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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Enniatins A1 and B1 Modulate Calcium Flux through Alternative Pathways beyond Mitochondria. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:14975-14983. [PMID: 38898562 PMCID: PMC11229004 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c04242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) A1 and B1, previously considered ionophores, are emerging mycotoxins with effects on Ca2+ homeostasis. However, their exact mechanism of action remains unclear. This study investigated how these toxins affect Ca2+ flux in SH-SY5Y cells. ENN A1 induced Ca2+ influx through store-operated channels (SOC). The mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP reduced this influx, suggesting that the mitochondrial status influences the toxin effect. Conversely, ENN B1 did not affect SOC but acted on another Ca2+ channel, as shown when nickel, which directly blocks the Ca2+ channel pore, is added. Mitochondrial function also influenced the effects of ENN B1, as treatment with FCCP reduced toxin-induced Ca2+ depletion and uptake. In addition, both ENNs altered mitochondrial function by producing the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. This study describes for the first time that ENN A1 and B1 are not Ca2+ ionophores and suggests a different mechanism of action for each toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, IDIS, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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2
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de Sá SVM, Faria MA, Fernandes JO, Cunha SC. Investigating the individual and mixture cytotoxicity of co-occurring aflatoxin B1, enniatin B, and sterigmatocystin on gastric, intestinal, hepatic, and renal cellular models. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 188:114640. [PMID: 38583501 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates the individual and combined effects of the mycotoxins, Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), Enniatin B (ENNB) and Sterigmatocystin (STG), on the cellular viability of gastric (NCI-N87), intestinal (Caco-2), hepatic (Hep-G2) and renal (Hek-293) cells, shedding light on synergistic or antagonistic effects using a constant ratio combination design proposed by Chou-Talalay. These toxins are prevalent in cereal-based foods, frequently consumed by children which raises concerns about their exposure to these mycotoxins. This population is particularly vulnerable to the effects of these toxins due to their underdeveloped organs and incompletely structured physiological processes. Results showed that ENB was the most toxic of the three mycotoxins across all cell lines, while STG and AFB1 showed lower toxicity. The combination of ENNB + STG was found to be the most potent in terms of binary mixtures. In regard to ternary combinations, Caco-2 cells are more sensitive to the tested mycotoxins, whereas NCI-N87 cells show lower levels of cell damage. Worrying dose reduction values (>10-fold) were found for ENNB in binary and ternary combinations at low exposure levels. These findings are significant for establishing initial reference values, which play a pivotal role in estimating reference doses that are subsequently incorporated into the broader risk assessment process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
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3
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Shen H, Cai Y, Zhu K, Wang D, Yu R, Chen X. Enniatin B1 induces damage to Leydig cells via inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 and JAK/STAT3 signaling pathways. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 273:116116. [PMID: 38387140 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Enniatin B1 (ENN B1) is a mycotoxin that can be found in various foods. However, whether ENN B1 is hazardous to the reproductive system is still elusive. Leydig cells are testosterone-generating cells that reside in the interstitial compartment between seminiferous tubules. Dysfunction of Leydig cells could result in male infertility. This study aimed to examine the toxicological effects of ENN B1 against TM3 Leydig cells. ENN B1 significantly inhibited cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. ENN B1 treatment also decreased the expression of functional genes in Leydig cells. Moreover, ENN B1 induced Leydig cells apoptosis and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, ENN B1 leads to the upregulation of Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 in Leydig cells. In addition, ENN B1 inhibited the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, which is critical for the induction of oxidative stress. Additionally, ENN B1 treatment repressed the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway in Leydig cells. Rescue experiments showed that activation of STAT3 resulted in alleviation of ENN B1-induced damage in Leydig cells. Collectively, our study demonstrated that ENN B1 induced Leydig cell dysfunction via multiple mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Shen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yili Cai
- Department of Acupuncture, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Keqi Zhu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Dong Wang
- Shanghai Houyu Medical Equiment Co., Ltd, China
| | - Rui Yu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Ningbo University, China.
| | - Xueqin Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China.
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De Felice B, Spicer LJ, Caloni F. Enniatin B1: Emerging Mycotoxin and Emerging Issues. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:383. [PMID: 37368684 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice De Felice
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy (ESP), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20133 Milan, Italy
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5
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Delgado-Povedano MDM, Lara FJ, Gámiz-Gracia L, García-Campaña AM. Non-aqueous capillary electrophoresis-time of flight mass spectrometry method to determine emerging mycotoxins. Talanta 2023; 253:123946. [PMID: 36167011 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENN) and beauvericin (BEA) are emerging mycotoxins that have been traditionally determined by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). However, to the best of our knowledge, no analytical methods based on capillary electrophoresis (CE)-MS/MS have been reported so far. Due to their non-polar nature, in this work, a non-aqueous CE (NACE) method coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight-MS is proposed for the first time to identify and quantify these mycotoxins. Determination was achieved in 4 min under optimum conditions: 40 mM ammonium acetate in 80:20 (v/v) acetonitrile-methanol (buffer), 30 kV (voltage), 80 cm (capillary length), 20 °C (capillary temperature) and 50 mbar × 30 s (injection). Higher selectivity can be achieved when compared with LC due to the formation of exclusive CE adducts such as [M + CH3CH2NH3]+. "All Ions" acquisition mode was selected as it allows the quantification of the usual ENNs, as well as the identity confirmation of less common ENNs. The method was validated for wheat samples, obtaining limits of quantification from 4.0 to 8.3 μg/kg depending on the emerging mycotoxin, recovery values higher than 87.4%, and intra- and inter-day precision values (RSDs) lower than 15.1% in all cases. Finally, 29 wheat samples were analyzed, finding 26 samples with concentrations of enniatin B higher than the limit of quantification (7.5-1480 μg/kg), 20 for enniatin B1 (5.2-550 μg/kg), 7 for enniatin A (10-55 μg/kg), 4 for enniatin A1 (12.6-77 μg/kg) and 5 for BEA (9.2-16.4 μg/kg). Moreover, two other ENNs were tentatively identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Mar Delgado-Povedano
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Avda. Fuente Nueva s/n, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisco J Lara
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Avda. Fuente Nueva s/n, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain.
| | - Laura Gámiz-Gracia
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Avda. Fuente Nueva s/n, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana M García-Campaña
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Avda. Fuente Nueva s/n, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
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6
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Pérez-Fuentes N, Alvariño R, Alfonso A, González-Jartín J, Gegunde S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Enniatins A1 and B1 alter calcium homeostasis of neuronal cells leading to apoptotic death. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 168:113361. [PMID: 35970269 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENNs) A1 and B1 are non-regulated mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. that commonly occur in different types of food. These toxins are cytotoxic in several cell lines, but their mechanism of action is unclear. In this study, the cytotoxic effects of ENNs A1 and B1 in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells were analysed. Moreover, to better understand their mechanism of action, mitochondrial function, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and calcium fluxes were monitored. ENNs A1 and B1 reduced cell viability, presenting IC50 values of 2.0 and 2.7 μM, respectively. Both toxins induced caspase-dependent apoptosis, but only ENN A1 increased ROS production. Apoptotic cell death seems to be triggered by the increase in cytosolic calcium produced by both ENNs, since the toxins altered Ca2+ homeostasis by depleting intracellular reservoirs. Finally, binary combinations of ENN A1, ENN B1, ENN A and ENN B were tested. All mixtures resulted in an antagonistic effect, with the exception of ENN A and ENN B1 combination, which produced an additive effect. The results presented in this study provide the first evidence of ENNs A1 and B1 effects on calcium fluxes, providing new insights into the mechanism of action of these mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Pérez-Fuentes
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Rebeca Alvariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain.
| | - Jesús González-Jartín
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Sandra Gegunde
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain; Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitario Santiago de Compostela (FIDIS), Hospital Universitario Lucus Augusti, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, 27002, Spain
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7
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Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins and Their Combinations on Different Cell Lines: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040244. [PMID: 35448853 PMCID: PMC9031280 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds and mainly produced by species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. They can be synthesized on the field, during harvest as well as during storage. They are fairly stable compounds and difficult to remove. Among several hundreds of mycotoxins, according to the WHO, ochratoxin A, aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, patulin, fumonisins as well as T-2 and HT-2 toxins deserve special attention. Cytotoxicity is one of the most important adverse properties of mycotoxins and is generally assessed via the MTT assay, the neutral red assay, the LDH assay, the CCK-8 assay and the ATP test in different cell lines. The apoptotic cell ratio is mainly assessed via flow cytometry. Aside from the assessment of the toxicity of individual mycotoxins, it is important to determine the cytotoxicity of mycotoxin combinations. Such combinations often exhibit stronger cytotoxicity than individual mycotoxins. The cytotoxicity of different mycotoxins often depends on the cell line used in the experiment and is frequently time- and dose-dependent. A major drawback of assessing mycotoxin cytotoxicity in cell lines is the lack of interaction typical for complex organisms (for example, immune responses).
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Narváez A, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ritieni A, Mañes J. Human biomonitoring of multiple mycotoxins in hair: first large-scale pilot study. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2021.2744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human biomonitoring (HBM) represents the most accurate approach for assessing the exposure to mycotoxins, but traditional matrices fail to provide information about long-term exposure due to the rapid excretion rates and short half-lives of mycotoxins. Hair emerges as a promising matrix considering that contaminants can form stable links with hair components, such as keratins and melanin. Hence, the aim of the present study was to monitor the presence of up to ten mycotoxins (aflatoxins and Fusarium mycotoxins) in human hair samples (n=100) through a high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to Q-TOF high resolution mass spectrometry. A prevalence of 43% at concentrations ranging from 2.7 to 106.1 ng/g was observed, being enniatins and aflatoxin B1 the most prevalent compounds. Co-occurrence of up to three mycotoxins was observed in 42% of the positive samples. Retrospective untargeted analysis of hair samples tentatively identified up to 128 mycotoxins and related metabolites. These results confirm the accumulation of toxicologically relevant mycotoxins in hair matrix, thus standing as a suitable matrix for assessing long-term exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Narváez
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Naples ‘Federico II’, via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - Y. Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - A. Ritieni
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Naples ‘Federico II’, via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
- UNESCO Chair on Health Education and Sustainable Development at University of Naples ‘Federico II’, via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - J. Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot 46100, Spain
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9
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Chen J, Yang S, Li P, Wu A, Nepovimova E, Long M, Wu W, Kuca K. MicroRNA regulates the toxicological mechanism of four mycotoxins in vivo and in vitro. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2022; 13:37. [PMID: 35197116 PMCID: PMC8867758 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-021-00653-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins can cause body poisoning and induce carcinogenesis, often with a high mortality rate. Therefore, it is of great significance to seek new targets that indicate mycotoxin activity and to diagnose and intervene in mycotoxin-induced diseases in their early stages. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are physiological regulators whose dysregulation is closely related to the development of diseases. They are thus important markers for the occurrence and development of diseases. In this review, consideration is given to the toxicological mechanisms associated with four major mycotoxins (ochratoxin A, aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone). The roles that miRNAs play in these mechanisms and the interactions between them and their target genes are explained, and summarize the important role of histone modifications in their toxicity. As a result, the ways that miRNAs are regulated in the pathogenicity signaling pathways are revealed which highlights the roles played by miRNAs in preventing and controlling the harmful effects of the mycotoxins. It is hoped that this review will provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and control of the damage caused by these mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Chen
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, China
| | - Shuhua Yang
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, China
| | - Peng Li
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, China
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Eugenie Nepovimova
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, 50003, Czech Republic
| | - Miao Long
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, 110866, China.
| | - Wenda Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, 50003, Czech Republic. .,MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
| | - Kamil Kuca
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, 50003, Czech Republic. .,Biomedical Research Center, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, 50003, Czech Republic.
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10
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Ekwomadu TI, Akinola SA, Mwanza M. Fusarium Mycotoxins, Their Metabolites (Free, Emerging, and Masked), Food Safety Concerns, and Health Impacts. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:11741. [PMID: 34831498 PMCID: PMC8618243 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182211741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The genus Fusarium produces a number of mycotoxins of diverse chemical structures. Fusariotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi of the genus Fusarium. The important and commonly encountered fusariotoxins are trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone. Fusarium mycotoxins pose varying toxicities to humans and/or animals after consumption of contaminated grain. They can cause acute or chronic illness and, in some cases, death. For instance, a range of Fusarium mycotoxins can alter different intestinal defense mechanisms, such as the epithelial integrity, cell proliferation, mucus layer, immunoglobulins, and cytokine production. Of recent concern is the occurrence of emerging and masked Fusarium mycotoxins in agricultural commodities, which may contribute to toxic health effects, although the metabolic fate of masked mycotoxins still remains a matter of scientific discussion. These mycotoxins have attracted attention worldwide because of their impact on human and animal health, animal productivity, and the associated economic losses. In this paper, we review Fusarium mycotoxins and their metabolites with the aim of summarizing the baseline information on the types, occurrence, and health impacts of these mycotoxins in order to encourage much-needed research on integrated management of this unavoidable food contaminant as concerns for food safety continues to grow worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora I. Ekwomadu
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture, Sciences, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (S.A.A.); (M.M.)
- Food Security and Food Safety Niche Area, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Stephen A. Akinola
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture, Sciences, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (S.A.A.); (M.M.)
- Food Security and Food Safety Niche Area, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Mulunda Mwanza
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Natural and Agriculture, Sciences, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa; (S.A.A.); (M.M.)
- Food Security and Food Safety Niche Area, Northwest University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
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11
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Ariafar S, Oftadeh Harsin A, Fadaiie A, Mahboobian MM, Mohammadi M. Toxicity effects of mycotoxins and autophagy: a mechanistic view. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2019.1711416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saba Ariafar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Akram Oftadeh Harsin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Fadaiie
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mehdi Mahboobian
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mojdeh Mohammadi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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12
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Bernal-Algaba E, Pulgarín-Alfaro M, Fernández-Cruz ML. Cytotoxicity of Mycotoxins Frequently Present in Aquafeeds to the Fish Cell Line RTGill-W1. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:581. [PMID: 34437452 PMCID: PMC8402477 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decades, the aquaculture industry has introduced plant-based ingredients as a source of protein in aquafeeds. This has led to mycotoxin contaminations, representing an ecological, health and economic problem. The aim of this study was to determine in the RTgill-W1 fish cell line the toxicity of fifteen mycotoxins of common occurrence in aquafeeds. To identify the most sensitive endpoint of toxicity, the triple assay was used. It consisted of three assays: alamarBlue, Neutral Red Uptake and CFDA-AM, which revealed the mitochondrial activity, the lysosomal integrity and the plasma membrane integrity, respectively. Most of the assayed mycotoxins were toxic predominantly at lysosomal level (enniatins, beauvericin, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated metabolites 15-O-acetyl-DON and 3-acetyl-DON). Aflatoxins B1 and B2 exerted the greatest effects at mitochondrial level, while fumonisins B1 and B2 and nivalenol were not toxic up to 100 µg/mL. In general, low toxicity was observed at plasma membrane level. The vast majority of the mycotoxins assayed exerted a pronounced acute effect in the fish RTgill-W1 cell line, emphasizing the need for further studies to ascertain the impact of mycotoxin contamination of fish feeds in the aquaculture industry and to establish safe limits in aquafeeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - María Luisa Fernández-Cruz
- Department of Environment and Agronomy, National Institute of Agriculture and Food Research and Technology (INIA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain; (E.B.-A.); (M.P.-A.)
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Microbiological Safety and Presence of Major Mycotoxins in Animal Feed for Laboratory Animals in a Developing Country: The Case of Costa Rica. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082389. [PMID: 34438847 PMCID: PMC8388699 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The microbiological safety and quality of commercial animal feed for laboratory animals, produced in Costa Rica, was assessed. Analysis of the animal feed included general microbial markers (total coliforms and molds) and the behavior over time of two specific feed contaminants (Salmonella spp. and mycotoxins). Results from the study suggest that there is a low risk of contamination from viable microorganisms but the product contains important levels of mycotoxins. Current preventive measures (UV light disinfection) are not effective and additional handling protocols should be considered. Abstract Safety and quality of compound feed for experimental animals in Costa Rica is unknown. Some contaminants, such as Salmonella spp. and mycotoxins, could elicit confounding effects in laboratory animals used for biomedical research. In this study, different batches of extruded animal feed, intended for laboratory rodents in Costa Rica, were analyzed to determine mycotoxin and microbiological contamination (i.e., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, total coliform bacteria, and total yeast and molds enumeration). Two methods for Salmonella decontamination (UV light and thermal treatment) were assessed. Only n = 2 of the samples were negative (representing 12.50%) for the 26 mycotoxins tested. Enniatins and fumonisins were among the most frequent toxins found (with n = 4+ hits), but the level of contamination and the type of mycotoxins depended on the supplier. None of the indicator microorganisms, nor Salmonella, were found in any of the tested batches, and no mold contamination, nor Salmonella growth, occurs during storage (i.e., 2–6 months under laboratory conditions). However, mycotoxins, such as enniatins and fumonisins tend to decrease after the fourth month of storage, and Salmonella exhibited a lifespan of 64 days at 17 °C even in the presence of UV light. The D-values for Salmonella were between 65.58 ± 2.95 (65 °C) and 6.21 ± 0.11 (80 °C) min, and the thermal destruction time (z-value) was calculated at 15.62 °C. Results from this study suggest that laboratory rodents may be at risk of contamination from animal feed that could significantly affect the outcomes of biomedical experiments. Thus, improved quality controls and handling protocols for the product are suggested.
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Sun C, Shen H, Cai H, Zhao Z, Gan G, Feng S, Chu P, Zeng M, Deng J, Ming F, Ma M, Jia J, He R, Cao D, Chen Z, Li J, Zhang L. Intestinal guard: Human CXCL17 modulates protective response against mycotoxins and CXCL17-mimetic peptides development. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 188:114586. [PMID: 33932472 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is an ongoing and growing issue that can create health risks and even cause death. Unfortunately, there is currently a lack of specific therapy against mycotoxins with few side effects. On the other hand, the strategic expression of CXCL17 in mucosal tissues suggests that it may be involved in immune response when exposed to mycotoxins, but the exact role of CXCL17 remains largely unknown. Using Caco-2 as a cell model of the intestinal epithelial barrier (the first line of defense against mycotoxins), we showed that a strong production of ROS-dependent CXCL17 was triggered by mycotoxins via p38 and JNK pathways. Under the mycotoxins stress, CXCL17 modulated enhanced immuno-protective response with a remission of inflammation and apoptosis through PI3K/AKT/mTOR. Based on our observed feedback of CXCL17 to the mycotoxins, we developed the CXCL17-mimetic peptides in silico (CX1 and CX2) that possessed the safety and the capability to ameliorate mycotoxins-inducible inflammation and apoptosis. In this study, the identification of detoxifying feature of CXCL17 is a prominent addition to the chemokine field, pointing out a new direction for curing the mycotoxins-caused damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongjun Sun
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Haokun Shen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Haiming Cai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Zengjue Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Guanhua Gan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Saixiang Feng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Pinpin Chu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Min Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Jinbo Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Feiping Ming
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Miaopeng Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Junhao Jia
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Rongxiao He
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Ding Cao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Zhiyang Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Jiayi Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Linghua Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Protein Function and Regulation in Agricultural Organisms, College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China; Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China.
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Tolosa J, Barba FJ, Pallarés N, Ferrer E. Mycotoxin Identification and In Silico Toxicity Assessment Prediction in Atlantic Salmon. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18120629. [PMID: 33321782 PMCID: PMC7764005 DOI: 10.3390/md18120629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to identify mycotoxins in edible tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) using liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). After using a non-targeted screening approach and a home-made spectral library, 233 mycotoxins were analyzed. Moreover, the occurrence of mycotoxins in fish filets was evaluated, and their potential toxicity was predicted by in silico methods. According to the obtained results, forty mycotoxins were identified in analyzed salmon samples, the predominant mycotoxins being enniatins (also rugulosin and 17 ophiobolins), commonly found in cereals and their by-products. Thus, mycotoxin carry-over can occur from feed to organs and edible tissues of cultivated fish. Moreover, the toxicity of detected mycotoxins was predicted by the in silico webserver ProTox-II, highlighting that special attention must be paid to some less reported mycotoxins due to their toxic predicted properties.
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Pickova D, Ostry V, Toman J, Malir F. Presence of Mycotoxins in Milk Thistle ( Silybum marianum) Food Supplements: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E782. [PMID: 33302488 PMCID: PMC7763672 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The consumption of herbal-based supplements, which are believed to have beneficial effects on human health with no side effects, has become popular around the world and this trend is still increasing. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn, commonly known as milk thistle (MT), is the most commonly studied herb associated with the treatment of liver diseases. The hepatoprotective effects of active substances in silymarin, with silybin being the main compound, have been demonstrated in many studies. However, MT can be affected by toxigenic micro-fungi and contaminated by mycotoxins with adverse effects. The beneficial effect of silymarin can thus be reduced or totally antagonized by mycotoxins. MT has proven to be affected by micro-fungi of the Fusarium and Alternaria genera, in particular, and their mycotoxins. Alternariol-methyl-ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), beauvericin (BEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatin A (ENNA), enniatin A1 (ENNA1), enniatin B (ENNB), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2), tentoxin (TEN), and zearalenone (ZEA) seem to be most significant in MT-based dietary supplements. This review focuses on summarizing cases of mycotoxins in MT to emphasize the need for strict monitoring and regulation, as mycotoxins in relation with MT-based dietary supplements are not covered by European Union legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darina Pickova
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
| | - Vladimir Ostry
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
- Center for Health, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Nutrition and Food in Brno, Palackeho 3a, CZ-61242 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
| | - Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ-50003 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic; (V.O.); (J.T.); (F.M.)
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17
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Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110686. [PMID: 33138307 PMCID: PMC7693699 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.
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18
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Mwihia EW, Lyche JL, Mbuthia PG, Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Gathumbi JK, Maina JG, Eshitera EE, Eriksen GS. Co-Occurrence and Levels of Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds in Kenya. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E627. [PMID: 33008105 PMCID: PMC7600487 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study determined the presence, levels and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in fish feeds in Kenya. Seventy-eight fish feeds and ingredients were sampled from fish farms and fish feed manufacturing plants and analysed for 40 mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine (73%) mycotoxins were identified with 76 (97%) samples testing positive for mycotoxins presence. Mycotoxins with the highest prevalences were enniatin B (91%), deoxynivalenol (76%) and fumonisin B1 (54%) while those with the highest maximum levels were sterigmatocystin (<30.5-3517.1 µg/kg); moniliformin (<218.9-2583.4 µg/kg) and ergotamine (<29.3-1895.6 µg/kg). Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 68 (87%) samples. Correlations were observed between the fumonisins; enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Fish dietary exposure estimates ranged between <0.16 and 43.38 µg/kg body weight per day. This study shows evidence of mycotoxin presence and co-occurrence in fish feeds and feed ingredients in Kenya. Fish exposure to these levels of mycotoxins over a long period of time may lead to adverse health effects due to their possible additive, synergistic or antagonist toxic effects. Measures to reduce fish feed mycotoxin contamination should be taken to avoid mycotoxicosis in fish and subsequently in humans and animals through residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evalyn Wanjiru Mwihia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Egerton 20115, Kenya
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Jan Ludvig Lyche
- Department of Food Safety and Infectious Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), P.O. Box 8146, 0454 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Paul Gichohi Mbuthia
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Lada Ivanova
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
| | - James K. Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya; (P.G.M.); (J.K.G.)
| | - Joyce G. Maina
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi 00625, Kenya;
| | - Eric Emali Eshitera
- Department of Animal Health and Production, School of Natural Resource and Animal Sciences, Maasai Mara University, P.O. Box 861, Narok 20500, Kenya;
| | - Gunnar Sundstøl Eriksen
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway; (L.I.); (S.U.)
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19
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Cytotoxic effects of individual and combined sterigmatocystin and nivalenol on liver hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 143:111473. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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20
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Taroncher M, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ. T-2 toxin and its metabolites: Characterization, cytotoxic mechanisms and adaptive cellular response in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111654. [PMID: 32777337 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The T-2 toxin (T-2) is a type A trichothecene produced by Fusarium species, and the most cytotoxic mycotoxin of the group. A study was made to determine T-2 cytotoxicity in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells; evaluate whether there is an adaptive response of HepG2 cells exposed to low concentrations of T-2; identify the T-2 metabolites by LC-Q-TOF MS; and determine whether T-2 disrupts cell proliferation in HepG2 cells. The IC50 values obtained ranged from 61.9 ± 2.4 nM to 70.7 ± 7.4 nM. No adaptive response was observed. There was no evidence of extra- or intracellular accumulation of T-2 after 24 h of exposure as determined by LC-Q-TOF MS. However, some T-2 metabolites such as HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol and T-2 triol showed important (>75%) intracellular accumulation. Cell distribution was significantly increased in SubG0/G1 phase (11.8-fold higher) and decreased (12%) in G2/M phase at 60 nM T-2, versus the control. Simultaneously, increased necrosis (238%) and apoptosis/necrosis (up to 35.5%) were observed in HepG2 cells exposed to T-2. In conclusion, the results show that T-2 leads to loss of cell viability without an adaptive response, and that the metabolites generated play an important role in T-2 cytotoxicity, increasing HepG2 cell damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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Gaber M, Elhasany KA, Sabra S, Helmy MW, Fang JY, Khattab SN, Bekhit AA, Teleb M, Elkodairy KA, Elzoghby AO. Co-Administration of Tretinoin Enhances the Anti-Cancer Efficacy of Etoposide via Tumor-Targeted Green Nano-Micelles. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 192:110997. [PMID: 32361378 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.110997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report promoted anti-cancer activity via a combination strategy of synergistic chemotherapy/retinoid-based breast cancer therapy with shell-stabilized micellar green nanomedicine. Amphiphilic zein-chondroitin sulfate (ChS)-based copolymeric micelles (PMs) were successfully developed via carbodiimide coupling for concomitant delivery of etoposide (ETP) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) to breast cancer. The micelles exhibited low critical micellar concentration (CMC) of 0.008 mg/mL with high encapsulation efficiencies of ETP and ATRA (61.2 and 84.29%, respectively). Calcium-mediated crosslinking of the anionic ChS micellar shell resulted in prolonged drug release with small micellar size of 222.7 nm. The micelles exhibited augmented internalization into MCF-7 breast cancer cells by virtue of ChS binding affinity to CD44 receptors overexpressed by cancer cells. Consequently, the ETP/ATRA-loaded micelles exhibited synergistic cytotoxicity against breast cancer cells as revealed by their significantly lower IC50, combination index (CI), and higherdose reduction index (DRI) in comparison to the free ETP and free ATRA or their combination. Micelles displayed superiority in reducing tumor volume, decreasing proliferation, and promoting necrosis in mice bearing Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) upon comparison to free ETP and free ATRA or their combination. Overall, the developed green zein-ChS micelles offer a promising platform for tumor-targeted delivery of hydrophobic therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Gaber
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt
| | - Kholod A Elhasany
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt
| | - Saly Sabra
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21526, Egypt
| | - Maged W Helmy
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damanhur University, Damanhur, Egypt
| | - Jia-You Fang
- Pharmaceutics Laboratory, Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan; Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology, Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kweishan, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Sherine N Khattab
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21321, Egypt.
| | - Adnan A Bekhit
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Teleb
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21526, Egypt
| | - Kadria A Elkodairy
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt
| | - Ahmed O Elzoghby
- Cancer Nanotechnology Research Laboratory (CNRL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21521, Egypt; Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences & Technology (HST), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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Tran VN, Viktorova J, Augustynkova K, Jelenova N, Dobiasova S, Rehorova K, Fenclova M, Stranska-Zachariasova M, Vitek L, Hajslova J, Ruml T. In Silico and In Vitro Studies of Mycotoxins and Their Cocktails; Their Toxicity and Its Mitigation by Silibinin Pre-Treatment. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E148. [PMID: 32121188 PMCID: PMC7150870 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins found in randomly selected commercial milk thistle dietary supplement were evaluated for their toxicity in silico and in vitro. Using in silico methods, the basic physicochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties of the mycotoxins were predicted using ACD/Percepta. The in vitro cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins was determined in mouse macrophage (RAW 264.7), human hepatoblastoma (HepG2), and human embryonic kidney (HEK 293T) cells. In addition, we studied the bioavailability potential of mycotoxins and silibinin utilizing an in vitro transwell system with differentiated human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) simulating mycotoxin transfer through the intestinal epithelial barrier. The IC50 values for individual mycotoxins in studied cells were in the biologically relevant ranges as follows: 3.57-13.37 nM (T-2 toxin), 5.07-47.44 nM (HT-2 toxin), 3.66-17.74 nM (diacetoxyscirpenol). Furthermore, no acute toxicity was obtained for deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, zearalenone, enniatinENN-A, enniatin-A1, enniatin-B, enniatin-B1, alternariol, alternariol-9-methyl ether, tentoxin, and mycophenolic acid up to the 50 nM concentration. The acute toxicity of these mycotoxins in binary combinations exhibited antagonistic effects in the combinations of T-2 with DON, ENN-A1, or ENN-B, while the rest showed synergistic or additive effects. Silibinin had a significant protective effect against both the cytotoxicity of three mycotoxins (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, DAS) and genotoxicity of AME, AOH, DON, and ENNs on HEK 293T. The bioavailability results confirmed that AME, DAS, ENN-B, TEN, T-2, and silibinin are transported through the epithelial cell layer and further metabolized. The bioavailability of silibinin is very similar to mycotoxins poor penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Nguyen Tran
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Jitka Viktorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Augustynkova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Nikola Jelenova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Simona Dobiasova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Katerina Rehorova
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
| | - Marie Fenclova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Milena Stranska-Zachariasova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Libor Vitek
- First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Katerinska 32, 12108 Prague 2, Czech Republic;
- Faculty General Hospital, U Nemocnice 2, 12808 Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (M.F.); (M.S.-Z.); (J.H.)
| | - Tomas Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.); (K.A.); (N.J.); (S.D.); (K.R.)
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Khoshal AK, Novak B, Martin PGP, Jenkins T, Neves M, Schatzmayr G, Oswald IP, Pinton P. Co-occurrence of DON and Emerging Mycotoxins in Worldwide Finished Pig Feed and Their Combined Toxicity in Intestinal Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E727. [PMID: 31835876 PMCID: PMC6950336 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Food and feed can be naturally contaminated by several mycotoxins, and concern about the hazard of exposure to mycotoxin mixtures is increasing. In this study, more than 800 metabolites were analyzed in 524 finished pig feed samples collected worldwide. Eighty-eight percent of the samples were co-contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and other regulated/emerging mycotoxins. The Top 60 emerging/regulated mycotoxins co-occurring with DON in pig feed shows that 48%, 13%, 8% and 12% are produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria species, respectively. Then, the individual and combined toxicity of DON and the 10 most prevalent emerging mycotoxins (brevianamide F, cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr), tryptophol, enniatins A1, B, B1, emodin, aurofusarin, beauvericin and apicidin) was measured at three ratios corresponding to pig feed contamination. Toxicity was assessed by measuring the viability of intestinal porcine epithelial cells, IPEC-1, at 48-h. BRV-F, Cyclo and TRPT did not alter cell viability. The other metabolites were ranked in the following order of toxicity: apicidin > enniatin A1 > DON > beauvericin > enniatin B > enniatin B1 > emodin > aurofusarin. In most of the mixtures, combined toxicity was similar to the toxicity of DON alone. In terms of pig health, these results demonstrate that the co-occurrence of emerging mycotoxins that we tested with DON does not exacerbate toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Khan Khoshal
- Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de tournefeuille, Cedex 3, F-31027 Toulouse, France; (A.K.K.); (P.G.P.M.); (M.N.)
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.N.); (T.J.); (G.S.)
| | - Pascal G. P. Martin
- Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de tournefeuille, Cedex 3, F-31027 Toulouse, France; (A.K.K.); (P.G.P.M.); (M.N.)
| | - Timothy Jenkins
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.N.); (T.J.); (G.S.)
| | - Manon Neves
- Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de tournefeuille, Cedex 3, F-31027 Toulouse, France; (A.K.K.); (P.G.P.M.); (M.N.)
| | - Gerd Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.N.); (T.J.); (G.S.)
| | - Isabelle P. Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de tournefeuille, Cedex 3, F-31027 Toulouse, France; (A.K.K.); (P.G.P.M.); (M.N.)
| | - Philippe Pinton
- Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de tournefeuille, Cedex 3, F-31027 Toulouse, France; (A.K.K.); (P.G.P.M.); (M.N.)
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24
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Marin DE, Pistol GC, Bulgaru CV, Taranu I. Cytotoxic and inflammatory effects of individual and combined exposure of HepG2 cells to zearalenone and its metabolites. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2019; 392:937-947. [PMID: 30919009 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-019-01644-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin produced by several Fusarium spp., is most commonly found as a contaminant in stored grain. ZEA derivatives (α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), β-zearalenol (β-ZOL)) can also be produced by Fusarium spp. in corn stems infected by fungi in the field. Also, following oral exposure, zearalenone is metabolized in various tissues, particularly in the liver, the major metabolites being α-ZOL and β-ZOL. The co-exposure of cells to mixture of a combination of mycotoxins may cause an increase of toxicity produced by these mycotoxins. In this in vitro study, we investigated the combined effects of ZEA, α-ZOL, β-ZOL in binary mixtures on the viability and inflammatory response of human liver cancer cell line (HepG2). Cell viability was assessed after 72 h using a neutral red assay. Effect of the toxins and their binary combinations on the expression of genes involved in inflammation (IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-8) were assessed through qPCR. Our viability data showed that irrespective of the toxin combinations, the toxins have synergistic effect. ZEA + α-ZOL and ZEA + β-ZOL mixtures have induced a slight to high antagonistic response on inflammatory cytokines at low concentrations that have turned into strong synergism for high concentrations. α-ZOL + β-ZOL showed antagonistic effects on inflammation for IL-1β and TNF-α, but act synergic for IL-8 at high toxin concentrations. This study clearly shows that co-contamination of food and feed with ZEA metabolites should be taken into consideration, as the co-exposure to mycotoxins might result in stronger adverse effect than resulted from the exposure to individual toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Marin
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, 077015, Balotesti, Ilfov, Romania.
| | - G C Pistol
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, 077015, Balotesti, Ilfov, Romania
| | - C V Bulgaru
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, 077015, Balotesti, Ilfov, Romania
| | - I Taranu
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, National Institute for Research and Development for Biology and Animal Nutrition, Calea Bucuresti No. 1, 077015, Balotesti, Ilfov, Romania
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25
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Effects of deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol on parameters associated with oxidative stress in HepG2 cells. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:197-205. [PMID: 30806951 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00344-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This work studied the effect of deoxynivalenol (DON) and two of its acetylated analogs (3-ADON, 15-ADON) on first indicators of oxidative stress status, namely production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induction of lipid peroxidation (LPO), in HepG2 cells. HepG2 cells were exposed to different concentrations of the three toxins, either alone or in combinations, for 24, 48, and 72 h. Results of cytotoxicity obtained in HepG2 cells were correlated with the detection of ROS and LPO. This effect was inversely correlated with ROS while directly correlated with LPO for the assayed mycotoxins in individual treatment. Combinations of two toxins containing 15-ADON yielded highest values, while for two-toxin combinations with 3-ADON, the effects were minor. A combination of all three mycotoxins alleviated ROS production and the highest levels in LPO were detected, in association to a final breakdown of adaption of ROS early produced by HepG2. In conclusion, parameters of stress evaluation presented in this study (ROS and LPO), revealed increases in HepG2 cells exposed to DON, 3-ADON, and 15-ADON either individually or combined.
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26
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Rong X, Sun-Waterhouse D, Wang D, Jiang Y, Li F, Chen Y, Zhao S, Li D. The Significance of Regulatory MicroRNAs: Their Roles in Toxicodynamics of Mycotoxins and in the Protection Offered by Dietary Therapeutics Against Mycotoxin-Induced Toxicity. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 18:48-66. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xue Rong
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Dongxiao Sun-Waterhouse
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
- School of Chemical Sciences; The Univ. of Auckland; Private Bag Auckland 92019 New Zealand
| | - Dan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
- Shandong Inst. of Pomology; Taian Shandong 271000 P. R. China
| | - Yang Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Feng Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Yilun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
| | - Shancang Zhao
- Central Laboratory of Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Key Laboratory of Test Technology on Food Quality and Safety of Shandong Province; Jinan Shandong 250100 P. R. China
| | - Dapeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control of Shandong Higher Education Institutes; the College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural Univ.; Taian Shandong 271018 P. R. China
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27
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Alonso-Garrido M, Escrivá L, Manyes L, Font G. Enniatin B induces expression changes in the electron transport chain pathway related genes in lymphoblastic T-cell line. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:437-443. [PMID: 30227181 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Enniatin B is a ionophoric and lipophilic mycotoxin which reaches the bloodstream and has the ability to penetrate into cellular membranes. The purpose of this study was to reveal changes in the gene expression profile caused by enniatin B in human Jurkat lymphoblastic T-cells after 24 h of exposure at 1.5, 3 and 5 μM by next generation sequencing. It was found that up to 27% of human genome expression levels were significantly altered (5750 genes for both down-regulation and up-regulation). In the three enniatin B concentrations studied 245 differentially expressed genes were found to be overlapped, 83 were down and 162 up-regulated. ConsensusPathDB analysis of over-representation of differentially expressed genes provided a list of gene ontology terms in which several biological processes related to nucleoside monophosphate metabolic process, respiratory chain complex, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation and cellular respiration were the most altered. Also, an interesting correlation was found between enniatin B toxicity and the up-regulation of the UCP protein complex. In summary, the transcriptomic analysis revealed that mitochondria are the organelles showing more related differentially expressed genes. Consequently, differentially expressed genes involved in biological processes, molecular functions and pathways related to mitochondrial metabolism and respiration were significantly changed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Alonso-Garrido
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - L Escrivá
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - L Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain.
| | - G Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
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28
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Zheng N, Gao YN, Liu J, Wang HW, Wang JQ. Individual and combined cytotoxicity assessment of zearalenone with ochratoxin A or α-zearalenol by full factorial design. Food Sci Biotechnol 2018; 27:251-259. [PMID: 30263747 PMCID: PMC6049762 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-017-0197-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The combined mycotoxins zearalenone (ZEA) with ochratoxin A (OTA) or α-zearalenol (α-ZOL) are frequently found together in milk. Toxicological data concerning the combined effects of these mycotoxins are sparse. In present study, individual and combined ZEA, OTA and α-ZOL caused cytotoxicity and oxidative damage, including reductions in intracellular superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities and glutathione content, along with increases in malonaldehyde content on human Hep G2 cells after 48 h of exposure. Among individual mycotoxins, OTA had the greatest cytotoxic effect followed by α-ZOL. Compared with individual mycotoxins, combinations produced more serious negative effects, more importantly, ZEA + OTA was antagonistic for these effects, whereas ZEA + α-ZOL was antagonistic at low concentrations, but synergistic at high concentrations of ZEA, which were evaluated by 3 × 3 full factorial analysis and estimated marginal means plots. Our results also demonstrated a significant correlation between cytotoxicity and oxidative damage in response to these combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Zheng
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
| | - Y. N. Gao
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
| | - J. Liu
- China National Research Institute of Food and Fermentation Industries, Beijing, 100027 People’s Republic of China
| | - H. W. Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, 730070 People’s Republic of China
| | - J. Q. Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100193 People’s Republic of China
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29
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Alassane-Kpembi I, Schatzmayr G, Taranu I, Marin D, Puel O, Oswald IP. Mycotoxins co-contamination: Methodological aspects and biological relevance of combined toxicity studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2018; 57:3489-3507. [PMID: 26918653 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1140632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. As evidenced by large-scale surveys, humans and animals are simultaneously exposed to several mycotoxins. Simultaneous exposure could result in synergistic, additive or antagonistic effects. However, most toxicity studies addressed the effects of mycotoxins separately. We present the experimental designs and we discuss the conclusions drawn from in vitro experiments exploring toxicological interactions of mycotoxins. We report more than 80 publications related to mycotoxin interactions. The studies explored combinations involving the regulated groups of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone and trichothecenes, but also the "emerging" mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins. Over 50 publications are based on the arithmetic model of additivity. Few studies used the factorial designs or the theoretical biology-based models of additivity. The latter approaches are gaining increased attention. These analyses allow determination of the type of interaction and, optionally, its magnitude. The type of interaction reported for mycotoxin combinations depended on several factors, in particular cell models and the tested dose ranges. However, synergy among Fusarium toxins was highlighted in several studies. This review indicates that well-addressed in vitro studies remain valuable tools for the screening of interactive potential in mycotoxin mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imourana Alassane-Kpembi
- a Toxalim , Research Centre in Food Toxicology Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP- PURPAN, UPS , Toulouse , France.,b Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Camp Guézo , Cotonou , Bénin
| | | | - Ionelia Taranu
- d National Institute for Research and Development in Animal Biology and Nutrition (IBNA), Calea Bucuresti , Balotesti , Romania
| | - Daniela Marin
- d National Institute for Research and Development in Animal Biology and Nutrition (IBNA), Calea Bucuresti , Balotesti , Romania
| | - Olivier Puel
- a Toxalim , Research Centre in Food Toxicology Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP- PURPAN, UPS , Toulouse , France
| | - Isabelle Paule Oswald
- a Toxalim , Research Centre in Food Toxicology Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP- PURPAN, UPS , Toulouse , France
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30
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Hymery N, Puel O, Tadrist S, Canlet C, Le Scouarnec H, Coton E, Coton M. Effect of PR toxin on THP1 and Caco-2 cells: an in vitro study. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2017. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Penicillium roqueforti produces mycotoxins including PR toxin, which is a food and feed contaminant. In this study, PR toxin was purified from culture material of the Penicillium roqueforti F43-1 strain. Toxic effects were evaluated in undifferentiated human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells and THP-1 monocytic immune cells. To understand the mechanisms involved in PR-toxin toxicity, cell death and pro-inflammatory gene expression were studied. In addition, PR toxin degradation was assessed. Cytotoxicity studies showed a dose-dependent effect of PR toxin and the calculated mean cytotoxic concentration (IC50) concentrations were for Caco-2 and THP-1 cells >12.5 and 0.83 μM, respectively. Gene expression studies showed that tumour necrosis factor-α expression was significantly increased after 24 h exposure to 312 μM PR toxin. PR toxin induced necrosis on THP-1 cells after 3 h exposure. In the cell culture system, the PR toxin showed a 10-fold reduction in PR toxin concentration within 48 h, indicating that PR toxin was degraded by THP-1. To conclude, PR toxin appears to be one of the most cytotoxic P. roqueforti mycotoxins on Caco-2 and/or THP-1 cells and induces in THP-1 cells both necrosis and an inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Hymery
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - O. Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - S. Tadrist
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - C. Canlet
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
- MetaToul-MetaboHUB, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, 31027 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - H. Le Scouarnec
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - E. Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - M. Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
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31
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Prosperini A, Berrada H, Ruiz MJ, Caloni F, Coccini T, Spicer LJ, Perego MC, Lafranconi A. A Review of the Mycotoxin Enniatin B. Front Public Health 2017; 5:304. [PMID: 29201864 PMCID: PMC5697211 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin enniatin B (ENN B) is a secondary metabolism product by Fusarium fungi. It is a well-known antibacterial, antihelmintic, antifungal, herbicidal, and insecticidal compound. It has been found as a contaminant in several food commodities, particularly in cereal grains, co-occurring also with other mycotoxins. The primary mechanism of action of ENN B is mainly due to its ionophoric characteristics, but the exact mechanism is still unclear. In the last two decades, it has been a topic of great interest since its potent mammalian cytotoxic activity was demonstrated in several mammalian cell lines. Moreover, the co-exposure in vitro with other mycotoxins enhances its toxic potential through synergic effects, depending on the concentrations tested. Despite its clear cytotoxic effect, European Food Safety Authority stated that acute exposure to ENNs, such as ENN B, does not indicate concern for human health, but a concern might be the chronic exposure. However, given the lack of relevant toxicity data, no firm conclusion could be drawn and a risk assessment was not possible. In fact, very few studies have been carried out in vivo and, in these studies, no adverse effects were observed. So, research on toxicological effects induced by ENN B is still on-going. Recently, some studies are dealing with new advances regarding ENN B. This review summarizes the information on biochemical and biological activity of ENN B, focusing on toxicological aspects and on the latest advances in research on ENN B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Prosperini
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Teresa Coccini
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, Toxicology Unit, Maugeri Clinical Scientific Institutes SpA-BS, IRCCS Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Maria Chiara Perego
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Alessandra Lafranconi
- Centro di Studio e Ricerca sulla Sanità Pubblica (CESP), Università Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,Department of International Health, FHML, CAPHRI, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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32
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Health Risks Associated with Exposure to Filamentous Fungi. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14070719. [PMID: 28677641 PMCID: PMC5551157 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14070719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Filamentous fungi occur widely in the environment, contaminating soil, air, food and other substrates. Due to their wide distribution, they have medical and economic implications. Regardless of their use as a source of antibiotics, vitamins and raw materials for various industrially important chemicals, most fungi and filamentous fungi produce metabolites associated with a range of health risks, both in humans and in animals. The association of filamentous fungi and their metabolites to different negative health conditions in humans and animals, has contributed to the importance of investigating different health risks induced by this family of heterotrophs. This review aims to discuss health risks associated with commonly occurring filamentous fungal species which belong to genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium, as well as evaluating their pathogenicity and mycotoxic properties.
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Ivanova L, Uhlig S, Devreese M, Croubels S, Fæste CK. Biotransformation of the mycotoxin enniatin B1 in pigs: A comparative in vitro and in vivo approach. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 105:506-517. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Stanciu O, Juan C, Miere D, Loghin F, Mañes J. Presence of Enniatins and Beauvericin in Romanian Wheat Samples: From Raw Material to Products for Direct Human Consumption. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E189. [PMID: 28604626 PMCID: PMC5488039 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9060189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a total of 244 wheat and wheat-based products collected from Romania were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in order to evaluate the presence of four enniatins (ENs; i.e., ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1) and beauvericin (BEA). For the wheat samples, the influence of agricultural practices was assessed, whereas the results for the wheat-based products were used to calculate the estimated daily intake of emerging mycotoxins through wheat consumption for the Romanian population. ENB presented the highest incidence (41% in wheat and 32% in wheat-based products), with its maximum levels of 815 μg kg-1 and 170 μg kg-1 in wheat and wheat-based products, respectively. The correlation between the concentrations of ENB and ENB1 in wheat grain samples and farm practices (organic or conventional) was confirmed statistically (p < 0.05). This is the first study that provides comprehensive information about the influence of agricultural practice on emerging Fusarium mycotoxin presence in Romanian wheat samples and the estimated daily intake of ENs and BEA present in wheat-based products for human consumption commercialized in Romania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana Stanciu
- Department of Bromatology, Hygiene, Nutrition, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 6 Louis Pasteur, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Doina Miere
- Department of Bromatology, Hygiene, Nutrition, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 6 Louis Pasteur, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Felicia Loghin
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, "Iuliu Haţieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 6 Louis Pasteur, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
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Stanciu O, Juan C, Miere D, Loghin F, Mañes J. Occurrence and co-occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in wheat grains and wheat flour from Romania. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. The Status of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Emerging Trends and Post-Harvest Mitigation Strategies towards Food Control. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E19. [PMID: 28067768 PMCID: PMC5308251 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium fungi are common plant pathogens causing several plant diseases. The presence of these molds in plants exposes crops to toxic secondary metabolites called Fusarium mycotoxins. The most studied Fusarium mycotoxins include fumonisins, zearalenone, and trichothecenes. Studies have highlighted the economic impact of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium. These arrays of toxins have been implicated as the causal agents of wide varieties of toxic health effects in humans and animals ranging from acute to chronic. Global surveillance of Fusarium mycotoxins has recorded significant progress in its control; however, little attention has been paid to Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, thus translating to limited occurrence data. In addition, legislative regulation is virtually non-existent. The emergence of modified Fusarium mycotoxins, which may contribute to additional toxic effects, worsens an already precarious situation. This review highlights the status of Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, the possible food processing mitigation strategies, as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Adaku Chilaka
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Applied Food Science and Tourism, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Road, Umudike, Umuahia PMB 7267, Abia State, Nigeria.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Olusegun Oladimeji Atanda
- Department of Biological Sciences, McPherson University, KM 96 Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 110117 Seriki Sotayo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
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Korkalainen M, Täubel M, Naarala J, Kirjavainen P, Koistinen A, Hyvärinen A, Komulainen H, Viluksela M. Synergistic proinflammatory interactions of microbial toxins and structural components characteristic to moisture-damaged buildings. INDOOR AIR 2017; 27:13-23. [PMID: 26806918 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Indoor exposure to microbes and their structural and metabolic compounds is notoriously complex. To study proinflammatory interactions between the multiple microbial agents, macrophages derived from human THP-1 monocytic cells were exposed to several concentrations of microbial toxins alone (emodin, enniatin B, physcion, sterigmatocystin, valinomycin) and in combination with microbial structural components (bacterial lipopolysaccharide [LPS] or fungal β-glucan). While the expression of proinflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-1β to single toxins alone was modest, low-dose co-exposure with structural components increased the responses of emodin, enniatin B, and valinomycin synergistically, both at the mRNA and protein level, as measured by RT-qPCR and ELISA, respectively. Co-exposure of toxins and β-glucan resulted in consistent synergistically increased expression of several inflammation-related genes, while some of the responses with LPS were also inhibitory. Co-exposure of toxins with either β-glucan or LPS induced also mitochondrial damage and autophagocytosis. The results demonstrate that microbial toxins together with bacterial and fungal structural components characteristic to moisture-damaged buildings can have drastic synergistic proinflammatory interactions at low exposure levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Korkalainen
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - M Täubel
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - J Naarala
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - P Kirjavainen
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - A Koistinen
- SIB Labs, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - A Hyvärinen
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - H Komulainen
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - M Viluksela
- Department of Health Protection, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Effect of Fusarium-Derived Metabolites on the Barrier Integrity of Differentiated Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2). Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8110345. [PMID: 27869761 PMCID: PMC5127141 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human, animal and plant pathogen Fusarium, which contaminates agricultural commodities worldwide, produces numerous secondary metabolites. An example is the thoroughly-investigated deoxynivalenol (DON), which severely impairs gastrointestinal barrier integrity. However, to date, the toxicological profile of other Fusarium-derived metabolites, such as enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, apicidin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, equisetin and bikaverin, are poorly characterized. Thus we examined their effects—as metabolites alone and as metabolites in combination with DON—on the intestinal barrier function of differentiated intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) over 72 h. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured at 24-h intervals, followed by evaluation of cell viability using neutral red (NR) assay. Enniatins A, A1, B and B1, apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin significantly reduced TEER. Moniliformin, equisetin, bikaverin and rubrofusarin had no effect on TEER. In the case of apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin, TEER reductions were further substantiated by the addition of otherwise no-effect DON concentrations. In all cases, viability was unaffected, confirming that TEER reductions were not due to compromised viability. Considering the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination and the diseases associated with intestinal barrier disruption, consumption of contaminated food or feed may have substantial health implications.
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Gao YN, Wang JQ, Li SL, Zhang YD, Zheng N. Aflatoxin M1 cytotoxicity against human intestinal Caco-2 cells is enhanced in the presence of other mycotoxins. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 96:79-89. [PMID: 27470613 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a class 2B human carcinogen, is the only mycotoxin with established maximum residue limits (MRLs) in milk. Toxicological data for other mycotoxins in baby food, containing cereals and milk, either in isolation or in combination with AFM1, are sparse. The aim of this study was to investigate the cytotoxicity of AFM1, ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), and α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), individually and in combinations, in human Caco-2 cells. The tetrazolium salt (MTT) assay demonstrated that (i) OTA and AFM1 had similar cytotoxicity, which was higher than that of ZEA and α-ZOL, after a 72 h exposure; and (ii) the quaternary combination had the highest cytotoxicity, followed by tertiary and binary combinations and individual mycotoxins. Isobologram analysis indicated that the presence of OTA, ZEA, and/or α-ZOL with AFM1 led to additive and synergistic cytotoxicity in most combinations. The cytotoxicity of OTA was similar to that of AFM1, suggesting that OTA in food poses a health risk to consumers. Furthermore, AFM1 cytotoxicity increased dramatically in the presence of OTA, ZEA, and/or α-ZOL (p < 0.01), indicating that the established MRLs for AFM1 should be re-evaluated considering its frequent co-occurrence with other mycotoxins in baby food which contains milk and cereals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y N Gao
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - J Q Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - S L Li
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Y D Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - N Zheng
- Ministry of Agriculture Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Dairy Products (Beijing), Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100193, PR China.
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Juan-García A, Juan C, Manyes L, Ruiz MJ. Binary and tertiary combination of alternariol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol on HepG2 cells: Toxic effects and evaluation of degradation products. Toxicol In Vitro 2016; 34:264-273. [PMID: 27131905 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungi producers of mycotoxins are able to synthesize more than one toxin. Alternariol (AOH) is one of the mycotoxins produced by several Alternaria species, the most common one being Alternaria alternata. The toxins 3-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) are acetylated forms of deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium graminearum. In the present work it is determined and evaluated the toxic effects of binary and tertiary combination treatment of HepG2 cells with AOH, 3-ADON and 15-ADON, by using the MTT assay (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide), to subsequently apply the isobologram method and elucidate if the mixtures of these mycotoxins produced synergism, antagonism or additive effect; and lastly, to analyze mycotoxins conversion into metabolites produced and released by HepG2 cells after applying the treatment conditions by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) equipment and extracted from culture media. HepG2 cells were treated at different concentrations over 24, 48 and 72h. IC50 values detected at all times assayed, ranged from 0.8 to >25μM in binary combinations; while in tertiary it ranged from 7.5 to 12μM. Synergistic, antagonism or additive effect detected in the mixtures of these mycotoxins was different depending on low or high concentration. Among all four mycotoxins combinations assayed, 15-ADON+3-ADON presented the highest toxic potential. At all assayed times, recoveries values oscillated depending on the time and combination studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
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41
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Taevernier L, Wynendaele E, De Vreese L, Burvenich C, De Spiegeleer B. The mycotoxin definition reconsidered towards fungal cyclic depsipeptides. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2016; 34:114-135. [PMID: 26963720 DOI: 10.1080/10590501.2016.1164561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Currently, next to the major classes, cyclic depsipeptides beauvericin and enniatins are also positioned as mycotoxins. However, as there are hundreds more fungal cyclic depsipeptides already identified, should these not be considered as mycotoxins as well? The current status of the mycotoxin definition revealed a lack of consistency, leading to confusion about what compounds should be called mycotoxins. Because this is of pivotal importance in risk assessment prioritization, a clear and quantitatively expressed mycotoxin definition is proposed, based on data of widely accepted mycotoxins. Finally, this definition is applied to a set of fungal cyclic depsipeptides, revealing that some of these should indeed be considered as mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien Taevernier
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Evelien Wynendaele
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Leen De Vreese
- b Centre for Logic and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts and Philosophy, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Christian Burvenich
- c Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University , Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - Bart De Spiegeleer
- a Drug Quality and Registration (DruQuaR) Group, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
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Serrano AB, Font G, Mañes J, Ferrer E. Effects of technological processes on enniatin levels in pasta. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2016; 96:1756-1763. [PMID: 26031213 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Potential human health risks posed by enniatins (ENs) require their control primarily from cereal products, creating a demand for harvesting, food processing and storage techniques capable to prevent, reduce and/or eliminate the contamination. In this study, different methodologies to pasta processing simulating traditional and industrial processes were developed in order to know the fate of the mycotoxin ENs. The levels of ENs were studied at different steps of pasta processing. The effect of the temperature during processing was evaluated in two types of pasta (white and whole-grain pasta). Mycotoxin analysis was performed by LC-MS/MS. RESULTS High reductions (up to 50% and 80%) were achieved during drying pasta at 45-55°C and 70-90°C, respectively. The treatments at low temperature (25°C) did not change EN levels. The effect of pasta composition did not cause a significant effect on the stability of ENs. The effect of the temperature allowed a marked mycotoxin reduction during pasta processing. Generally, ENA1 and ENB showed higher thermal stability than did ENA and ENB1 . CONCLUSIONS The findings from the present study suggested that pasta processing at medium-high temperatures is a potential tool to remove an important fraction of ENs from the initial durum wheat semolina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B Serrano
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Guillermina Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Emilia Ferrer
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
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Smith MC, Madec S, Coton E, Hymery N. Natural Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds and Their in vitro Combined Toxicological Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:94. [PMID: 27023609 PMCID: PMC4848621 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8040094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Some foods and feeds are often contaminated by numerous mycotoxins, but most studies have focused on the occurrence and toxicology of a single mycotoxin. Regulations throughout the world do not consider the combined effects of mycotoxins. However, several surveys have reported the natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins from all over the world. Most of the published data has concerned the major mycotoxins aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FUM) and trichothecenes (TCTs), especially deoxynivalenol (DON). Concerning cereals and derived cereal product samples, among the 127 mycotoxin combinations described in the literature, AFs+FUM, DON+ZEA, AFs+OTA, and FUM+ZEA are the most observed. However, only a few studies specified the number of co-occurring mycotoxins with the percentage of the co-contaminated samples, as well as the main combinations found. Studies of mycotoxin combination toxicity showed antagonist, additive or synergic effects depending on the tested species, cell model or mixture, and were not necessarily time- or dose-dependent. This review summarizes the findings on mycotoxins and their co-occurrence in various foods and feeds from all over the world as well as in vitro experimental data on their combined toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Caroline Smith
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Stéphanie Madec
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Nolwenn Hymery
- Université de Brest, EA 3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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Fernández-Blanco C, Font G, Ruiz MJ. Role of quercetin on Caco-2 cells against cytotoxic effects of alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 89:60-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Fontaine K, Mounier J, Coton E, Hymery N. Individual and combined effects of roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid on human monocytic and intestinal cells. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Roquefortine C (ROC) and mycophenolic acid (MPA) are secondary metabolites produced by various fungal species. It is known that both ROC and MPA may co-occur in raw materials or food. However, to date there is a lack of information regarding their toxicity. In this study, ROC and/or MPA cytotoxicity was evaluated on human intestinal (Caco-2) and monocytic cell cultures (THP-1 and CD14+). After 48 h single mycotoxin exposure, viability tests showed that monocytes (THP-1 and CD14+) were more sensitive to ROC (inhibitory concentration 50% (IC50)=55 and 45 μM, respectively) than to MPA (IC50>780 μM). IC50 values determined from ROC and MPA mono-exposure experiments on Caco-2 cells were >100 and >780 μM, respectively. Caco-2 cell viability was significantly reduced after 48 h co-exposure at high ROC/MPA concentrations. A synergistic effect was observed at 10/78, 25/780 and 50/780 μM ROC/MPA concentrations, while an additive effect was seen at 100/780 μM. THP-1 apoptosis rate increased after 3 and/or 6 h single ROC (from 10 to 100 μM) and MPA (780 μM) exposures in a dose-dependent manner. Co-exposure to 100/780 μM of ROC/MPA led to an increase in the THP-1 apoptotic cell population. No apoptosis mechanism was observed on Caco-2 cells. This is the first time that combined ROC and MPA cytotoxic effects, as well as the associated mechanisms are investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Fontaine
- Université de Brest, EA3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - J. Mounier
- Université de Brest, EA3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - E. Coton
- Université de Brest, EA3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - N. Hymery
- Université de Brest, EA3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
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Zouaoui N, Mallebrera B, Berrada H, Abid-Essefi S, Bacha H, Ruiz MJ. Cytotoxic effects induced by patulin, sterigmatocystin and beauvericin on CHO-K1 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 89:92-103. [PMID: 26802678 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by different genera of fungi; mainly Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. The natural co-occurrence of beauvericin (BEA), patulin (PAT) and sterigmatocystin (STE) has been proved in feed and food commodities. This study investigates the cytotoxicity of individual and combined mycotoxins BEA, PAT and STE. The cytotoxicity on immortalized ovarian cells (CHO-K1) was evaluated using the MTT assay. After 24, 48 and 72 h, the IC50 values were 2.9 μM for PAT and ranged from 10.7 to 2.2 μM and from 25.0 to 12.5 μM for BEA and STE, respectively. Cytotoxic interactions were assayed by the isobologram method, which provides a combination index (CI) value as a quantitative measure of the three mycotoxin interaction's degree. Binary and tertiary combinations showed a dose dependent effect. At low fraction affected, mycotoxin combinations were synergetic; whereas, at higher fraction affected, the combinations showed additive effect. Our results indicate that the co-occurrence of low concentrations of mycotoxin in food may increase their toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhal Zouaoui
- Laboratory for Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds (LRSBC), Faculty of Dentistry, Rue Avicenne, 5019, Monastir, Tunisia; Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021, Jarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Beatriz Mallebrera
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vincent Andrés Estelles, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vincent Andrés Estelles, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Salwa Abid-Essefi
- Laboratory for Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds (LRSBC), Faculty of Dentistry, Rue Avicenne, 5019, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Hassen Bacha
- Laboratory for Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds (LRSBC), Faculty of Dentistry, Rue Avicenne, 5019, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Maria-Jose Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vincent Andrés Estelles, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
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47
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Fernández-Blanco C, Font G, Ruiz MJ. Interaction effects of enniatin B, deoxinivalenol and alternariol in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol Lett 2016; 241:38-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Belén Serrano A, Capriotti AL, Cavaliere C, Piovesana S, Samperi R, Ventura S, Laganà A. Development of a Rapid LC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins Enniatins and Beauvericin in Human Biological Fluids. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:3554-71. [PMID: 26371043 PMCID: PMC4591648 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7093554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel method for the simultaneous determination of enniatins A, A1, B and B1 and beauvericin, both in human urine and plasma samples, was developed and validated. The method consisted of a simple and easy pretreatment, specific for each matrix, followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) and detection by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with an electrospray ion source. The optimized SPE method was performed on graphitized carbon black cartridges after suitable dilution of the extracts, which allowed high mycotoxin absolute recoveries (76%–103%) and the removal of the major interferences from the matrix. The method was extensively evaluated for plasma and urine samples separately, providing satisfactory results in terms of linearity (R2 of 0.991–0.999), process efficiency (>81%), trueness (recoveries between 85% and 120%), intra-day precision (relative standard deviation, RSD < 18%), inter-day precision (RSD < 21%) and method quantification limits (ranging between 20 ng·L−1 and 40 ng·L−1 in plasma and between 5 ng·L−1 and 20 ng·L−1 in urine). Finally, the highly sensitive validated method was applied to some urine and plasma samples from different donors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Belén Serrano
- Laboratorio de Toxicología, Departament de Medicina Preventiva I Salut Pública, Ciències de l'Alimentació, Toxicologia I Medicina Legal Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de València, València 46010, Spain.
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Chiara Cavaliere
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Susy Piovesana
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Roberto Samperi
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Salvatore Ventura
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
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49
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Serrano AB, Font G, Mañes J, Ferrer E. Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction for the Determination of Emerging Fusarium Mycotoxins in Water. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-015-0257-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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50
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Sun LH, Lei MY, Zhang NY, Gao X, Li C, Krumm CS, Qi DS. Individual and combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 on BRL 3A rat liver cells. Toxicon 2014; 95:6-12. [PMID: 25549941 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study was performed to determine the individual and combined cytotoxic effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) on BRL 3A rat liver cells. After the mycotoxins treated the BRL 3A cells for 12, 24 and 48 h, cell viability was determined using the MTT assay. The cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins on BRL 3A cell viability in decreasing order were DON > AFB1 > ZEA > FB1. The central composite design (CCD) was used to assess the toxicity of binary and ternary mixtures of these mycotoxins. The mixtures of AFB1+ZEA and AFB1+DON showed the synergetic toxic effects on BRL 3A cells. These toxins decreased the viability of cells by inducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promoting apoptosis in the BRL 3A cells. This effect was mediated by an upregulation of the stress and apoptotic genes Hsp70, p53, Bax, Caspase-3 and Caspase-8, along with a downregulation of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2. In conclusion, our results suggested that the coexistence of AFB1 and ZEA or DON in agricultural products could be more hepatotoxic than individually, suggests that the toxicological interactions of these toxins need to be better understood to assess health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lv-Hui Sun
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Ming-Yan Lei
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Ni-Ya Zhang
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Xin Gao
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Chong Li
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | | | - De-Sheng Qi
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China.
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