Bisphenol A promotes macrophage proinflammatory subtype polarization via upregulation of IRF5 expression in vitro

Guardians under Siege: Exploring Pollution's Effects on Human Immunity

Chemical pollution poses a significant threat to human health, with detrimental effects on various physiological systems, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal domains. While the impact of pollution on these systems has been extensively studied, the intricate relationship between chemical pollution and immunity remains a critical area of investigation. The focus of this study is to elucidate the relationship between chemical pollution and human immunity. To accomplish this task, this study presents a comprehensive review that encompasses in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies, shedding light on the ways in which chemical pollution can modulate human immunity. Our aim is to unveil the complex mechanisms by which environmental contaminants compromise the delicate balance of the body's defense systems going beyond the well-established associations with defense systems and delving into the less-explored link between chemical exposure and various immune disorders, adding urgency to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and their implications for public health.

Hormone effects of eighteen bisphenol analogues and their effects on cellular homeostasis and the typical signal pathways

Through the transfer chain of surroundings from feed to the farmed-animals and ultimately the corresponding livestock and poultry products, people are exposed to large amounts of bisphenol analogues (BPs), such as rational emissions from manufacturing plants, feed packaging bags and food packaging contact. Some BPs have been reported to show certain toxicological effects, especially, estrogen and endocrine disrupting effect. With the increasing application of BPs, the problem is becoming more and more serious. We systematically studied the hormonal effects of 18 BPs and their effects on cell homeostasis and classical signaling pathways by using classical E-SCREEN assay, fluorescent probes and western blotting. The results confirmed the estrogen-like effect of 13 BPs and 6 BPs obtained high docking scores (Scores < -9.0) for the three receptors simultaneously with the main interactions of hydrophobic, hydrogen and π-stacking of T-type bonds. BPAP regulates cells via apoptosis and steroid signaling pathway by intracellular ROS and mitochondrial followed the caspase pathway. BPE and BPS were involved in the classical NF-κB and Hippo signaling pathways. All data provides scientific basis for the safety risk assessment of endocrine disrupting and cellular homeostasis evaluation of BPs as chronic environmental pollution.

Nutrient-Sensing Ghrelin Receptor in Macrophages Modulates Bisphenol A-Induced Intestinal Inflammation in Mice

Bisphenols are environmental toxins with endocrine disruptor activity, yet bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogs are still widely used in manufacturing plastic products. There is evidence showing that BPA elicits inflammation in humans and animals, but the target cell types of BPA are not well understood. In this study, we sought to determine BPA's direct effect on macrophages and BPA immunotoxicity in mouse intestine. Ghrelin is an important nutrient-sensing hormone, acting through its receptor growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) to regulate metabolism and inflammation. We found that BPA promotes intestinal inflammation, showing increased infiltrating immune cells in colons and enhanced expression of Ghsr and pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as Il6 and Ccl2, in colonic mucosa. Moreover, we found that both long- and short-term BPA exposure elevated pro-inflammatory monocytes and macrophages in mouse peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and peritoneal macrophages (PM), respectively. To determine the role of GHSR in BPA-mediated inflammation, we generated Ghsr deletion mutation in murine macrophage RAW264.7 using CRISPR gene editing. In wild-type RAW264.7 cells, the BPA exposure promotes macrophage pro-inflammatory polarization and increases Ghsr and cytokine/chemokine Il6 and Ccl2 expression. Interestingly, Ghsr deletion mutants showed a marked reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine expression in response to BPA, suggesting that GHSR is required for the BPA-induced pro-inflammatory response. Further understanding how nutrient-sensing GHSR signaling regulates BPA intestinal immunotoxicity will help design new strategies to mitigate BPA immunotoxicity and provide policy guidance for BPA biosafety.

ROS mediated pyroptosis-M1 polarization crosstalk participates in inflammation of chicken liver induced by bisphenol A and selenium deficiency

The earth's natural environmental factors and man-made industrial pollution often lead to the co-occurrence of environmental pathogenic factors and malnutrition. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a serious environmental endocrine disruptor, and its exposure can cause liver tissue damage. Selenium (Se) deficiency is a worldwide problem that afflicts thousands of people, and Se deficiency can cause M1/M2 imbalance. In addition, the crosstalk between hepatocyte and immune cell is closely related to the occurrence of hepatitis. Therefore, this study found for the first time that the combined exposure of BPA and Se deficiency caused liver pyroptosis and M1 polarization through ROS, and the crosstalk between pyroptosis and M1 polarization aggravated liver inflammation in chicken. In this study, the BPA or/and Se deficiency chicken liver, single and co-culture model of LMH and HD11 cells were established. The results displayed that BPA or Se deficiency induced liver inflammation accompanied by pyroptosis and M1 polarization through oxidative stress, and increased expressions of chemokines (CCL4, CCL17, CCL19, and MIF) and inflammatory factors (IL-1β and TNF-α). The vitro experiments further verified the above changes and showed that LMH pyroptosis promoted M1 polarization of HD11 cells, and vice versa. NAC counteracted pyroptosis and M1 polarization caused by BPA and low-Se, reducing the release of inflammatory factors. In brief, BPA and Se deficiency treatment can exacerbate liver inflammation by increasing oxidative stress to induce pyroptosis and M1 polarization.

Human Exposure to Bisphenols, Parabens, and Benzophenones, and Its Relationship with the Inflammatory Response: A Systematic Review

Bisphenols, parabens (PBs), and benzophenones (BPs) are widely used environmental chemicals that have been linked to several adverse health effects due to their endocrine disrupting properties. However, the cellular pathways through which these chemicals lead to adverse outcomes in humans are still unclear, suggesting some evidence that inflammation might play a key role. Thus, the aim of this study was to summarize the current evidence on the relationship between human exposure to these chemicals and levels of inflammatory biomarkers. A systematic review of peer-reviewed original research studies published up to February 2023 was conducted using the MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. A total of 20 articles met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Most of the reviewed studies reported significant associations between any of the selected chemicals (mainly bisphenol A) and some pro-inflammatory biomarkers (including C-reactive protein and interleukin 6, among others). Taken together, this systematic review has identified consistent positive associations between human exposure to some chemicals and levels of pro-inflammatory biomarkers, with very few studies exploring the associations between PBs and/or BPs and inflammation. Therefore, a larger number of studies are required to get a better understanding on the mechanisms of action underlying bisphenols, PBs, and BPs and the critical role that inflammation could play.

Immunomodulatory effect of dopamine in human keratinocytes and macrophages under chronical bisphenol-A exposure conditions

Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter that links the nervous and the immune system. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disruptor with a wide distribution in the environment that is used in the manufacturing of plastic products. Evidence shows that BPA can interfere with the central dopaminergic transmission; however, there are no previous reports of this effect outside the central nervous system. Thus, the aim of this work was to investigate the in vitro mechanisms of action involved in the response to dopamine in both human keratinocyte and macrophage cell lines chronically exposed to BPA. Dopamine modulates cytokine secretion and NF-κB expression in BPA-treated HaCaT keratinocytes, without modifying these parameters in BPA-treated THP-1 macrophages. In addition, dopamine increases MMP activity in both BPA-treated cell lines, although it decreases keratinocytes migration. We suggest the immunomodulatory effect of dopamine might be different in keratinocytes and macrophages under chronical BPA exposure conditions. These findings revealed for the first time the in vitro immunomodulatory effect of dopamine in the presence of BPA at peripheral level.

BDE-47 Induces Immunotoxicity in RAW264.7 Macrophages through the Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Mitochondrial Apoptotic Pathway

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are classic and emerging pollutants that are potentially harmful to the human immune system. Research on their immunotoxicity and mechanisms suggests that they play an important role in the resulting pernicious effects of PBDEs. 2,2',4,4'-Tetrabrominated biphenyl ether (BDE-47) is the most biotoxic PBDE congener, and, in this study, we evaluated its toxicity toward RAW264.7 cells of mouse macrophages. The results show that exposure to BDE-47 led to a significant decrease in cell viability and a prominent increase in apoptosis. A decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and an increase in cytochrome C release and caspase cascade activation thus demonstrate that cell apoptosis induced by BDE-47 occurs via the mitochondrial pathway. In addition, BDE-47 inhibits phagocytosis in RAW264.7 cells, changes the related immune factor index, and causes immune function damage. Furthermore, we discovered a significant increase in the level of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the regulation of genes linked to oxidative stress was also demonstrated using transcriptome sequencing. The degree of apoptosis and immune function impairment caused by BDE-47 could be reversed after treatment with the antioxidant NAC and, conversely, exacerbated by treatment with the ROS-inducer BSO. These findings indicate that oxidative damage caused by BDE-47 is a critical event that leads to mitochondrial apoptosis in RAW264.7 macrophages, ultimately resulting in the suppression of immune function.

Environmental endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A induces metabolic derailment and obesity via upregulating IL-17A in adipocytes

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptor, has been extensively demonstrated to be associated with metabolic disorders, including obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, the underlying mechanism underpinning the environmental etiology of chronic metabolic disorders has not been sufficiently elucidated.

OBJECTIVES

This study is designed to explore the toxicological pathogenesis of chronic inflammation in BPA exposure during obesity.

METHODS

We investigated the role of IL-17A in the association of BPA exposure and obesity from human cross-sectional study to animal models, including genetically modified IL-17A^-/- mice.

RESULTS

Here, our work started from case-control observation that BPA exposure was significantly associated with risk of obesity (odds ratio = 4.72, 95%CI: 3.18 - 11.18, P < 0.01), metabolic disorder and levels of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) in human adipose (estimated changes β = 0.46, 95%CI: 0.15 - 1.01, P < 0.01) with bariatric surgery. Animal model fed with high-fat diet (HFD) confirmed that BPA exposure aggravated body weight gain and insulin resistance, concurrent with much heightened inflammatory responses in the adipose tissue including increase in IL-17A and macrophage polarization towards M1 stage. Genetically modified IL-17A ablated mice (IL-17A^-/-) showed reversed adipose tissue inflammation response, improved macrophage polarization homeostasis, along with insulin sensitivity in both HFD group alone or much more significantly the HFD + BPA group. Moreover, mediation analysis in human epidemiological investigation demonstrated that plasma IL-17A attributed up to 30.01% mediating role in the associations between BPA exposure and obesity risk.

DISCUSSION

This research paradigm from human to animal provides strong evidence for the elucidation of IL-17A moderating inflammation and insulin resistance in obesity. Such findings reiterate the obesogenic role of environmental endocrine disruptor BPA in metabolic disorders and unveils the potential toxicological mechanisms underpinning such effect.

CD36-Fatty Acid-Mediated Metastasis via the Bidirectional Interactions of Cancer Cells and Macrophages

Tumour heterogeneity refers to the complexity of cell subpopulations coexisting within the tumour microenvironment (TME), such as proliferating tumour cells, tumour stromal cells and infiltrating immune cells. The bidirectional interactions between cancer and the surrounding microenvironment mark the tumour survival and promotion functions, which allow the cancer cells to become invasive and initiate the metastatic cascade. Importantly, these interactions have been closely associated with metabolic reprogramming, which can modulate the differentiation and functions of immune cells and thus initiate the antitumour response. The purpose of this report is to review the CD36 receptor, a prominent cell receptor in metabolic activity specifically in fatty acid (FA) uptake, for the metabolic symbiosis of cancer-macrophage. In this review, we provide an update on metabolic communication between tumour cells and macrophages, as well as how the immunometabolism indirectly orchestrates the tumour metastasis.

Potential Pro-Tumorigenic Effect of Bisphenol A in Breast Cancer via Altering the Tumor Microenvironment

Simple Summary

Bisphenol A (BPA) is primarily used to produce polycarbonate plastics, such as water bottles. Exposure to BPA has been shown to increase the growth of breast cancer cells that depend on estrogen for growth due to its ability to mimic estrogen. More recent studies have suggested that BPA also affects the cellular and non-cellular components that compose tumor microenvironments (TMEs), namely the environment around a tumor, thereby potentially promoting breast cancer growth via altering the TME. The TME plays an essential role in cancer development and promotion. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the effect of BPA on breast TMEs to assess its role in the risk of breast cancer adequately. This review examines the potential effects of BPA on immune cells, fibroblasts, extracellular matrices, and adipocytes to highlight their roles in mediating the carcinogenic effect of BPA, and thereby proposes considerations for the risk assessment of BPA exposure.

Abstract

BPA, a chemical used in the preparation of polycarbonate plastics, is an endocrine disruptor. Exposure to BPA has been suggested to be a risk factor for breast cancer because of its potential to induce estrogen receptor signaling in breast cancer cells. More recently, it has been recognized that BPA also binds to the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor and other nuclear receptors, in addition to estrogen receptors, and acts on immune cells, adipocytes, and fibroblasts, potentially modulating the TME. The TME significantly impacts the behavior of cancer cells. Therefore, understanding how BPA affects stromal components in breast cancer is imperative to adequately assess the association between exposure to BPA and the risk of breast cancer. This review examines the effects of BPA on stromal components of tumors to highlight their potential role in the carcinogenic effect of BPA. As a result, I propose considerations for the risk assessment of BPA exposure and studies needed to improve understanding of the TME-mediated, breast cancer-promoting effect of BPA.

Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol a Affects the Neurochemical Profile of Nerve Fibers in the Aortic Arch Wall in the Domestic Pig

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic compound utilized in industry for the production of various plastics. BPA penetrates into the environment and adversely affects living organisms. Therefore, the influence of various BPA dosages on the neurochemical characteristics of nerve fibers located in the aortic branch wall was investigated in this study utilizing a double immunofluorescence method. It was found that BPA in concentration of 0.5 mg/kg body weight/day causes a clear increase in the density of nerves within aortic branch walls immunoreactive to cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). Nerves containing galanin (GAL) and/or somatostatin (SOM) did not change when BPA was introduced into the system. Changes noted after administration of BPA at a dose of 0.05 mg/kg body weight/day were less visible and concerned fibers immunoreactive to CART, CGRP, and/or PACAP. The obtained results show that BPA affects the neurochemical coding of nerves in the aortic branch wall. These fluctuations may be the first signs of the influence of this substance on blood vessels and may also be at the root of the disturbances in the cardiovascular system.

Bisphenol A impairs macrophages through inhibiting autophagy via AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway and inducing apoptosis

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widespread endocrine disruptor that induces the impairment of immune cells, but the mechanism remains unknown. Macrophages are one of the most important immune cells in innate and adaptive immunity. In this study, we aimed to probe the effects of BPA on the damage of RAW264.7 cells and its mechanisms of action, especially focusing on the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis. Cells were pretreated with 10 mg/L LPS, or added autophagy activator RAPA, autophagy inhibitor 3-MA or Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-737, then treated with BPA (0, 10, 100 and 200 μmol/L) for 12 h. Results have shown that BPA decreased the cell viability and disrupted secretory function by promoting pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 and reducing anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 TGF-β, as well as phagocytic ability. Moreover, autophagy was inhibited by BPA through decreasing p-AMPK/AMPK and increasing p-mTOR/mTOR, and further down-regulating autophagy proteins ATG6, LC3II/I ratio, and up-regulating autophagy flux protein p62. Additionally, BPA significantly increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, Caspase-3 expression and apoptosis rate. We found that RAPA ameliorated the cell viability, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and macrophage function damage induced by BPA. Intriguingly, ABT-737 might promote ATG6 expression. In summary, our study demonstrated that the effects of BPA on macrophages seemed to be mediated by inhibiting AMPK/mTOR-dependent autophagy and inducing apoptosis via endogenous mitochondrial pathway. Both Bcl-2 and ATG6 were involved in the regulation of apoptosis and autophagy by BPA. These findings provide a broader perspective for understanding the interaction between autophagy and apoptosis in BPA-induced immune cell injury.

Endocrine Disruptors and Obesity: an Overview

Obesity is a growing pandemic. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are widespread in the environment. In this perspective, the authors examine the issue related to the exposure to several chemicals with endocrine-disrupting properties as promoting factors to obesity. Data show that Phthalates, Bisphenol compounds, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), solvents, and personal care products can modify metabolic properties in a dose-response and sex-specific manner. Phthalates and bisphenol compounds increase body mass index, waist circumference, waist to height ratio, and the sum of skinfold thicknesses in women and not in men. Low-dose exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants is strongly associated with increased body mass index in men and decreased this parameter in women. The mechanism through which these compounds act on anthropometric parameters is not entirely understood. Several studies suggest a possible interference in gonadotropin secretion and the thyroid axis. These inspire a decrease of both total and free testosterone levels in men and FT3 and FT4 levels in women, particularly after a pregnancy. The impact of endocrine disruptor chemicals on adipose tissue inflammation and future cardio-metabolic disorders remains to be elucidated. Therefore, studies involving both healthy and obese individuals are needed to unambiguously confirm results from in vitro and animal models.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals: Friend or foe to brown and beige adipose tissue?

The effects of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) on the current obesity epidemic is a growing field of interest. Numerous EDCs have shown the potential to alter energy metabolism, which may increase the risk of obesity, in part, through direct actions on adipose tissue. While white adipose tissue has historically been the primary focus of this work, evidence of the EDC-induced disruption of brown and beige adipose tissues continues to build. Both brown and beige fat are thermogenic adipose depots rich in mitochondria that dispense heat when activated. Due to these properties, brown and beige fat are implicated in metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cachexia. This review delves into the current literature of different EDCs, including bisphenols, dioxins, air pollutants, phthalates, and phytochemicals. The possible implications that these EDCs have on thermogenic adipose tissues are covered. This review also introduces the possibility of using brown and beige fat as a therapeutic target organ by taking advantage of some of the properties of EDCs. Collectively, we provide a comprehensive discussion of the evidence of EDC disruption in white, brown, and beige fat and highlight gaps worthy of further exploration.

The Influence of Bisphenol A (BPA) on the Occurrence of Selected Active Substances in Neuregulin 1 (NRG1)-Positive Enteric Neurons in the Porcine Large Intestine

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a substance used in the manufacture of plastics which shows multidirectional adverse effects on living organisms. Since the main path of intoxication with BPA is via the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the stomach and intestine are especially vulnerable to the impact of this substance. One of the main factors participating in the regulation of intestinal functions is the enteric nervous system (ENS), which is characterized by high neurochemical diversity. Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is one of the lesser-known active substances in the ENS. During the present study (performed using the double immunofluorescence method), the co-localization of NRG1 with other neuronal substances in the ENS of the caecum and the ascending and descending colon has been investigated under physiological conditions and after the administration of BPA. The obtained results indicate that NRG1-positive neurons also contain substance P, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, a neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase and galanin and the degree of each co-localization depend on the type of enteric plexus and the particular fragment of the intestine. Moreover, it has been shown that BPA generally increases the degree of co-localization of NRG1 with other substances.

Perinatal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and neurodevelopment: How articles of daily use influence the development of our children

Substances that interfere with the body's hormonal balance or their function are called endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many EDCs are ubiquitous in the environment and are an unavoidable aspect of daily life, including during early embryogenesis. Developmental exposure to these chemicals is of critical relevance, as EDCs can permanently alter developmental programs, including those that pattern and wire the brain. Of emerging interest is how these chemicals may also affect the immune response, given the cross-talk between the endocrine and immune systems. As brain development is strongly dependent on hormones including thyroid, androgens, and estrogens, and can also be affected by immunomodulation, this complicated interplay may have long-lasting neurodevelopmental consequences. This review focuses on data available from human cohorts, in vivo models, and in vitro assays regarding the impact of EDCs after a gestational and/or lactational exposure, and how they may impact the immune system and/or neurodevelopment.

Bisphenol A, bisphenol S and their glucuronidated metabolites modulate glycolysis and functional responses of human neutrophils

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its main substitute, bisphenol S (BPS), are synthetic organic compounds found in various consumer products, in particular food and beverage containers. Numerous reports have shown a link between bisphenol exposure, human contamination and increased health problems. BPA, BPS and their metabolites are detectable in bodily fluids (blood, urine) and were reported to affect immune cells and their responses. Though, the impact of those chemicals on neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in the circulation, remains poorly described. Therefore, we examined the effects of BPA, BPS and their monoglucuronide conjugates on neutrophil energy metabolism and anti-microbial functions, mainly phagocytosis, superoxide anion generation and CXCL8/IL-8 chemokine production. We observed that short and prolonged exposures of neutrophils to these chemicals modulate the basal and the bacterium-derived peptide N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine-induced glycolysis, with BPS causing the most alterations. The variation in energy metabolism was not associated with dysfunctions in cell cytotoxicity, phagocytosis, nor superoxide anion production upon exposure to bisphenols. In contrast, bisphenols significantly reduced the production of CXCL8/IL-8 by neutrophils, an effect found to be greater with the glucuronidated metabolites. Our study highlights that BPA, BPS and their glucuronidated metabolites alter the energy metabolism and certain anti-microbial responses of neutrophils, with possible health implications. Importantly, we found that BPS and the glucuronidated metabolites of BPA and BPS showed higher endocrine-disrupting potential than BPA. More studies on bisphenols, especially the less-documented BPS and bisphenol metabolites, are needed to fully determine their risks, allow better regulation of these compounds, and restrict their extensive usage.

Bisphenols and the Development of Type 2 Diabetes: The Role of the Skeletal Muscle and Adipose Tissue

Bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol S (BPS) are environmental contaminants that have been associated with the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Two organs that are often implicated in the development of insulin resistance are the skeletal muscle and the adipose tissue, however, seldom studies have investigated the effects of bisphenols on their metabolism. In this review we discuss metabolic perturbations that occur in both the skeletal muscle and adipose tissue affected with insulin resistance, and how exposure to BPA or BPS has been linked to these changes. Furthermore, we highlight the possible effects of BPA on the cross-talk between the skeletal muscle and adipose tissue.

The Endocrine Disruptor Bisphenol A (BPA) Affects the Enteric Neurons Immunoreactive to Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) in the Enteric Nervous System of the Porcine Large Intestine

The enteric nervous system (ENS), located in the wall of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is characterized by complex organization and a high degree of neurochemical diversity of neurons. One of the less known active neuronal substances found in the enteric neurons is neuregulin 1 (NRG1), a factor known to be involved in the assurance of normal development of the nervous system. During the study, made up using the double immunofluorescence technique, the presence of NRG1 in the ENS of the selected segment of porcine large intestine (caecum, ascending and descending colon) was observed in physiological conditions, as well as under the impact of low and high doses of bisphenol A (BPA) which is commonly used in the production of plastics. In control animals in all types of the enteric plexuses, the percentage of NRG1-positive neurons oscillated around 20% of all neurons. The administration of BPA caused an increase in the number of NRG1-positive neurons in all types of the enteric plexuses and in all segments of the large intestine studied. The most visible changes were noted in the inner submucous plexus of the ascending colon, where in animals treated with high doses of BPA, the percentage of NRG1-positive neurons amounted to above 45% of all neuronal cells. The mechanisms of observed changes are not entirely clear, but probably result from neurotoxic, neurodegenerative and/or proinflammatory activity of BPA and are protective and adaptive in nature.

How microplastic components influence the immune system and impact on children health: Focus on cancer

BACKGROUND

As a result of human socioeconomic activity, industrial wastes have increased distressingly. Plastic pollution is globally distributed across the world due to its properties of buoyancy and durability. A big health hazard is the sorption of toxicants to plastic while traveling through the environment. Two broad classes of plastic-related chemicals are of critical concern for human health-bisphenols and phthalates. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disruptor compound (EDC) with estrogenic activity. It is used in the production of materials that are used daily. The endocrine modulating activity of BPA and its effects on reproductive health has been widely studied. BPA also has effects on the immune system; however, they are poorly investigated and the available data are inconclusive. Phthalates are also EDCs used as plasticizers in a wide array of daily-use products. Since these compounds are not covalently bound to the plastic matrix, they easily leach out from it, leading to high human exposure. These compounds exert several cell effects through modulating different endocrine pathways, such as estrogen, androgen, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, and arylhydrocarbon receptor pathways. The exposure to both classes of plastic derivatives during critical periods has detrimental effects on human health.

METHODS

In this review, we have compiled the most important of their perinatal effects on the function of the immune system and their relationship to the development of different types of cancer.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION

The administration of bisphenols and phthalates during critical stages of development affects important immune system components, and the immune function; which might be related to the development of different diseases including cancer.

Bisphenol A (BPA)-Induced Changes in the Number of Serotonin-Positive Cells in the Mucosal Layer of Porcine Small Intestine-the Preliminary Studies

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a substance used in the production of plastics which has a negative impact on many internal organs. Because BPA is normally toxic for the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the intestine is especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of this substance. The aim of this investigation was to study the influence of two doses of BPA (0.05 mg and 0.5 mg/kg body weight/day) on the number of mucosal cells in the porcine small intestine and containing serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). During the experiment, it was demonstrated that both applied BPA doses caused an increase in the number of 5-HT-positive cells located in the mucosal layer of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. These changes may be connected with the direct impact of BPA on the intestinal mucosa, the pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of this substance, and/or the influence of BPA on the neurochemical characterization of nervous structures supplying the intestine.