study, we describe a previously unappreciated mechanism, in which pathogenic rickettsiae infection is mediated by the phosphatidylserine (PS)-binding receptor, CD300f. We found that CD300f -/- mice but not wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J mice were protected against R. typhi - or R. rickettsii [ Shelia Smith ]-induced fatal rickettsiosis. Adoptative transfer studies further revealed that CD300f-expressing bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMΦ) are important mediators to control rickettsiosis in WT mice. Mechanistical analysis, using WT or CD300f -/- BMDMΦ, showed that CD300f facilitates the engulfment of both pathogenic R. typhi and R. rickettsii species, likely via a PS-mediated mechanism. Furthermore, CD300f was involved in the intracytosolic replication of both pathogenic rickettsiae by differentially modulating the anti-inflammatory Interleukin (IL)-10 and anti-rickettsial IL-1α and IL-1β cytokine responses. Collectively, our findings describe a previously unappreciated role for the efferocytic receptor, CD300f, to facilitate engulfment and the intracellular survival of pathogenic rickettsiae within the host.

Significance Statement

Vector-borne diseases, which are transmitted by hematophagous arthropods, like ticks and fleas, present a perilous threat to public health. In fact, tick- and flea-borne rickettsial diseases are on the rise globally and our current inadequate understanding on how Rickettsia interacts with their mammalian host has significantly impaired the development of effective interventions against pathogenic rickettsial infections. Here, we identified the phosphatidylserine (PS)-receptor, CD300f, as an important mediator of pathogenic rickettsiae infection in vivo and in vitro . Specifically, we showed that CD300f-expressing macrophages facilitate rickettsial infection by differentially modulating anti-inflammatory Interleukin (IL)-10 and anti-rickettsial IL-1α and IL-1β cytokine responses. In sum, our data described CD300f as an important regulator of rickettsial infection and may present a target for therapeutic intervention.

Roles Played by DOCK11, a Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor, in HBV Entry and Persistence in Hepatocytes

HBV infection is challenging to cure due to the persistence of viral covalently closed circular viral DNA (cccDNA). The dedicator of cytokinesis 11 (DOCK11) is recognized as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for CDC42 that has been reported to be required for HBV persistence. DOCK11 is expressed in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of human hepatocytes and is functionally associated with retrograde trafficking proteins Arf-GAP with GTPase domain, ankyrin repeat, and pleckstrin homology domain-containing protein 2 (AGAP2), and ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1), together with the HBV capsid, in the trans-Golgi network (TGN). This opens an alternative retrograde trafficking route for HBV from early endosomes (EEs) to the TGN and then to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thereby avoiding lysosomal degradation. DOCK11 also facilitates the association of cccDNA with H3K4me3 and RNA Pol II for activating cccDNA transcription. In addition, DOCK11 plays a crucial role in the host DNA repair system, being essential for cccDNA synthesis. This function can be inhibited by 10M-D42AN, a novel DOCK11-binding peptide, leading to the suppression of HBV replication both in vitro and in vivo. Treatment with a combination of 10M-D42AN and entecavir may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). Consequently, DOCK11 may be seen as a potential candidate molecule in the development of molecularly targeted drugs against CHB.

Autophagy facilitates intracellular survival of pathogenic rickettsiae in macrophages via evasion of autophagosomal maturation and reduction of microbicidal pro-inflammatory IL-1 cytokine responses

IMPORTANCE

Rickettsia spp. are intracellular bacterial parasites of a wide range of arthropod and vertebrate hosts. Some rickettsiae are responsible for several severe human diseases globally. One interesting feature of these pathogens is their ability to exploit host cytosolic defense responses to their benefits. However, the precise mechanism by which pathogenic Rickettsia spp. elude host defense responses remains unclear. Here, we observed that pathogenic Rickettsia typhi and Rickettsia rickettsii (Sheila Smith [SS]), but not non-pathogenic Rickettsia montanensis, become ubiquitinated and induce autophagy upon entry into macrophages. Moreover, unlike R. montanensis, R. typhi and R. rickettsii (SS) colocalized with LC3B but not with Lamp2 upon host cell entry. Finally, we observed that both R. typhi and R. rickettsii (SS), but not R. montanensis, reduce pro-inflammatory interleukin-1 (IL-1) responses, likely via an autophagy-mediated mechanism. In summary, we identified a previously unappreciated pathway by which both pathogenic R. typhi and R. rickettsii (SS) become ubiquitinated, induce autophagy, avoid autolysosomal destruction, and reduce microbicidal IL-1 cytokine responses to establish an intracytosolic niche in macrophages.

The Legionella autoinducer LAI-1 is delivered by outer membrane vesicles to promote interbacterial and interkingdom signaling

Legionella pneumophila is an environmental bacterium, which replicates in amoeba but also in macrophages, and causes a life-threatening pneumonia called Legionnaires' disease. The opportunistic pathogen employs the α-hydroxy-ketone compound Legionella autoinducer-1 (LAI-1) for intraspecies and interkingdom signaling. LAI-1 is produced by the autoinducer synthase Legionella quorum sensing A (LqsA), but it is not known, how LAI-1 is released by the pathogen. Here, we use a Vibrio cholerae luminescence reporter strain and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to detect bacteria-produced and synthetic LAI-1. Ectopic production of LqsA in Escherichia coli generated LAI-1, which partitions to outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) and increases OMV size. These E. coli OMVs trigger luminescence of the V. cholerae reporter strain and inhibit the migration of Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba. Overexpression of lqsA in L.pneumophila under the control of strong stationary phase promoters (PflaA or P6SRNA), but not under control of its endogenous promoter (PlqsA), produces LAI-1, which is detected in purified OMVs. These L. pneumophila OMVs trigger luminescence of the Vibrio reporter strain and inhibit D. discoideum migration. L. pneumophila OMVs are smaller upon overexpression of lqsA or upon addition of LAI-1 to growing bacteria, and therefore, LqsA affects OMV production. The overexpression of lqsA but not a catalytically inactive mutant promotes intracellular replication of L. pneumophila in macrophages, indicating that intracellularly produced LA1-1 modulates the interaction in favor of the pathogen. Taken together, we provide evidence that L. pneumophila LAI-1 is secreted through OMVs and promotes interbacterial communication and interactions with eukaryotic host cells.

The intracellular growth of the vacuolar pathogen Legionella pneumophila is dependent on the acyl chain composition of host membranes

Legionella pneumophila is an accidental human bacterial pathogen that infects and replicates within alveolar macrophages causing a severe atypical pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease. As a prototypical vacuolar pathogen L. pneumophila establishes a unique endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived organelle within which bacterial replication takes place. Bacteria-derived proteins are deposited in the host cytosol and in the lumen of the pathogen-occupied vacuole via a type IVb (T4bSS) and a type II (T2SS) secretion system respectively. These secretion system effector proteins manipulate multiple host functions to facilitate intracellular survival of the bacteria. Subversion of host membrane glycerophospholipids (GPLs) by the internalized bacteria via distinct mechanisms feature prominently in trafficking and biogenesis of the Legionella -containing vacuole (LCV). Conventional GPLs composed of a glycerol backbone linked to a polar headgroup and esterified with two fatty acids constitute the bulk of membrane lipids in eukaryotic cells. The acyl chain composition of GPLs dictates phase separation of the lipid bilayer and therefore determines the physiochemical properties of biological membranes - such as membrane disorder, fluidity and permeability. In mammalian cells, fatty acids esterified in membrane GPLs are sourced endogenously from de novo synthesis or via internalization from the exogenous pool of lipids present in serum and other interstitial fluids. Here, we exploited the preferential utilization of exogenous fatty acids for GPL synthesis by macrophages to reprogram the acyl chain composition of host membranes and investigated its impact on LCV homeostasis and L. pneumophila intracellular replication. Using saturated fatty acids as well as cis - and trans - isomers of monounsaturated fatty acids we discovered that under conditions promoting lipid packing and membrane rigidification L. pneumophila intracellular replication was significantly reduced. Palmitoleic acid - a C16:1 monounsaturated fatty acid - that promotes membrane disorder when enriched in GPLs significantly increased bacterial replication within human and murine macrophages but not in axenic growth assays. Lipidome analysis of infected macrophages showed that treatment with exogenous palmitoleic acid resulted in membrane acyl chain reprogramming in a manner that promotes membrane disorder and live-cell imaging revealed that the consequences of increasing membrane disorder impinge on several LCV homeostasis parameters. Collectively, we provide experimental evidence that L. pneumophila replication within its intracellular niche is a function of the lipid bilayer disorder and hydrophobic thickness.

Ubiquitination of Sec22b by a novel Legionella pneumophila ubiquitin E3 ligase

Legionella pneumophila is a facultative intracellular pathogen that causes legionellosis. The key to its virulence is the delivery of hundreds of effector proteins into host cells via the defective in organelle trafficking/intracellular multiplication type IV secretion system. These effectors modulate numerous host signaling pathways to create a niche called the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV) permissive for its intracellular replication. Previous investigation revealed that exploitation of the host ubiquitin system is among the most important strategies used by L. pneumophila to coopt host processes for its benefit. Here, we show that the effector Legionella ubiquitin ligase gene 15 (Lug15) (Lpg2327), which has no detectable homology with any enzyme involved in ubiquitin signaling, is an E3 ligase. In L. pneumophila-infected cells, Lug15 is localized on the LCV and impacts its association with polyubiquitinated proteins. We also demonstrate that Sec22b is ubiquitinated and recruited to the LCV by Lug15. Thus, our results establish Lug15 as a novel E3 ligase that functions to recruit a SNARE protein to remodel the L. pneumophila phagosome.IMPORTANCEProtein ubiquitination is one of the most important post-translational modifications that plays critical roles in the regulation of a wide range of eukaryotic signaling pathways. Many successful intracellular bacterial pathogens can hijack host ubiquitination machinery through the action of effector proteins that are injected into host cells by secretion systems. Legionella pneumophila is the etiological agent of legionellosis that is able to survive and replicate in various host cells. The defective in organelle trafficking (Dot)/intracellular multiplication (Icm) type IV secretion system of L. pneumophila injects over 330 effectors into infected cells to create an optimal environment permissive for its intracellular proliferation. To date, at least 26 Dot/Icm substrates have been shown to manipulate ubiquitin signaling via diverse mechanisms. Among these, 14 are E3 ligases that either cooperate with host E1 and E2 enzymes or adopt E1/E2-independent catalytic mechanisms. In the present study, we demonstrate that the L. pneumophila effector Legionella ubiquitin ligase gene 15 (Lug15) is a novel ubiquitin E3 ligase. Lug15 is involved in the remodeling of LCV with polyubiquitinated species. Moreover, Lug15 catalyzes the ubiquitination of host SNARE protein Sec22b and mediates its recruitment to the LCV. Ubiquitination of Sec22b by Lug15 promotes its noncanonical pairing with plasma membrane-derived syntaxins (e.g., Stx3). Our study further reveals the complexity of strategies utilized by L. pneumophila to interfere with host functions by hijacking host ubiquitin signaling.

Establishing the intracellular niche of obligate intracellular vacuolar pathogens

Obligate intracellular pathogens occupy one of two niches - free in the host cell cytoplasm or confined in a membrane-bound vacuole. Pathogens occupying membrane-bound vacuoles are sequestered from the innate immune system and have an extra layer of protection from antimicrobial drugs. However, this lifestyle presents several challenges. First, the bacteria must obtain membrane or membrane components to support vacuole expansion and provide space for the increasing bacteria numbers during the log phase of replication. Second, the vacuole microenvironment must be suitable for the unique metabolic needs of the pathogen. Third, as most obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens have undergone genomic reduction and are not capable of full metabolic independence, the bacteria must have mechanisms to obtain essential nutrients and resources from the host cell. Finally, because they are separated from the host cell by the vacuole membrane, the bacteria must possess mechanisms to manipulate the host cell, typically through a specialized secretion system which crosses the vacuole membrane. While there are common themes, each bacterial pathogen utilizes unique approach to establishing and maintaining their intracellular niches. In this review, we focus on the vacuole-bound intracellular niches of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Coxiella burnetii.

Tapping lipid droplets: A rich fat diet of intracellular bacterial pathogens

Lipid droplets (LDs) are dynamic and versatile organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. LDs consist of a hydrophobic core of neutral lipids, a phospholipid monolayer coat, and a variety of associated proteins. LDs are formed at the endoplasmic reticulum and have diverse roles in lipid storage, energy metabolism, membrane trafficking, and cellular signaling. In addition to their physiological cellular functions, LDs have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including metabolic disorders, cancer, and infections. A number of intracellular bacterial pathogens modulate and/or interact with LDs during host cell infection. Members of the genera Mycobacterium, Legionella, Coxiella, Chlamydia, and Salmonella exploit LDs as a source of intracellular nutrients and membrane components to establish their distinct intracellular replicative niches. In this review, we focus on the biogenesis, interactions, and functions of LDs, as well as on their role in lipid metabolism of intracellular bacterial pathogens.

Out of the ESCPE room: Emerging roles of endosomal SNX-BARs in receptor transport and host-pathogen interaction

Several functions of the human cell, such as sensing nutrients, cell movement and interaction with the surrounding environment, depend on a myriad of transmembrane proteins and their associated proteins and lipids (collectively termed "cargoes"). To successfully perform their tasks, cargo must be sorted and delivered to the right place, at the right time, and in the right amount. To achieve this, eukaryotic cells have evolved a highly organized sorting platform, the endosomal network. Here, a variety of specialized multiprotein complexes sort cargo into itineraries leading to either their degradation or their recycling to various organelles for further rounds of reuse. A key sorting complex is the Endosomal SNX-BAR Sorting Complex for Promoting Exit (ESCPE-1) that promotes the recycling of an array of cargos to the plasma membrane and/or the trans-Golgi network. ESCPE-1 recognizes a hydrophobic-based sorting motif in numerous cargoes and orchestrates their packaging into tubular carriers that pinch off from the endosome and travel to the target organelle. A wide range of pathogens mimic this sorting motif to hijack ESCPE-1 transport to promote their invasion and survival within infected cells. In other instances, ESCPE-1 exerts restrictive functions against pathogens by limiting their replication and infection. In this review, we discuss ESCPE-1 assembly and functions, with a particular focus on recent advances in the understanding of its role in membrane trafficking, cellular homeostasis and host-pathogen interaction.

Pathogen vacuole membrane contact sites - close encounters of the fifth kind

Vesicular trafficking and membrane fusion are well-characterized, versatile, and sophisticated means of 'long range' intracellular protein and lipid delivery. Membrane contact sites (MCS) have been studied in far less detail, but are crucial for 'short range' (10-30 nm) communication between organelles, as well as between pathogen vacuoles and organelles. MCS are specialized in the non-vesicular trafficking of small molecules such as calcium and lipids. Pivotal MCS components important for lipid transfer are the VAP receptor/tether protein, oxysterol binding proteins (OSBPs), the ceramide transport protein CERT, the phosphoinositide phosphatase Sac1, and the lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns(4)P). In this review, we discuss how these MCS components are subverted by bacterial pathogens and their secreted effector proteins to promote intracellular survival and replication.

Intracellular persister: A stealth agent recalcitrant to antibiotics

The bulk of bacteria transiently evading appropriate antibiotic regimes and recovered from non-resolutive infections are commonly refer to as persisters. In this mini-review, we discuss how antibiotic persisters stem from the interplay between the pathogen and the cellular defenses mechanisms and its underlying heterogeneity.

Legionella- and host-driven lipid flux at LCV-ER membrane contact sites promotes vacuole remodeling

Legionella pneumophila replicates in macrophages and amoeba within a unique compartment, the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). Hallmarks of LCV formation are the phosphoinositide lipid conversion from PtdIns(3)P to PtdIns(4)P, fusion with ER-derived vesicles and a tight association with the ER. Proteomics of purified LCVs indicate the presence of membrane contact sites (MCS) proteins possibly implicated in lipid exchange. Using dually fluorescence-labeled Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba, we reveal that VAMP-associated protein (Vap) and the PtdIns(4)P 4-phosphatase Sac1 localize to the ER, and Vap also localizes to the LCV membrane. Furthermore, Vap as well as Sac1 promote intracellular replication of L. pneumophila and LCV remodeling. Oxysterol binding proteins (OSBPs) preferentially localize to the ER (OSBP8) or the LCV membrane (OSBP11), respectively, and restrict (OSBP8) or promote (OSBP11) bacterial replication and LCV expansion. The sterol probes GFP-D4H* and filipin indicate that sterols are rapidly depleted from LCVs, while PtdIns(4)P accumulates. In addition to Sac1, the PtdIns(4)P-subverting L. pneumophila effector proteins LepB and SidC also support LCV remodeling. Taken together, the Legionella- and host cell-driven PtdIns(4)P gradient at LCV-ER MCSs promotes Vap-, OSBP- and Sac1-dependent pathogen vacuole maturation.

Cellular cholesterol licenses Legionella pneumophila intracellular replication in macrophages

Host membranes are inherently critical for niche homeostasis of vacuolar pathogens. Thus, intracellular bacteria frequently encode the capacity to regulate host lipogenesis as well as to modulate the lipid composition of host membranes. One membrane component that is often subverted by vacuolar bacteria is cholesterol - an abundant lipid that mammalian cells produce de novo at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or acquire exogenously from serum-derived lipoprotein carriers. Legionella pneumophila is an accidental human bacterial pathogen that infects and replicates within alveolar macrophages causing a severe atypical pneumonia known as Legionnaires' disease. From within a unique ER-derived vacuole L. pneumophila promotes host lipogenesis and experimental evidence indicates that cholesterol production might be one facet of this response. Here we investigated the link between cellular cholesterol and L. pneumophila intracellular replication and discovered that disruption of cholesterol biosynthesis or cholesterol trafficking lowered bacterial replication in infected cells. These growth defects were rescued by addition of exogenous cholesterol. Conversely, bacterial growth within cholesterol-leaden macrophages was enhanced. Importantly, the growth benefit of cholesterol was observed strictly in cellular infections and L. pneumophila growth kinetics in axenic cultures did not change in the presence of cholesterol. Microscopy analyses indicate that cholesterol regulates a step in L. pneumophila intracellular lifecycle that occurs after bacteria begin to replicate within an established intracellular niche. Collectively, we provide experimental evidence that cellular cholesterol promotes L. pneumophila replication within a membrane bound organelle in infected macrophages.

Imaging Flow Cytometry of Legionella-Containing Vacuoles in Intact and Homogenized Wild-Type and Mutant Dictyostelium

The causative agent of a severe pneumonia termed "Legionnaires' disease", Legionella pneumophila, replicates within protozoan and mammalian phagocytes in a specialized intracellular compartment called the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). This compartment does not fuse with bactericidal lysosomes but communicates extensively with several cellular vesicle trafficking pathways and eventually associates tightly with the endoplasmic reticulum. In order to comprehend in detail the complex process of LCV formation, the identification and kinetic analysis of cellular trafficking pathway markers on the pathogen vacuole are crucial. This chapter describes imaging flow cytometry (IFC)-based methods for the objective, quantitative and high-throughput analysis of different fluorescently tagged proteins or probes on the LCV. To this end, we use the haploid amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum as an infection model for L. pneumophila, to analyze either fixed intact infected host cells or LCVs from homogenized amoebae. Parental strains and isogenic mutant amoebae are compared in order to determine the contribution of a specific host factor to LCV formation. The amoebae simultaneously produce two different fluorescently tagged probes enabling tandem quantification of two LCV markers in intact amoebae or the identification of LCVs using one probe and quantification of the other probe in host cell homogenates. The IFC approach allows rapid generation of statistically robust data from thousands of pathogen vacuoles and can be applied to other infection models.

Overview of how HCMV manipulation of host cell intracellular trafficking networks can promote productive infection

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the immunocompromised and developing fetuses. Infection has also been linked to chronic inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular disease, and the development of certain cancers. The wide range of pathologies associated with HCMV infection is attributable to the broad cellular tropism of the virus where infection affects every organ system. Like other viruses, HCMV must tailor host cells to support productive infection. In particular, HCMV dedicates many resources and various strategies to manipulate host intracellular trafficking networks to facilitate various aspects of infection across all infected cell types. The dysregulation of host intracellular trafficking networks allows the virus to translocate to the host cell nucleus for genome replication, facilitate nuclear import/export of viral proteins and immature virions, subvert the host immune response, form new organelles for progeny virion assembly, maturation and egress, and promote cellular migration and viral spread. However, due to their complex nature, many aspects of these processes are not well-studied. New research and omics-based technologies have recently begun to elucidate the extent to which HCMV dysregulates host cell trafficking machinery. Here we review the variety of strategies HCMV utilizes to dysregulate intracellular trafficking networks to promote productive infection.

Subversion of host cell signaling: The arsenal of Rickettsial species

Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that cause severe epidemic rickettsioses. The spotted fever group and typhi group are major members of the genus Rickettsia. Rickettsial species from the two groups subvert diverse host cellular processes, including membrane dynamics, actin cytoskeleton dynamics, phosphoinositide metabolism, intracellular trafficking, and immune defense, to promote their host colonization and intercellular transmission through secreted effectors (virulence factors). However, lineage-specific rickettsiae have exploited divergent strategies to accomplish such challenging tasks and these elaborated strategies focus on distinct host cell processes. In the present review, we summarized current understandings of how different rickettsial species employ their effectors' arsenal to affect host cellular processes in order to promote their own replication or to avoid destruction.

Characterization of Chlamydia muridarum TC0668 Protein: Localization, Expression, and Inflammation-Inducing Effects on Host Cell

The objective of this study is to elucidate the basic biological properties and function of TC0668 in vitro. Laser confocal microscopy and immune-electron microscopy were used to detect localization of TC0668 in Chlamydia-infected human epithelial cells, while the expression phase was investigated by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. Protein array technology was employed to evaluate differences in cytokine secretion between cells infected with tc0668 single mutants and those infected with tc0668 null mutants. We found that TC0668 is restricted to the chlamydial inclusion. Translation and transcription of TC0668 were detected at 4 h and peaked at 16 h during the life cycle of Chlamydia in vitro. The cytokines produced by tc0668 single mutant infected cultures compared with tc0668 null mutant group indicated that 36 cytokines were downregulated, while 10 were up-regulated significantly. C. muridarum bearing a single tc0668 gene mutation have decreased urogenital pathogenicity that is explained by the effects of the mutation on the regulation of inflammation-related cytokine secretion.

Recent advances in bacterial therapeutics based on sense and response

Intelligent drug delivery is a promising strategy for cancer therapies. In recent years, with the rapid development of synthetic biology, some properties of bacteria, such as gene operability, excellent tumor colonization ability, and host-independent structure, make them ideal intelligent drug carriers and have attracted extensive attention. By implanting condition-responsive elements or gene circuits into bacteria, they can synthesize or release drugs by sensing stimuli. Therefore, compared with traditional drug delivery, the usage of bacteria for drug loading has better targeting ability and controllability, and can cope with the complex delivery environment of the body to achieve the intelligent delivery of drugs. This review mainly introduces the development of bacterial-based drug delivery carriers, including mechanisms of bacterial targeting to tumor colonization, gene deletions or mutations, environment-responsive elements, and gene circuits. Meanwhile, we summarize the challenges and prospects faced by bacteria in clinical research, and hope to provide ideas for clinical translation.

Human Cytomegalovirus Manipulates Syntaxin 6 for Successful Trafficking and Subsequent Infection of Monocytes

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) exhibits a complex host-pathogen interaction with peripheral blood monocytes. We have identified a unique, cell-type specific retrograde-like intracellular trafficking pattern that HCMV utilizes to gain access to the monocyte nucleus and for productive infection. We show that infection of primary human monocytes, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts leads to an increase in the amount of the trafficking protein Syntaxin 6 (Stx6). However, only knockdown (KD) of Stx6 in monocytes inhibited viral trafficking to the trans-Golgi network (TGN), a requisite step for nuclear translocation in monocytes. Conversely, KD of Stx6 in epithelial cells and fibroblasts did not change the kinetics of nuclear translocation and productive infection. Stx6 predominantly functions at the level of the TGN where it facilitates retrograde transport, a trafficking pathway used by only a few cellular proteins and seldom by pathogens. We also newly identify that in monocytes, Stx6 exhibits an irregular vesicular localization rather than being concentrated at the TGN as seen in other cell-types. Lastly, we implicate that viral particles that associate with both Stx6 and EEA1 early in infection are the viral population that successfully traffics to the TGN at later time points and undergo nuclear translocation. Additionally, we show for the first time that HCMV enters the TGN, and that lack of Stx6 prevents viral trafficking to this organelle. We argue that we have identified an essential cell-type specific regulator that controls early steps in efficient productive infection of a cell-type required for viral persistence and disease. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection causes severe and often fatal disease in the immunocompromised. It is one of the leading infectious causes of birth defects and causes severe complications in transplant recipients. By uncovering the unique pathways used by the virus to infect key cells, such as monocytes, responsible for dissemination and persistence, we provide new potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Cbp1, a fungal virulence factor under positive selection, forms an effector complex that drives macrophage lysis

Intracellular pathogens secrete effectors to manipulate their host cells. Histoplasma capsulatum (Hc) is a fungal intracellular pathogen of humans that grows in a yeast form in the host. Hc yeasts are phagocytosed by macrophages, where fungal intracellular replication precedes macrophage lysis. The most abundant virulence factor secreted by Hc yeast cells is Calcium Binding Protein 1 (Cbp1), which is absolutely required for macrophage lysis. Here we take an evolutionary, structural, and cell biological approach to understand Cbp1 function. We find that Cbp1 is present only in the genomes of closely related dimorphic fungal species of the Ajellomycetaceae family that lead primarily intracellular lifestyles in their mammalian hosts (Histoplasma, Paracoccidioides, and Emergomyces), but not conserved in the extracellular fungal pathogen Blastomyces dermatitidis. We observe a high rate of fixation of non-synonymous substitutions in the Cbp1 coding sequences, indicating that Cbp1 is under positive selection. We determine the de novo structures of Hc H88 Cbp1 and the Paracoccidioides americana (Pb03) Cbp1, revealing a novel "binocular" fold consisting of a helical dimer arrangement wherein two helices from each monomer contribute to a four-helix bundle. In contrast to Pb03 Cbp1, we show that Emergomyces Cbp1 orthologs are unable to stimulate macrophage lysis when expressed in the Hc cbp1 mutant. Consistent with this result, we find that wild-type Emergomyces africanus yeast are able to grow within primary macrophages but are incapable of lysing them. Finally, we use subcellular fractionation of infected macrophages and indirect immunofluorescence to show that Cbp1 localizes to the macrophage cytosol during Hc infection, making this the first instance of a phagosomal human fungal pathogen directing an effector into the cytosol of the host cell. We additionally show that Cbp1 forms a complex with Yps-3, another known Hc virulence factor that accesses the cytosol. Taken together, these data imply that Cbp1 is a fungal virulence factor under positive selection that localizes to the cytosol to trigger host cell lysis.

An evolving understanding of sorting signals for endosomal retrieval

Complex mechanisms govern the sorting of membrane (cargo) proteins at endosomes to ensure that protein localization to the post-Golgi endomembrane system is accurately maintained. Endosomal retrieval complexes mediate sorting by recognizing specific motifs and signals in the cytoplasmic domains of cargo proteins transiting through endosomes. In this review, the recent progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms of how the retromer complex, in conjunction with sorting nexin (SNX) proteins, operates in cargo recognition and sorting is discussed. New data revealing the importance of different SNX proteins and detailing how post-translational modifications can modulate cargo sorting to respond to changes in the environment are highlighted along with the key role that endosomal protein sorting plays in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Migration of Acanthamoeba through Legionella biofilms is regulated by the bacterial Lqs-LvbR network, effector proteins and the flagellum

The environmental bacterium Legionella pneumophila causes the pneumonia Legionnaires' disease. The opportunistic pathogen forms biofilms and employs the Icm/Dot type IV secretion system (T4SS) to replicate in amoebae and macrophages. A regulatory network comprising the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system and the transcription factor LvbR controls bacterial motility, virulence and biofilm architecture. Here we show by comparative proteomics that in biofilms formed by the L. pneumophila ΔlqsR or ΔlvbR regulatory mutants the abundance of proteins encoded by a genomic ‘fitness island’, metabolic enzymes, effector proteins and flagellar components (e.g. FlaA) varies. ∆lqsR or ∆flaA mutants form ‘patchy’ biofilms like the parental strain JR32, while ∆lvbR forms a ‘mat‐like’ biofilm. Acanthamoeba castellanii amoebae migrated more slowly through biofilms of L. pneumophila lacking lqsR, lvbR, flaA, a functional Icm/Dot T4SS (∆icmT), or secreted effector proteins. Clusters of bacteria decorated amoebae in JR32, ∆lvbR or ∆icmT biofilms but not in ∆lqsR or ∆flaA biofilms. The amoeba‐adherent bacteria induced promoters implicated in motility (P_flaA) or virulence (P_sidC, P_ralF). Taken together, the Lqs‐LvbR network (quorum sensing), FlaA (motility) and the Icm/Dot T4SS (virulence) regulate migration of A. castellanii through L. pneumophila biofilms, and – apart from the T4SS – govern bacterial cluster formation on the amoebae.

The Legionella Lqs-LvbR Regulatory Network Controls Temperature-Dependent Growth Onset and Bacterial Cell Density

Legionella species are facultative intracellular pathogens that cause a life-threatening pneumonia termed Legionnaires' disease. Legionella pneumophila employs the Lqs-LvbR (Legionella quorum sensing-Legionella virulence and biofilm regulator) network to regulate virulence and motility, but its role for growth in media is ill-defined. Here, we report that compared to the L. pneumophila reference strain JR32, a ΔlqsR mutant showed a reduced lag phase at 30°C and reached a higher cell density at 45°C, while the ΔlqsA, ΔlqsS, and ΔlqsT mutants showed a longer lag phase and reached a lower cell density. A ΔlvbR mutant resumed growth like the parental strain at 30°C but exhibited a substantially reduced cell density at 45°C. Thus, LvbR is an important cell density regulator at elevated temperatures. Environmental and clinical L. pneumophila strains grew in N-(2-acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES)-buffered yeast extract (AYE) medium after distinct lag phases with similar rates at 30°C, reached different cell densities at the optimal growth temperature of 40°C, and no longer grew at 50°C. Legionella longbeachae reached a rather low cell density at 40°C and did not grow at and beyond 45°C. Genes encoding components of the Lqs-LvbR network were present in the genomes of the environmental and clinical L. pneumophila isolates, and upon growth at 30°C or 45°C, the P_lqsR, P_lqsA, P_lqsS, and P_lvbR promoters from strain JR32 were expressed in these strains with distinct patterns. Taken together, our results indicate that the Lqs-LvbR network governs the temperature-dependent growth onset and cell density of the L. pneumophila reference strain JR32 and possibly also of environmental and clinical L. pneumophila isolates. IMPORTANCE Environmental bacteria of the genus Legionella are the causative agents of the severe pneumonia Legionnaires' disease, the incidence of which is on the rise worldwide. Legionella pneumophila and Legionella longbeachae are the clinically most relevant species. The opportunistic pathogens are inhaled through contaminated aerosols and replicate in human lung macrophages with a mechanism similar to that in their natural hosts, free-living amoebae. Given their prevalence in natural and technical water systems, an efficient control of Legionella spp. by physical, chemical, or biological means will reduce the incidence of Legionnaires' disease. Here, we show that the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system and the pleiotropic transcription factor LvbR govern the temperature-dependent growth onset and cell density of bacterial cultures. Hence, the growth of L. pneumophila in water systems is determined not only by the temperature and nutrient availability but also by quorum sensing, i.e., density- and signaling molecule-dependent gene regulation.

Dictyostelium Dynamin Superfamily GTPases Implicated in Vesicle Trafficking and Host-Pathogen Interactions

The haploid social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum is a powerful model organism to study vesicle trafficking, motility and migration, cell division, developmental processes, and host cell-pathogen interactions. Dynamin superfamily proteins (DSPs) are large GTPases, which promote membrane fission and fusion, as well as membrane-independent cellular processes. Accordingly, DSPs play crucial roles for vesicle biogenesis and transport, organelle homeostasis, cytokinesis and cell-autonomous immunity. Major progress has been made over the last years in elucidating the function and structure of mammalian DSPs. D. discoideum produces at least eight DSPs, which are involved in membrane dynamics and other processes. The function and structure of these large GTPases has not been fully explored, despite the elaborate genetic and cell biological tools available for D. discoideum. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge about mammalian and D. discoideum DSPs, and we advocate the use of the genetically tractable amoeba to further study the role of DSPs in cell and infection biology. Particular emphasis is put on the virulence mechanisms of the facultative intracellular bacterium Legionella pneumophila.

T4SEfinder: a bioinformatics tool for genome-scale prediction of bacterial type IV secreted effectors using pre-trained protein language model

Bacterial type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are versatile and membrane-spanning apparatuses, which mediate both genetic exchange and delivery of effector proteins to target eukaryotic cells. The secreted effectors (T4SEs) can affect gene expression and signal transduction of the host cells. As such, they often function as virulence factors and play an important role in bacterial pathogenesis. Nowadays, T4SE prediction tools have utilized various machine learning algorithms, but the accuracy and speed of these tools remain to be improved. In this study, we apply a sequence embedding strategy from a pre-trained language model of protein sequences (TAPE) to the classification task of T4SEs. The training dataset is mainly derived from our updated type IV secretion system database SecReT4 with newly experimentally verified T4SEs. An online web server termed T4SEfinder is developed using TAPE and a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) for T4SE prediction after a comprehensive performance comparison with several candidate models, which achieves a slightly higher level of accuracy than the existing prediction tools. It only takes about 3 minutes to make a classification for 5000 protein sequences by T4SEfinder so that the computational speed is qualified for whole genome-scale T4SEs detection in pathogenic bacteria. T4SEfinder might contribute to meet the increasing demands of re-annotating secretion systems and effector proteins in sequenced bacterial genomes. T4SEfinder is freely accessible at https://tool2-mml.sjtu.edu.cn/T4SEfinder_TAPE/.

A Brucella effector modulates the Arf6-Rab8a GTPase cascade to promote intravacuolar replication

Remodeling of host cellular membrane transport pathways is a common pathogenic trait of many intracellular microbes that is essential to their intravacuolar life cycle and proliferation. The bacterium Brucella abortus generates a host endoplasmic reticulum‐derived vacuole (rBCV) that supports its intracellular growth, via VirB Type IV secretion system‐mediated delivery of effector proteins, whose functions and mode of action are mostly unknown. Here, we show that the effector BspF specifically promotes Brucella replication within rBCVs by interfering with vesicular transport between the trans‐Golgi network (TGN) and recycling endocytic compartment. BspF targeted the recycling endosome, inhibited retrograde traffic to the TGN, and interacted with the Arf6 GTPase‐activating Protein (GAP) ACAP1 to dysregulate Arf6‐/Rab8a‐dependent transport within the recycling endosome, which resulted in accretion of TGN‐associated vesicles by rBCVs and enhanced bacterial growth. Altogether, these findings provide mechanistic insight into bacterial modulation of membrane transport used to promote their own proliferation within intracellular vacuoles.

SNX27-FERM-SNX1 complex structure rationalizes divergent trafficking pathways by SNX17 and SNX27

The molecular events that determine the recycling versus degradation fates of internalized membrane proteins remain poorly understood. Two of the three members of the SNX-FERM family, SNX17 and SNX31, utilize their FERM domain to mediate endocytic trafficking of cargo proteins harboring the NPxY/NxxY motif. In contrast, SNX27 does not recycle NPxY/NxxY-containing cargo but instead recycles cargo containing PDZ-binding motifs via its PDZ domain. The underlying mechanism governing this divergence in FERM domain binding is poorly understood. Here, we report that the FERM domain of SNX27 is functionally distinct from SNX17 and interacts with a novel DLF motif localized within the N terminus of SNX1/2 instead of the NPxY/NxxY motif in cargo proteins. The SNX27-FERM-SNX1 complex structure reveals that the DLF motif of SNX1 binds to a hydrophobic cave surrounded by positively charged residues on the surface of SNX27. The interaction between SNX27 and SNX1/2 is critical for efficient SNX27 recruitment to endosomes and endocytic recycling of multiple cargoes. Finally, we show that the interaction between SNX27 and SNX1/2 is critical for brain development in zebrafish. Altogether, our study solves a long-standing puzzle in the field and suggests that SNX27 and SNX17 mediate endocytic recycling through fundamentally distinct mechanisms.

The role of membrane contact sites at the bacteria-host interface

Membrane contact sites (MCSs) refer to the areas of close proximity between heterologous membranes. A growing body of evidence indicates that MCSs are involved in important cellular functions, such as cellular material transfer, organelle biogenesis, and cell growth. Importantly, the study of MCSs at the bacteria-host interface is an emerging popular research topic. Intracellular bacterial pathogens have evolved a variety of fascinating strategies to interfere with MCSs by injecting effectors into infected host cells. Bacteria-containing vacuoles establish direct physical contact with organelles within the host, ensuring vacuolar membrane integrity and energy supply from host organelles and protecting the vacuoles from the host endocytic pathway and lysosomal degradation. An increasing number of bacterial effectors from various bacterial pathogens hijack components of host MCSs to form the vacuole-organelle MCSs for material exchange. MCS-related events have been identified as new mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis to greatly improve bacterial survival and replication within host cells. In this review, we will discuss the recent advances in MCSs at the bacteria-host interface, focussing on the roles of MCSs mediated by bacterial effectors in microbial pathogenesis.

Predicting host dependency factors of pathogens in Drosophila melanogaster using machine learning

Pathogens causing infections, and particularly when invading the host cells, require the host cell machinery for efficient regeneration and proliferation during infection. For their life cycle, host proteins are needed and these Host Dependency Factors (HDF) may serve as therapeutic targets. Several attempts have approached screening for HDF producing large lists of potential HDF with, however, only marginal overlap. To get consistency into the data of these experimental studies, we developed a machine learning pipeline. As a case study, we used publicly available lists of experimentally derived HDF from twelve different screening studies based on gene perturbation in Drosophila melanogaster cells or in vivo upon bacterial or protozoan infection. A total of 50,334 gene features were generated from diverse categories including their functional annotations, topology attributes in protein interaction networks, nucleotide and protein sequence features, homology properties and subcellular localization. Cross-validation revealed an excellent prediction performance. All feature categories contributed to the model. Predicted and experimentally derived HDF showed a good consistency when investigating their common cellular processes and function. Cellular processes and molecular function of these genes were highly enriched in membrane trafficking, particularly in the trans-Golgi network, cell cycle and the Rab GTPase binding family. Using our machine learning approach, we show that HDF in organisms can be predicted with high accuracy evidencing their common investigated characteristics. We elucidated cellular processes which are utilized by invading pathogens during infection. Finally, we provide a list of 208 novel HDF proposed for future experimental studies.

Quorum sensing governs a transmissive Legionella subpopulation at the pathogen vacuole periphery

The Gram‐negative bacterium Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease and replicates in amoebae and macrophages within a distinct compartment, the Legionella‐containing vacuole (LCV). The facultative intracellular pathogen switches between a replicative, non‐virulent and a non‐replicating, virulent/transmissive phase. Here, we show on a single‐cell level that at late stages of infection, individual motile (P_flaA‐GFP‐positive) and virulent (P_ralF‐ and P_sidC‐GFP‐positive) L. pneumophila emerge in the cluster of non‐growing bacteria within an LCV. Comparative proteomics of P_flaA‐GFP‐positive and P_flaA‐GFP‐negative L. pneumophila subpopulations reveals distinct proteomes with flagellar proteins or cell division proteins being preferentially produced by the former or the latter, respectively. Toward the end of an infection cycle (˜ 48 h), the P_flaA‐GFP‐positive L. pneumophila subpopulation emerges at the cluster periphery, predominantly escapes the LCV, and spreads from the bursting host cell. These processes are mediated by the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system. Thus, quorum sensing regulates the emergence of a subpopulation of transmissive L. pneumophila at the LCV periphery, and phenotypic heterogeneity underlies the intravacuolar bi‐phasic life cycle of L. pneumophila.

Rickettsia-host interaction: strategies of intracytosolic host colonization

Bacterial infection is a highly complex biological process involving a dynamic interaction between the invading microorganism and the host. Specifically, intracellular pathogens seize control over the host cellular processes including membrane dynamics, actin cytoskeleton, phosphoinositide metabolism, intracellular trafficking and immune defense mechanisms to promote their host colonization. To accomplish such challenging tasks, virulent bacteria deploy unique species-specific secreted effectors to evade and/or subvert cellular defense surveillance mechanisms to establish a replication niche. However, despite superficially similar infection strategies, diverse Rickettsia species utilize different effector repertoires to promote host colonization. This review will discuss our current understandings on how different Rickettsia species deploy their effector arsenal to manipulate host cellular processes to promote their intracytosolic life within the mammalian host.

Targeting Endosomal Recycling Pathways by Bacterial and Viral Pathogens

Endosomes are essential cellular stations where endocytic and secretory trafficking routes converge. Proteins transiting at endosomes can be degraded via lysosome, or recycled to the plasma membrane, trans-Golgi network (TGN), or other cellular destinations. Pathways regulating endosomal recycling are tightly regulated in order to preserve organelle identity, to maintain lipid homeostasis, and to support other essential cellular functions. Recent studies have revealed that both pathogenic bacteria and viruses subvert host endosomal recycling pathways for their survival and replication. Several host factors that are frequently targeted by pathogens are being identified, including retromer, TBC1D5, SNX-BARs, and the WASH complex. In this review, we will focus on the recent advances in understanding how intracellular bacteria, human papillomavirus (HPV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) hijack host endosomal recycling pathways. This exciting work not only reveals distinct mechanisms employed by pathogens to manipulate host signaling pathways, but also deepens our understanding of the molecular intricacies regulating endosomal receptor trafficking.

Dictyostelium lacking the single atlastin homolog Sey1 shows aberrant ER architecture, proteolytic processes and expansion of the Legionella-containing vacuole

Dictyostelium discoideum Sey1 is the single ortholog of mammalian atlastin 1-3 (ATL1-3), which are large homodimeric GTPases mediating homotypic fusion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) tubules. In this study, we generated a D. discoideum mutant strain lacking the sey1 gene and found that amoebae deleted for sey1 are enlarged, but grow and develop similarly to the parental strain. The ∆sey1 mutant amoebae showed an altered ER architecture, and the tubular ER network was partially disrupted without any major consequences for other organelles or the architecture of the secretory and endocytic pathways. Macropinocytic and phagocytic functions were preserved; however, the mutant amoebae exhibited cumulative defects in lysosomal enzymes exocytosis, intracellular proteolysis, and cell motility, resulting in impaired growth on bacterial lawns. Moreover, ∆sey1 mutant cells showed a constitutive activation of the unfolded protein response pathway (UPR), but they still readily adapted to moderate levels of ER stress, while unable to cope with prolonged stress. In D. discoideum ∆sey1 the formation of the ER-associated compartment harbouring the bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila was also impaired. In the mutant amoebae, the ER was less efficiently recruited to the "Legionella-containing vacuole" (LCV), the expansion of the pathogen vacuole was inhibited at early stages of infection and intracellular bacterial growth was reduced. In summary, our study establishes a role of D. discoideum Sey1 in ER architecture, proteolysis, cell motility and intracellular replication of L. pneumophila.

Pathogenic, but Not Nonpathogenic, Rickettsia spp. Evade Inflammasome-Dependent IL-1 Responses To Establish an Intracytosolic Replication Niche

Rickettsia species (spp.) are strict obligate intracellular bacteria, some of which are pathogenic in their mammalian host, including humans. One critical feature of these stealthy group of pathogens is their ability to manipulate hostile cytosolic environments to their benefits. Although our understanding of Rickettsia cell biology and pathogenesis is evolving, the mechanisms by which pathogenic Rickettsia spp. evade host innate immune detection remain elusive. Here, we show that disease severity in wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J mice infected with Rickettsia typhi (the etiologic agent of murine typhus) and Rickettsia rickettsii (the etiologic agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever), but not with the nonpathogenic species Rickettsia montanensis, correlated with levels of bacterial burden as detected in the spleens of mice, as well as the serum concentrations of proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and, to a lesser extent, IL-1β. Antibody-mediated neutralization of IL-1α confirmed a key role in controlling mortality rates and bacterial burdens of rickettsia-infected WT mice. As macrophages are a primary source of both IL-1α and IL-1β cytokines, we determined the mechanism of the antirickettsial activities using bone marrow-derived macrophages. We found that pathogenic R. typhi and R. rickettsii, but not nonpathogenic R. montanensis, eluded pro-IL-1α induction and benefited predominantly from the reduced IL-1α secretion, via a caspase-11-gasdermin D (Gsdmd)-dependent pathway, to facilitate intracytosolic replication. Adoptive transfer experiments identified that IL-1α secretion by macrophages was critical for controlling rickettsiosis in WT mice. In sum, we identified a previously unappreciated pathway by which pathogenic, unlike nonpathogenic, rickettsiae preferentially target the caspase-11-Gsdmd-IL-1α signaling axis in macrophages, thus supporting their replication within the host. IMPORTANCE Currently, no vaccines are available to prevent rickettsioses, while vector-borne rickettsial infections in humans are on the rise globally. In fact, the insufficient understanding of how pathogenic Rickettsia species circumvent host immune defense mechanisms has significantly hindered the development of more effective therapeutics. Here, we identified a previously unappreciated role for the caspase-11-Gsdmd-IL-1α signaling axis in limiting the replication of pathogenic R. rickettsia and R. typhi species in murine macrophages and wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J mice. Adoptive transfer studies further identified IL-1α-secreting macrophages as critical mediators in controlling rickettsial infection in WT mice. Collectively, these findings provide insight into the potential mechanism of how pathogenic, but not nonpathogenic, Rickettsia spp. benefit from a reduction in the caspase-11-Gsdmd-mediated release of IL-1α to support host colonization.

A Novel Salmonella Periplasmic Protein Controlling Cell Wall Homeostasis and Virulence

Horizontal gene transfer has shaped the evolution of Salmonella enterica as pathogen. Some functions acquired by this mechanism include enzymes involved in peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis and remodeling. Here, we report a novel serovar Typhimurium protein that is absent in non-pathogenic bacteria and bears a LprI functional domain, first reported in a Mycobacterium tuberculosis lipoprotein conferring lysozyme resistance. Based on the presence of such domain, we hypothesized a role of this S. Typhimurium protein in PG metabolism. This protein, which we named ScwA for Salmonellacell wall-related regulator-A, controls positively the levels of the murein lytic transglycosylase MltD. In addition, the levels of other enzymes that cleave bonds in the PG lattice were affected in a mutant lacking ScwA, including a soluble lytic tranglycosylase (Slt), the amidase AmiC, and a few endo- and carboxypeptidases (NlpC, PBP4, and AmpH). The scwA gene has lower G+C content than the genomic average (43.1 vs. 52.2%), supporting acquisition by horizontal transfer. ScwA is located in the periplasm, stabilized by two disulfide bridges, produced preferentially in stationary phase and down-regulated following entry of the pathogen into eukaryotic cells. ScwA deficiency, however, results in a hypervirulent phenotype in the murine typhoid model. Based on these findings, we conclude that ScwA may be exploited by S. Typhimurium to ensure cell envelope homeostasis along the infection and to prevent host overt damage. This role could be accomplished by controlling the production or stability of a reduced number of peptidoglycan hydrolases whose activities result in the release of PG fragments.

Modulation of phagosome phosphoinositide dynamics by a Legionella phosphoinositide 3-kinase

The phagosome harboring the bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila is known to be enriched with phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns4P), which is important for anchoring a subset of its virulence factors and potentially for signaling events implicated in the biogenesis of the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV) that supports intracellular bacterial growth. Here we demonstrate that the effector MavQ is a phosphoinositide 3-kinase that specifically catalyzes the conversion of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) into PtdIns3P. The product of MavQ is subsequently phosphorylated by the effector LepB to yield PtdIns(3,4)P2, whose 3-phosphate is then removed by another effector SidF to generate PtdIns4P. We also show that MavQ is associated with the LCV and the ∆mavQ mutant displays phenotypes in the anchoring of a PtdIns4P-binding effector similar to those of ∆lepB or ∆sidF mutants. Our results establish a mechanism of de novo PtdIns4P biosynthesis by L. pneumophila via a catalysis axis comprised of MavQ, LepB, and SidF on the surface of its phagosome.

Quorum sensing controls persistence, resuscitation, and virulence of Legionella subpopulations in biofilms

The water-borne bacterium Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of Legionnaires' disease. In the environment, the opportunistic pathogen colonizes different niches, including free-living protozoa and biofilms. The physiological state(s) of sessile Legionella in biofilms and their functional consequences are not well understood. Using single-cell techniques and fluorescent growth rate probes as well as promoter reporters, we show here that sessile L. pneumophila exhibits phenotypic heterogeneity and adopts growing and nongrowing ("dormant") states in biofilms and microcolonies. Phenotypic heterogeneity is controlled by the Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system, the transcription factor LvbR, and the temperature. The Lqs system and LvbR determine the ratio between growing and nongrowing sessile subpopulations, as well as the frequency of growth resumption ("resuscitation") and microcolony formation of individual bacteria. Nongrowing L. pneumophila cells are metabolically active, express virulence genes and show tolerance toward antibiotics. Therefore, these sessile nongrowers are persisters. Taken together, the Lqs system, LvbR and the temperature control the phenotypic heterogeneity of sessile L. pneumophila, and these factors regulate the formation of a distinct subpopulation of nongrowing, antibiotic tolerant, virulent persisters. Hence, the biofilm niche of L. pneumophila has a profound impact on the ecology and virulence of this opportunistic pathogen.

Evolution and function of bacterial RCC1 repeat effectors

Intracellular bacterial pathogens harbour genes, the closest homologues of which are found in eukaryotes. Regulator of chromosome condensation 1 (RCC1) repeat proteins are phylogenetically widespread and implicated in protein-protein interactions, such as the activation of the small GTPase Ran by its cognate guanine nucleotide exchange factor, RCC1. Legionella pneumophila and Coxiella burnetii, the causative agents of Legionnaires' disease and Q fever, respectively, harbour RCC1 repeat coding genes. Legionella pneumophila secretes the RCC1 repeat 'effector' proteins LegG1, PpgA and PieG into eukaryotic host cells, where they promote the activation of the pleiotropic small GTPase Ran, microtubule stabilisation, pathogen vacuole motility and intracellular bacterial growth as well as host cell migration. The RCC1 repeat effectors localise to the pathogen vacuole or the host plasma membrane and target distinct components of the Ran GTPase cycle, including Ran modulators and the small GTPase itself. Coxiella burnetii translocates the RCC1 repeat effector NopA into host cells, where the protein localises to nucleoli. NopA binds to Ran GTPase and promotes the nuclear accumulation of Ran(GTP), thus pertubing the import of the transcription factor NF-κB and innate immune signalling. Hence, divergent evolution of bacterial RCC1 repeat effectors defines the range of Ran GTPase cycle targets and likely allows fine-tuning of Ran GTPase activation by the pathogens at different cellular sites.

A Quantitative Single-cell Flow Cytometry Assay for Retrograde MembraneTrafficking Using Engineered Cholera Toxin

The organization and distribution of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids in eukaryotic cells is an essential process for cell function. Retrograde trafficking from the plasma membrane to the Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum can greatly modify cell membrane composition and intracellular protein dynamics, and thus typifies a key sorting step. However, methods to efficiently quantify the extent or kinetics of these events are currently limited. Here, we describe a novel quantitative and effectively real-time single-cell flow cytometry assay to directly measure retrograde membrane transport. The assay takes advantage of the well-known retrograde trafficking of cholera toxin engineered with split-fluorescent proteins to generate novel tools for immediate monitoring of intracellular trafficking. This approach will greatly extend the ability to study the underlying biology of intracellular membrane trafficking, and how trafficking systems can adapt to the physiologic needs of different cell types and cell states.

Divergent Evolution of Legionella RCC1 Repeat Effectors Defines the Range of Ran GTPase Cycle Targets

Legionella pneumophila is a ubiquitous environmental bacterium which, upon inhalation, causes a life-threatening pneumonia termed Legionnaires’ disease. The opportunistic pathogen grows in amoebae and macrophages by employing a “type IV” secretion system, which secretes more than 300 different “effector” proteins into the host cell, where they subvert pivotal processes. The function of many of these effector proteins is unknown, and their evolution has not been studied. L. pneumophila RCC1 repeat effectors target the small GTPase Ran, a molecular switch implicated in different cellular processes such as nucleocytoplasmic transport and microtubule cytoskeleton dynamics. We provide evidence that one or more RCC1 repeat genes are distributed in two main clusters of L. pneumophila strains and have divergently evolved to target different components of the Ran GTPase activation cycle at different subcellular sites. Thus, L. pneumophila employs a sophisticated strategy to subvert host cell Ran GTPase during infection.

Legionella pneumophila governs its interactions with host cells by secreting >300 different “effector” proteins. Some of these effectors contain eukaryotic domains such as the RCC1 (regulator of chromosome condensation 1) repeats promoting the activation of the small GTPase Ran. In this report, we reveal a conserved pattern of L. pneumophila RCC1 repeat genes, which are distributed in two main clusters of strains. Accordingly, strain Philadelphia-1 contains two RCC1 genes implicated in bacterial virulence, legG1 (Legionella eukaryotic gene 1), and ppgA, while strain Paris contains only one, pieG. The RCC1 repeat effectors localize to different cellular compartments and bind distinct components of the Ran GTPase cycle, including Ran modulators and the small GTPase itself, and yet they all promote the activation of Ran. The pieG gene spans the corresponding open reading frames of legG1 and a separate adjacent upstream gene, lpg1975. legG1 and lpg1975 are fused upon addition of a single nucleotide to encode a protein that adopts the binding specificity of PieG. Thus, a point mutation in pieG splits the gene, altering the effector target. These results indicate that divergent evolution of RCC1 repeat effectors defines the Ran GTPase cycle targets and that modulation of different components of the cycle might fine-tune Ran activation during Legionella infection.

Mechanism of cargo recognition by retromer-linked SNX-BAR proteins

Endocytic recycling of internalized transmembrane proteins is essential for many important physiological processes. Recent studies have revealed that retromer-related Sorting Nexin family (SNX)–Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) proteins can directly recognize cargoes like cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR) and Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R); however, it remains poorly understood how SNX-BARs select specific cargo proteins and whether they recognize additional ligands. Here, we discovered that the binding between SNX-BARs and CI-MPR or IGF1R is mediated by the phox-homology (PX) domain of SNX5 or SNX6 and a bipartite motif, termed SNX-BAR-binding motif (SBM), in the cargoes. Using this motif, we identified over 70 putative SNX-BAR ligands, many of which play critical roles in apoptosis, cell adhesion, signal transduction, or metabolite homeostasis. Remarkably, SNX-BARs could cooperate with both SNX27 and retromer in the recycling of ligands encompassing the SBM, PDZ-binding motif, or both motifs. Overall, our studies establish that SNX-BARs function as a direct cargo-selecting module for a large set of transmembrane proteins transiting the endosome, in addition to their roles in phospholipid recognition and biogenesis of tubular structures.

Internalized transmembrane proteins can be recognized by specific protein complexes and diverted away from the degradation process. This study identifies a new sorting motif recognized by retromer-linked SNX-BAR proteins and reveals a large repertoire of potential cargoes recycled by the SNX-BAR proteins.

Legionella quorum sensing meets cyclic-di-GMP signaling

Bacterial gene regulation occurs through complex networks, wherein linear systems respond to intracellular or extracellular cues and engage on vivid crosstalk. The ubiquitous water-borne bacterium Legionella pneumophila colonizes various distinct environmental niches ranging from biofilms to protozoa, and - as an 'accidental' pathogen - the human lung. Consequently, L. pneumophila gene regulation evolved to integrate a broad spectrum of different endogenous and exogenous signals. Endogenous signals produced and detected by L. pneumophila comprise the quorum sensing autoinducer LAI-1 (3-hydroxypentadecane-4-one) and c-di-GMP. As an exogenous cue, nitric oxide controls the c-di-GMP regulatory network of L. pneumophila. The Legionella quorum sensing (Lqs) system regulates virulence, motility and natural competence of L. pneumophila. The Lqs system is linked to c-di-GMP signaling through the pleiotropic transcription factor LvbR, which also regulates the architecture of L. pneumophila biofilms. In this review, we highlight recent insights into the crosstalk of Legionella quorum sensing and c-di-GMP signaling.

The vacuole guard hypothesis: how intravacuolar pathogens fight to maintain the integrity of their beloved home

Intravacuolar bacterial pathogens establish intracellular niches by constructing membrane-encompassed compartments. The vacuoles surrounding the bacteria are remarkably stable, facilitating microbial replication and preventing exposure to host cytoplasmically localized innate immune sensing mechanisms. To maintain integrity of the membrane compartment, the pathogen is armed with defensive weapons that prevent loss of vacuole integrity and potential exposure to host innate signaling. In some cases, the microbial components that maintain vacuolar integrity have been identified, but the basis for why the compartment degrades in their absence is unclear. In this review, we point out that lessons from the microbial-programmed degradation of the vacuole by the cytoplasmically localized Shigella flexneri provide crucial insights into how degradation of pathogen vacuoles occurs. We propose that in the absence of bacterial-encoded guard proteins, aberrant trafficking of host membrane-associated components results in a dysfunctional pathogen compartment. As a consequence, the vacuole is poisoned and replication is terminated.

Phosphoinositides and the Fate of Legionella in Phagocytes

Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of a severe pneumonia called Legionnaires' disease. The environmental bacterium replicates in free-living amoebae as well as in lung macrophages in a distinct compartment, the Legionella-containing vacuole (LCV). The LCV communicates with a number of cellular vesicle trafficking pathways and is formed by a plethora of secreted bacterial effector proteins, which target host cell proteins and lipids. Phosphoinositide (PI) lipids are pivotal determinants of organelle identity, membrane dynamics and vesicle trafficking. Accordingly, eukaryotic cells tightly regulate the production, turnover, interconversion, and localization of PI lipids. L. pneumophila modulates the PI pattern in infected cells for its own benefit by (i) recruiting PI-decorated vesicles, (ii) producing effectors acting as PI interactors, phosphatases, kinases or phospholipases, and (iii) subverting host PI metabolizing enzymes. The PI conversion from PtdIns(3)P to PtdIns(4)P represents a decisive step during LCV maturation. In this review, we summarize recent progress on elucidating the strategies, by which L. pneumophila subverts host PI lipids to promote LCV formation and intracellular replication.

Bacterial injection machines: Evolutionary diverse but functionally convergent

Many human pathogens use Type III, Type IV, and Type VI secretion systems to deliver effectors into their target cells. The contribution of these secretion systems to microbial virulence was the main focus of a workshop organised by the International University of Andalusia in Spain. The meeting addressed structure-function, substrate recruitment, and translocation processes, which differ widely on the different secretion machineries, as well as the nature of the translocated effectors and their roles in subverting the host cell. An excellent panel of worldwide speakers presented the state of the art of the field, highlighting the involvement of bacterial secretion in human disease and discussing mechanistic aspects of bacterial pathogenicity, which can provide the bases for the development of novel antivirulence strategies.

Quorum sensing modulates the formation of virulent Legionella persisters within infected cells

The facultative intracellular bacterium Legionella pneumophila replicates in environmental amoebae and in lung macrophages, and causes Legionnaires' disease. Here we show that L. pneumophila reversibly forms replicating and nonreplicating subpopulations of similar size within amoebae. The nonreplicating bacteria are viable and metabolically active, display increased antibiotic tolerance and a distinct proteome, and show high virulence as well as the capacity to form a degradation-resistant compartment. Upon infection of naïve or interferon-γ-activated macrophages, the nonreplicating subpopulation comprises ca. 10% or 50%, respectively, of the total intracellular bacteria; hence, the nonreplicating subpopulation is of similar size in amoebae and activated macrophages. The numbers of nonreplicating bacteria within amoebae are reduced in the absence of the autoinducer synthase LqsA or other components of the Lqs quorum-sensing system. Our results indicate that virulent, antibiotic-tolerant subpopulations of L. pneumophila are formed during infection of evolutionarily distant phagocytes, in a process controlled by the Lqs system.

A bipartite sorting signal ensures specificity of retromer complex in membrane protein recycling

Retromer is an evolutionarily conserved protein complex, which sorts functionally diverse membrane proteins into recycling tubules/vesicles from the endosome. Many of the identified cargos possess a recycling signal sequence defined as ØX[L/M/V], where Ø is F/Y/W. However, this sequence is present in almost all proteins encoded in the genome. Also, several identified recycling sequences do not follow this rule. How then does retromer precisely select its cargos? Here, we reveal that an additional motif is also required for cargo retrieval. The two distinct motifs form a bipartite recycling signal recognized by the retromer subunits, Vps26 and Vps35. Strikingly, Vps26 utilizes different binding sites depending on the cargo, allowing retromer to recycle different membrane proteins. Thus, retromer interacts with cargos in a more complex manner than previously thought, which facilitates precise cargo recognition.