Evidences for a role of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) in methylmercury induced neurotoxicity in vivo

Mercury-induced toxicity: Mechanisms, molecular pathways, and gene regulation

Mercury is a well-known neurotoxicant for humans and wildlife. The epidemic of mercury poisoning in Japan has clearly demonstrated that chronic exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) results in serious neurological damage to the cerebral and cerebellar cortex, leading to the dysfunction of the central nervous system (CNS), especially in infants exposed to MeHg in utero. The occurrences of poisoning have caused a wide public concern regarding the health risk emanating from MeHg exposure; particularly those eating large amounts of fish may experience the low-level and long-term exposure. There is growing evidence that MeHg at environmentally relevant concentrations can affect the health of biota in the ecosystem. Although extensive in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the disruption of redox homeostasis and microtube assembly is mainly responsible for mercurial toxicity leading to adverse health outcomes, it is still unclear whether we could quantitively determine the occurrence of interaction between mercurial and thiols and/or selenols groups of proteins linked directly to outcomes, especially at very low levels of exposure. Furthermore, intracellular calcium homeostasis, cytoskeleton, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, neurotransmitter release, and DNA methylation may be the targets of mercury compounds; however, the primary targets associated with the adverse outcomes remain to be elucidated. Considering these knowledge gaps, in this article, we conducted a comprehensive review of mercurial toxicity, focusing mainly on the mechanism, and genes/proteins expression. We speculated that comprehensive analyses of transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics could enhance interpretation of "omics" profiles, which may reveal specific biomarkers obviously correlated with specific pathways that mediate selective neurotoxicity.

Parental treatment with selenium protects Caenorhabditis elegans and their offspring against the reproductive toxicity of mercury

Mercury (Hg) is one of the major pollutants in the environment, which requires effective countermeasures to manage its risk to both human health and the ecosystem. The antagonistic effect of selenium (Se) against methyl mercury (MeHg) and HgCl2 was evaluated using parent and offspring Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) in this study. Through designated acute exposure of 24 h, our results showed that both MeHg and HgCl2 induced dose-dependent reproductive toxicity, including increased germ cell apoptosis, decrease in the number of oocytes, brood size, and sperm activation. The increased germ cell apoptosis was even higher in F1 and F2 generations, but returned to control level in F3 generation. Pretreatment with Se significantly suppressed the reproductive toxicity caused by Hg in both parental worms and their offspring, but had little influence on Hg accumulation. The protective role of Se was found closely related to the chemical forms of Hg: mtl-1 and mtl-2 genes participated in reducing the toxicity of HgCl2, while the gst-4 gene was involved in the reduced toxicity of MeHg. The formation of Se-Hg complex and the antioxidant function of Se were considered as possible antagonistic mechanisms. Our data indicated that pretreatment with Se could effectively protect C. elegans and their offspring against the reproductive toxicity of Hg in different chemical forms, which provided a reference for the prevention of Hg poisoning and essential information for better understanding the detoxification potential of Se on heavy metals.

Effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Laminaceae) essential oil on adult and larvae of Drosophila melanogaster

Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae family), also known as "alecrim," is a perennial herb, typical of the Mediterranean region and widely distributed in Brazilian territory. Despite having demonstrated several properties of human interest, insecticide/larvicidal effect of essential oil from R. officinalis on insects remains unclear. In this study, we tested the effects of R. officinalis essential oil on biomarkers of oxidative damage in Drosophila melanogaster. Exposure to R. officinalis essential oil increased adult mortality and decreased geotaxis behavior in adult fruit flies. In addition, essential oil increased of larval mortality and impaired the developmental success in D. melanogaster. R. officinalis essential oil showed a significant repellent effect, with duration time of about 6 h. To understand the mechanism underlying the toxicity of essential oil both pro-oxidant effects and biomarkers of oxidative damage were evaluated in exposed flies. Exposure to essential oil caused a significant redox imbalance with impairment of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant system and increased the lipid peroxidation levels. These results suggest that R. officinalis essential oil can be used as a bioinsecticide and/or larvicide as well as an alternative insect repellent.

Dietary Selenomethionine Reduce Mercury Tissue Levels and Modulate Methylmercury Induced Proteomic and Transcriptomic Alterations in Hippocampi of Adolescent BALB/c Mice

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a well-known environmental contaminant, particularly harmful to the developing brain. The main human dietary exposure to MeHg occurs through seafood consumption. However, seafood also contains several nutrients, including selenium, which has been shown to interact with MeHg and potentially ameliorate its toxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the combined effects of selenium (as selenomethionine; SeMet) and MeHg on mercury accumulation in tissues and the effects concomitant dietary exposure of these compounds exert on the hippocampal proteome and transcriptome in mice. Adolescent male BALB/c mice were exposed to SeMet and two different doses of MeHg through their diet for 11 weeks. Organs, including the brain, were sampled for mercury analyses. Hippocampi were collected and analyzed using proteomics and transcriptomics followed by multi-omics bioinformatics data analysis. The dietary presence of SeMet reduced the amount of mercury in several organs, including the brain. Proteomic and RNA-seq analyses showed that both protein and RNA expression patterns were inversely regulated in mice receiving SeMet together with MeHg compared to MeHg alone. Several pathways, proteins and RNA transcripts involved in conditions such as immune responses and inflammation, oxidative stress, cell plasticity and Alzheimer’s disease were affected inversely by SeMet and MeHg, indicating that SeMet can ameliorate several toxic effects of MeHg in mice.

Ferroptosis as a mechanism of non-ferrous metal toxicity

Ferroptosis is a recently discovered form of regulated cell death, implicated in multiple pathologies. Given that the toxicity elicited by some metals is linked to alterations in iron metabolism and induction of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, ferroptosis might be involved in such toxicity. Although direct evidence is insufficient, certain pioneering studies have demonstrated a crosstalk between metal toxicity and ferroptosis. Specifically, the mechanisms underlying metal-induced ferroptosis include induction of ferritinophagy, increased DMT-1 and TfR cellular iron uptake, mitochondrial dysfunction and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mitoROS) generation, inhibition of Xc-system and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) activity, altogether resulting in oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. In addition, there is direct evidence of the role of ferroptosis in the toxicity of arsenic, cadmium, zinc, manganese, copper, and aluminum exposure. In contrast, findings on the impact of cobalt and nickel on ferroptosis are scant and nearly lacking altogether for mercury and especially lead. Other gaps in the field include limited studies on the role of metal speciation in ferroptosis and the critical cellular targets. Although further detailed studies are required, it seems reasonable to propose even at this early stage that ferroptosis may play a significant role in metal toxicity, and its modulation may be considered as a potential therapeutic tool for the amelioration of metal toxicity.

A Novel Diselenide-Probucol-Analogue Protects Against Methylmercury-Induced Toxicity in HT22 Cells by Upregulating Peroxide Detoxification Systems: a Comparison with Diphenyl Diselenide

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a ubiquitous environmental neurotoxicant whose mechanisms of action involve oxidation of endogenous nucleophilic groups (mainly thiols and selenols), depletion of antioxidant defenses, and disruption of neurotransmitter homeostasis. Diphenyl diselenide-(PhSe)₂-a model diaryl diselenide, has been reported to display significant protective effects against MeHg-induced neurotoxicity under both in vitro and in vivo experimental conditions. In this study, we compared the protective effects of (PhSe)₂ with those of RC513 (4,4'-diselanediylbis(2,6-di-tert-butylphenol), a novel diselenide-probucol-analog) against MeHg-induced toxicity in the neuronal (hippocampal) cell line HT22. Although both (PhSe)₂ and RC513 significantly mitigated MeHg- and tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BuOOH)-cytotoxicity, the probucol analog exhibited superior protective effects, which were observed earlier and at lower concentrations compared to (PhSe)₂. RC513 treatment (at either 0.5 µM or 2 µM) significantly increased glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, which has been reported to counteract MeHg-toxicity. (PhSe)₂ was also able to increase GPx activity, but only at 2 µM. Although both compounds increased the Gpx1 transcripts at 6 h after treatments, only RC513 was able to increase mRNA levels of Prx2, Prx3, Prx5, and Txn2, which are also involved in peroxide detoxification. RC513 (at 2 µM) significantly increased GPx-1 protein expression in HT22 cells, although (PhSe)₂ displayed a minor (nonsignificant) effect in this parameter. In agreement, RC513 induced a faster and superior capability to cope with exogenously-added peroxide (t-BuOOH). In summary, when compared to the prototypical organic diaryl diselenide [(PhSe)₂], RC513 displayed superior protective properties against MeHg-toxicity in vitro; this was paralleled by a more pronounced upregulation of defenses related to detoxification of peroxides, which are well-known MeHg-derived intermediate oxidant species.

Se improves GPX4 expression and SOD activity to alleviate heat-stress-induced ferroptosis-like death in goat mammary epithelial cells

Selenium (Se) is a vital element of life, which has an important impact on the growth, development, production performance and stress-tolerance of animals. However, it is not entirely clear that how exactly Se works during these processes. Herein, we investigate the role of Se in regulating the functions of goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs) under heat-stress condition. We found that heat stress caused ferroptosis-like death in GMECs, manifested by a robust increase in iron ion concentration, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell death ratio, and a decrease in the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and expression level of glutathione peroxidases 4 (GPX4). Se incubation had no obvious effect on GMEC viability, but alleviated heat-stress-induced ferroptosis-like cell death and improved GPX4 expression and SOD activity in a dose-dependent manner. Also, we found that overexpression of GPX4 could improve the activity of SOD. And Se incubation inhibited activation of mTOR signaling in heat-stress-induced GMECs, which could be eliminated by the mTOR activator MHY1485, and treatment with mTOR inhibitor AY-22989 had the same effect as Se. In conclusion, Se improves GPX4 expression and SOD activity and inhibits the activation of mTOR to alleviate heat-stress-induced ferroptosis-like death in GMECs, which may be a protective agent for heat stress in goats.

Hydroalcoholic Extract of Solanum lycocarpum A. St. Hil. (Solanaceae) Leaves Improves Alloxan-Induced Diabetes Complications in Mice

BACKGROUND

Solanum lycocarpum is a medicinal plant widely-used in Brazil because its fruits have hypoglycemic activity. However, the fruits are restricted in some periods of the year.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of hydroalcoholic extracts of S. lycocarpum leaves in alloxan-induced diabetic mice.

METHODS

Hydroalcoholic extract of S. lycocarpum was characterized by phytochemical and GC-MS analysis. The Antidiabetic activity was assessed following treatment for 22 days with S. lycocarpum extract at 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg. Bodyweight, water, and food intake, glycemia, biochemical parameters, anatomy-histopathology of the pancreas, liver and kidney, and expression of target genes were analyzed. In addition, oral acute toxicity was evaluated.

RESULTS

Animals treated showed a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in glycemia following a dose of 125 mg/kg. Food intake remained similar for all groups. Decreased polydipsia symptoms were observed after treatment with 250 (p < 0.001) and 500 mg/kg (p < 0.01) compared with diabetic control, although normal rates were observed when 125 mg/kg was administered. A protective effect was also observed in the pancreas, liver, and kidneys, through the regeneration of the islets. Hypoglycemic activity can be attributed to myo-inositol, which stimulates insulin secretion, associated with α-tocopherol, which prevents damage from oxidative stress and apoptosis of β-pancreatic cells by an increased Catalase (CAT) and Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) mRNA expression. The toxicological test demonstrated safe oral use of the extract under the present conditions.

CONCLUSION

Hydroalcoholic extract of S. lycocarpum promotes the regulation of diabetes in the case of moderate glycemic levels, by decreasing glycemia and exerting protective effects on the islets.

Response of selenoproteins gene expression profile to mercuric chloride exposure in chicken kidney

Kidney is a primary target organ for mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) toxicity. Selenium (Se) can exert antagonistic effect on heavy metals-induced organ toxicity by regulating the expression of selenoproteins. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of HgCl₂ on the gene expression of selenoproteins in chicken kidney. Sixty male Hyline brown chickens were randomly and evenly divided into two groups. After acclimatization for one week, chickens were provided with the standard diet as well as non-treated water (CON group), and standard diet as well as HgCl₂-treated water (250 ppm, HgCl₂ group). After seven weeks, kidney tissues were collected to examine the mRNA expression levels of 25 selenoproteins genes and protein expression levels of 4 selenoproteins. Moreover, correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to analyze the expression patterns of 25 selenoproteins. The results showed that HgCl₂ exposure significantly decreased the mRNA expression of Glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1), GPX4, Thioredoxin reductase 2 (TXNRD2), Iodothyronine deiodinase 1 (DIO1), Methionine-Rsulfoxide reductase 1 (SELR), 15-kDa selenoprotein (SEP15), selenoprotein I (SELI), SELK, SELM, SELN, SELP, SELS, SELT, SELW, and SEPHS2. Meanwhile, HgCl₂ exposure significantly increased the mRNA expression of GPX3, TXNRD1, and SELU. Western blot analysis showed that the expression levels of GPX3, TXNRD1, SELK, and SELN were concordant with these mRNA expression levels. Analysis results of selenoproteins expression patterns showed that HgCl₂-induced the main disorder expression of selenoproteins with antioxidant activity and endoplasmic reticulum resident selenoproteins. In conclusion, selenoproteins respond to HgCl₂ exposure in a characteristic manner in chicken kidney.

Effects of foetal and breastfeeding exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) and retinol palmitate (Vitamin A) in rats: Redox parameters and susceptibility to DNA damage in liver

Methylmercury (MeHg) is known to be a chemical that poses a risk to public health. Exposure to MeHg and vitamin A (VitA) occurs through the ingestion of fish, present in the diet of most pregnant women. The absorption of these elements generates oxidative stress and can generate adaptations for future stressful events. Here, we assessed how exposure to VitA and/or MeHg during the fetal and breastfeeding period modulates the toxicity of MeHg reexposure in adulthood. We focus on redox systems and repairing DNA damage. Male rats (n = 50), were divided into 5 groups. Control received mineral oil; The VitA group received VitA during pregnancy, during breastfeeding and was exposed to MeHg in adulthood; VitA + MeHg received VitA and MeHg during pregnancy and breastfeeding and was exposed to MeHg in adulthood. The single exposure group (SE) was exposed to MeHg only in adulthood; and the MeHg group was pre-exposed to MeHg during pregnancy and breastfeeding and re-exposed to MeHg in adulthood. After treating the animals, we evaluated the redox status and the level of DNA damage in all rats. The results revealed that MeHg significantly decreased the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and sulfhydryl levels and increased the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione transferase, glutathione and carbonyl in all exposed groups. These results suggest that the second exposure to MeHg directly altered the effects of oxidation and that there were no specific effects associated with exposure during the fetal and breastfeeding periods. In addition, our findings indicate that MDA levels increased in MeHg and SE levels and no differences in MDA levels were observed between the VitA and MeHg + VitA groups. We also observed that animals pretreated exclusively with VitA showed residual damage similar to the control's DNA, while the other groups showed statistically higher levels of damage. In conclusion, low doses of MeHg and VitA during fetal and breastfeeding periods were unable to condition an adaptive response to subsequent exposure to MeHg in adulthood in relation to the observed levels of oxidative damage assessed after exposure.

Deleterious effects of chronic mercury exposure on in vitro LTP, memory process, and oxidative stress

Heavy metal contamination in aquatic environments plays an important role in the exposure of humans to these toxicants. Among these pollutants, mercury (Hg) is one main concern due to its high neurotoxicity and environmental persistence. Even in low concentrations, Hg bioaccumulation is a major threat to human health, with higher impact on populations whose diet has fish as chief consumption. Mercury compounds have high affinity for neuronal receptors and proteins, which gives Hg its cumulative feature and have the ability to cross cell membranes and blood-brain barrier to show their neurotoxicity. Intoxication with Hg increases levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thus depleting faster the resource of antioxidant proteins. To evaluate Hg-induced hippocampal ROS production, synaptic plasticity, anxiety, and memory, a total of 11 male Wistar rats were exposed to HgCl₂ (Hg₃₀ group) to produce a residual concentration of 8 ng/mL at the end of 30 days. Behavioral tests (plus-maze discriminative avoidance task), in vitro electrophysiology, and ROS assays were performed. Western blot assay showed decreased levels of antioxidant proteins GPx and SOD in Hg₃₀ group. Increased ROS production was observed in the CA1 and CA3 regions in the Hg-exposed group. Plus-maze task detected long-term memory impairment in Hg₃₀ group, linked to poorer in vitro long-term potentiation as compared to control group. Hg intoxication also promoted higher anxiety-like behavior in the exposed animals. In conclusion, our data suggests that low doses of HgCl₂ resulted in impaired long-term memory and unbalance between decreased antioxidant protein expression and increased ROS production in the hippocampus.

Methyl and Ethylmercury elicit oxidative stress and unbalance the antioxidant system in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Methylmercury (MeHg) and Ethylmercury (EtHg) are toxic to the central nervous system. Human exposure to MeHg and EtHg results mainly from the consumption of contaminated fish and thimerosal-containing vaccines, respectively. The mechanisms underlying the toxicity of MeHg and EtHg are still elusive. Here, we compared the toxic effects of MeHg and EtHg in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) emphasizing the involvement of oxidative stress and the identification of molecular targets from antioxidant pathways. Wild type and mutant strains with deleted genes for antioxidant defenses, namely: γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, mitochondrial peroxiredoxin, cytoplasmic thioredoxin, and redox transcription factor Yap1 were used to identify potential pathways and proteins from cell redox system targeted by MeHg and EtHg. MeHg and EtHg inhibited cell growth, decreased membrane integrity, and increased the granularity and production of reactive species (RS) in wild type yeast. The mutants were predominantly less tolerant of mercurial than wild type yeast. But, as the wild strain, mutants exhibited higher tolerance to MeHg than EtHg. Our results indicate the involvement of oxidative stress in the cytotoxicity of MeHg and EtHg and reinforce S. cerevisiae as a suitable model to explore the mechanisms of action of electrophilic toxicants.

Simultaneous exposure to vinylcyclohexene and methylmercury in Drosophila melanogaster: biochemical and molecular analyses

Background

Exposure to vinylcyclohexene (VCH) and methylmercury (MeHg⁺) can induce oxidative stress and gene modulation. Several studies have been evaluating the effects of VCH and MeHg⁺, but little is known about interactive effects between them. This work aimed to assess the exposure and co-exposure effects of MeHg⁺ and VCH on oxidative stress and gene modulation in Drosophila melanogaster.

Methods

Reactive species production, glutathione S-transferase (GST) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities were evaluated after exposure and co-exposure to VCH (1 mM) and MeHg⁺ (0.2 mM) for one or three days in the head and body (thorax and abdomen) of flies. The expression of genes related to redox state and inflammatory response was evaluated after exposure and co-exposure to VCH and MeHg⁺ for three days.

Results

Survival decreased only in flies co-exposed to VCH and MeHg⁺ for three days. All treatments increased total reactive species production after one day of exposure. However, no significant changes were observed in the head after three days of exposure. One day of exposure to VCH caused an increase in the head GST activity, whereas MeHg⁺ induced an increase after three days of exposure. Regarding the body, all treatments increased GST activity after one day of exposure, but only the flies exposed to MeHg⁺ presented an increase in GST activity after three days of exposure. Treatments did not alter AChE activity in the head. As for gene expression, there was a significant increase in the Relish transcription factor gene in the flies’ body, but Nrf2, Keap1, Jafrac1, TrxR1, and NF-κβ were not altered.

Conclusion

The results suggest that exposure to VCH and MeHg⁺ induce oxidative stress and activation of an inflammatory response in fruit flies.

Evaluation of the effects of chronic occupational exposure to metallic mercury on the thyroid parenchyma and hormonal function

INTRODUCTION

Experiments in animals exposed to mercury (Hg) in different chemical states have shown thyroid parenchymal and hormone alterations. However, these experiments did not allow the establishment of dose-response curves or provide an understanding of whether these Hg effects on the thyroid parenchyma occur in humans.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between chronic occupational exposure to metallic Hg and alterations in thyroid hormones and gland parenchyma 14 years after the last exposure.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study including 55 males exposed in the past to metallic Hg and 55 non-exposed males, paired by age, was conducted in the Hospital das Clínicas (Brazil) from 2016 to 2017. Serum concentrations of total and free triiodothyronine (TT3 and FT3), free thyroxine (FT4), thyrotropin (TSH), reverse T3 (RT3), selenium and antithyroid antibody titers were obtained. The Hg and iodine concentrations were measured in urine. The thyroid parenchyma was evaluated by B-mode ultrasonography with Doppler. The nodules with aspects suspicious for malignancy were submitted to aspiration puncture with a thin needle, and the cytology assessment was classified by the Bethesda system. The t test or Mann-Whitney test, Chi-square test and Spearman correlation were used to compare the exposed and non-exposed groups and examine the relationships between the variables. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to trace determinants of the risk of thyroid hormone alteration. Statistical significance was defined by p < 0.05.

RESULTS

The urinary Hg average was significantly higher in the exposed group than in the non-exposed group (p < 0.01). The mean TSH serum concentration in the exposed group was higher, with a statistically significant difference between the groups (p = 0.03). Serum concentrations of TSH exceeded the normality limit (4.20 µIU/ml) in 13 exposed individuals (27.3%) and 4 non-exposed individuals (7.3%), with a statistically significant association between the hormonal increase and exposure to Hg (p = 0.02). In the logistic regression model, exposure to Hg (yes or no) showed an odds ratio = 4.86 associated with an increase of TSH above the normal limit (p = 0.04). The serum concentrations of RT3 showed a statistically borderline difference between the groups (p = 0.06). There was no statistically significant difference between the mean TT3, FT3 and FT4 serum concentrations in the Hg-exposed group compared to the non-exposed group. The proportions of the echogenicity alterations were higher in the exposed group compared to the non-exposed group (27.3% versus 9.1%; p = 0.03). Papillary carcinomas were documented in three exposed individuals and one non-exposed individual. A follicular carcinoma was recorded in one non-exposed individual.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the higher serum TSH concentration and the prevalence of parenchymal alterations in the Hg-exposed group, even after cessation of exposure, it is recommended that the thyroid status of exposed workers be followed for a long period.

Seasonal and pharmaceutical-induced changes in selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase 4 activity in the reproductive dynamics of the soil biosentinel Podarcis sicula (Chordata: Reptilia)

There is rising concern for the interaction of environmental contaminants with brain transcriptome and the potential effect on reproductive processes. The present study sought to determine selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase 4 (gpx4) transcriptional activity in the brain and testis of the soil biosentinel, Podarcis sicula, through the main phases of the reproductive cycle and whether pharmaceuticals exert an endocrine disruption. Based on gpx4 cloned amminoacids sequence (GenBank AEX09236.1.), we used a bioinformatic approach to assess the structural role. Specifically, we detected seasonally the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level using electron spin resonance spectroscopy and gpx4 transcriptional activity using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. In addition, the impact of pharmaceuticals was assessed after 21-days of treatment with ICI 182,780 and human chorionic gonadotropin administration in mating and winter stasis, respectively. Bioinformatic data shows the gpx4 proteic activity and a phylogenetic profile. ROS contents in lizard brain are significantly less than in testis and display higher levels after treatments. Brain gpx4 expression gives statistically significant seasonal differences, opposite trends in testis and altered expression in both tissues, with evidence of testis morphological and DNA disruption. Taken together, these results provide direct evidence that gpx4 in P. sicula plays a seasonal regulatory role and may be a reliable biomarker for reproductive health toxicity screening.

Human-induced pluripotent stems cells as a model to dissect the selective neurotoxicity of methylmercury

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a potent neurotoxicant affecting both the developing and mature central nervous system (CNS) with apparent indiscriminate disruption of multiple homeostatic pathways. However, genetic and environmental modifiers contribute significant variability to neurotoxicity associated with human exposures. MeHg displays developmental stage and neural lineage selective neurotoxicity. To identify mechanistic-based neuroprotective strategies to mitigate human MeHg exposure risk, it will be critical to improve our understanding of the basis of MeHg neurotoxicity and of this selective neurotoxicity. Here, we propose that human-based pluripotent stem cell cellular approaches may enable mechanistic insight into genetic pathways that modify sensitivity of specific neural lineages to MeHg-induced neurotoxicity. Such studies are crucial for the development of novel disease modifying strategies impinging on MeHg exposure vulnerability.

Methylmercury's chemistry: From the environment to the mammalian brain

Methylmercury is a neurotoxicant that is found in fish and rice. MeHg's toxicity is mediated by blockage of -SH and -SeH groups of proteins. However, the identification of MeHg's targets is elusive. Here we focus on the chemistry of MeHg in the abiotic and biotic environment. The toxicological chemistry of MeHg is complex in metazoans, but at the atomic level it can be explained by exchange reactions of MeHg bound to -S(e)H with another free -S(e)H group (R¹S(e)-HgMe + R²-S(e)H ↔ R¹S(e)H + R²-S(e)-HgMe). This reaction was first studied by professor Rabenstein and here it is referred as the "Rabenstein's Reaction". The absorption, distribution, and excretion of MeHg in the environment and in the body of animals will be dictated by Rabenstein's reactions. The affinity of MeHg by thiol and selenol groups and the exchange of MeHg by Rabenstein's Reaction (which is a diffusion controlled reaction) dictates MeHg's neurotoxicity. However, it is important to emphasize that the MeHg exchange reaction velocity with different types of thiol- and selenol-containing proteins will also depend on protein-specific structural and thermodynamical factors. New experimental approaches and detailed studies about the Rabenstein's reaction between MeHg with low molecular mass thiol (LMM-SH) molecules (cysteine, GSH, acetyl-CoA, lipoate, homocysteine) with abundant high molecular mass thiol (HMM-SH) molecules (albumin, hemoglobin) and HMM-SeH (GPxs, Selenoprotein P, TrxR1-3) are needed. The study of MeHg migration from -S(e)-Hg- bonds to free -S(e)H groups (Rabenstein's Reaction) in pure chemical systems and neural cells (with special emphasis to the LMM-SH and HMM-S(e)H molecules cited above) will be critical to developing realistic constants to be used in silico models that will predict the distribution of MeHg in humans.

Glutathione antioxidant system and methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity: An intriguing interplay

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a toxic chemical compound naturally produced mainly in the aquatic environment through the methylation of inorganic mercury catalyzed by aquatic microorganisms. MeHg is biomagnified in the aquatic food chain and, consequently, piscivorous fish at the top of the food chain possess huge amounts of MeHg (at the ppm level). Some populations that have fish as main protein's source can be exposed to exceedingly high levels of MeHg and develop signs of toxicity. MeHg is toxic to several organs, but the central nervous system (CNS) represents a preferential target, especially during development (prenatal and early postnatal periods). Though the biochemical events involved in MeHg-(neuro)toxicity are not yet entirely comprehended, a vast literature indicates that its pro-oxidative properties explain, at least partially, several of its neurotoxic effects. As result of its electrophilicity, MeHg interacts with (and oxidize) nucleophilic groups, such as thiols and selenols, present in proteins or low-molecular weight molecules. It is noteworthy that such interactions modify the redox state of these groups and, therefore, lead to oxidative stress and impaired function of several molecules, culminating in neurotoxicity. Among these molecules, glutathione (GSH; a major thiol antioxidant) and thiol- or selenol-containing enzymes belonging to the GSH antioxidant system represent key molecular targets involved in MeHg-neurotoxicity. In this review, we firstly present a general overview concerning the neurotoxicity of MeHg. Then, we present fundamental aspects of the GSH-antioxidant system, as well as the effects of MeHg on this system.

Reproductive dysfunction after mercury exposure at low levels: evidence for a role of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) 1 and GPx4 in male rats

Mercury is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant and mercury contamination and toxicity are serious hazards to human health. Some studies have shown that mercury impairs male reproductive function, but less is known about its effects following exposure at low doses and the possible mechanisms underlying its toxicity. Herein we show that exposure of rats to mercury chloride for 30 days (first dose 4.6µgkg^-1, subsequent doses 0.07µgkg^-1day^-1) resulted in mean (±s.e.m.) blood mercury concentrations of 6.8±0.3ngmL^-1, similar to that found in human blood after occupational exposure or released from removal of amalgam fillings. Even at these low concentrations, mercury was deposited in reproductive organs (testis, epididymis and prostate), impaired sperm membrane integrity, reduced the number of mature spermatozoa and, in the testes, promoted disorganisation, empty spaces and loss of germinal epithelium. Mercury increased levels of reactive oxygen species and the expression of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) 1 and GPx4. These results suggest that the toxic effects of mercury on the male reproductive system are due to its accumulation in reproductive organs and that the glutathione system is its potential target. The data also suggest, for the first time, a possible role of the selenoproteins GPx1 and GPx4 in the reproductive toxicity of mercury chloride.

Low doses of methylmercury intoxication solely or associated to ethanol binge drinking induce psychiatric-like disorders in adolescent female rats

Methylmercury (MeHg) is an environmental contaminant that provokes damage to developing brain. Simultaneously, the consumption of ethanol among adolescents has increased. Evidence concerning the effects of MeHg low doses per se or associated with ethanol during adolescence are scarce. Thus, we investigate behavioral disorders resulted from exposure to MeHg low doses and co-intoxicated with ethanol in adolescent rats. Wistar rats received chronic exposure to low doses of MeHg (40 μg/kg/day for 5 weeks) and/or ethanol binge drinking (3 g/kg/day at 3 days per week for 5 weeks). Animals were submitted to behavioral assays to assess emotionality and cognitive function. Total mercury content was evaluated in the brain and hair. Oxidative parameters were analyzed in blood samples. MeHg at low doses or associated to ethanol binge drinking produced psychiatric-like disorders and cognitive impairment. Peripherally, MeHg altered oxidative parameters when associated to ethanol. Ethanol administration reduced brain mercury deposit. We proposed that ethanol reduces the necessity of mercury tissue levels to display psychiatric-like disorders/cognitive impairment.

Neurodevelopmental Effects of Mercury

The toxicology of mercury (Hg) is of concern since this metal is ubiquitously distributed in the environment, and living organisms are routinely exposed to Hg at low to high levels. The toxic effects of Hg are well studied and it is known that they may differ depending on the Hg chemical species. In this chapter, we emphasize the neurotoxic effects of Hg during brain development. The immature brain is more susceptible to Hg exposure, since all the Hg chemical forms, not only the organic ones, can harm it. The possible consequences of Hg exposure during the early stages of development, the additive effects with other co-occurring neurotoxicants, and the known mechanisms of action and targets will be addressed in this chapter.

Redox Signaling Mediated by Thioredoxin and Glutathione Systems in the Central Nervous System

SIGNIFICANCE

The thioredoxin (Trx) and glutathione (GSH) systems play important roles in maintaining the redox balance in the brain, a tissue that is prone to oxidative stress due to its high-energy demand. These two disulfide reductase systems are active in various areas of the brain and are considered to be critical antioxidant systems in the central nervous system (CNS). Various neuronal disorders have been characterized to have imbalanced redox homeostasis. Recent Advances: In addition to their detrimental effects, recent studies have highlighted that reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) act as critical signaling molecules by modifying thiols in proteins. The Trx and GSH systems, which reversibly regulate thiol modifications, regulate redox signaling involved in various biological events in the CNS.

CRITICAL ISSUES

In this review, we focus on the following: (i) how ROS/RNS are produced and mediate signaling in CNS; (ii) how Trx and GSH systems regulate redox signaling by catalyzing reversible thiol modifications; (iii) how dysfunction of the Trx and GSH systems causes alterations of cellular redox signaling in human neuronal diseases; and (iv) the effects of certain small molecules that target thiol-based signaling pathways in the CNS.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Further study on the roles of thiol-dependent redox systems in the CNS will improve our understanding of the pathogenesis of many human neuronal disorders and also help to develop novel protective and therapeutic strategies against neuronal diseases. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 989-1010.

Biomarkers of mercury toxicity: Past, present, and future trends

Mercury (Hg) toxicity continues to represent a global health concern. Given that human populations are mostly exposed to low chronic levels of mercurial compounds (methylmercury through fish, mercury vapor from dental amalgams, and ethylmercury from vaccines), the need for more sensitive and refined tools to assess the effects and/or susceptibility to adverse metal-mediated health risks remains. Traditional biomarkers, such as hair or blood Hg levels, are practical and provide a reliable measure of exposure, but given intra-population variability, it is difficult to establish accurate cause-effect relationships. It is therefore important to identify and validate biomarkers that are predictive of early adverse effects prior to adverse health outcomes becoming irreversible. This review describes the predominant biomarkers used by toxicologists and epidemiologists to evaluate exposure, effect and susceptibility to Hg compounds, weighing on their advantages and disadvantages. Most importantly, and in light of recent findings on the molecular mechanisms underlying Hg-mediated toxicity, potential novel biomarkers that might be predictive of toxic effect are presented, and the applicability of these parameters in risk assessment is examined.

Effects of Dietary Selenium Supplementation on Seminiferous Tubules and SelW, GPx4, LHCGR, and ACE Expression in Chicken Testis

We investigated the effects of dietary selenium (Se) supplementation on the development of chicken testis and the expression of selenoprotein W (SelW), glutathione peroxidase4 (GPx4), luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). Sixty roosters were assigned randomly into the control group fed with a basic diet (containing 0.3 mg Se/kg) and the experimental group fed with a diet (containing 0.6 mg Se/kg). The testes were collected individually at age of 6, 9, and 12 weeks. Se was supplemented in chicken feed for 15 days before sampling. The results indicated that dietary Se affected the number of cells in the seminiferous tubules and viability of Sertoli cells in vitro culture. SelW and GPx4 expression in the testes increased significantly in the experimental group compared to that in the control group. LHCGR expression in the testes increased significantly in the experimental group after 12 weeks compared to that in the control group. In contrast, ACE expression was inhibited in the experimental group compared to that in the control group. These results suggest that dietary supplementation with Se improved development of the seminiferous tubules at the cellular level and that SelW, GPx4, LHCGR, and ACE are involved.

Methylmercury alters glutathione homeostasis by inhibiting glutaredoxin 1 and enhancing glutathione biosynthesis in cultured human astrocytoma cells

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxin that binds strongly to thiol residues on protein and low molecular weight molecules like reduced glutathione (GSH). The mechanism of its effects on GSH homeostasis particularly at environmentally relevant low doses is not fully known. We hypothesized that exposure to MeHg would lead to a depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) and an accumulation of glutathione disulfide (GSSG) leading to alterations in S-glutathionylation of proteins. Our results showed exposure to low concentrations of MeHg (1μM) did not significantly alter GSH levels but increased GSSG levels by ∼12-fold. This effect was associated with a significant increase in total cellular glutathione content and a decrease in GSH/GSSG. Immunoblot analyses revealed that proteins involved in glutathione synthesis were upregulated accounting for the increase in cellular glutathione. This was associated an increase in cellular Nrf2 protein levels which is required to induce the expression of antioxidant genes in response to cellular stress. Intriguingly, we noted that a key enzyme involved in reversing protein S-glutathionylation and maintaining glutathione homeostasis, glutaredoxin-1 (Grx1), was inhibited by ∼50%. MeHg treatment also increased the S-glutathionylation of a high molecular weight protein. This observation is consistent with the inhibition of Grx1 and elevated H2O2 production however; contrary to our original hypothesis we found few S-glutathionylated proteins in the astrocytoma cells. Collectively, MeHg affects multiple arms of glutathione homeostasis ranging from pool management to protein S-glutathionylation and Grx1 activity.

Transcriptomics and proteomics show that selenium affects inflammation, cytoskeleton, and cancer pathways in human rectal biopsies

Epidemiologic studies highlight the potential role of dietary selenium (Se) in colorectal cancer prevention. Our goal was to elucidate whether expression of factors crucial for colorectal homoeostasis is affected by physiologic differences in Se status. Using transcriptomics and proteomics followed by pathway analysis, we identified pathways affected by Se status in rectal biopsies from 22 healthy adults, including 11 controls with optimal status (mean plasma Se = 1.43 μM) and 11 subjects with suboptimal status (mean plasma Se = 0.86 μM). We observed that 254 genes and 26 proteins implicated in cancer (80%), immune function and inflammatory response (40%), cell growth and proliferation (70%), cellular movement, and cell death (50%) were differentially expressed between the 2 groups. Expression of 69 genes, including selenoproteins W1 and K, which are genes involved in cytoskeleton remodelling and transcription factor NFκB signaling, correlated significantly with Se status. Integrating proteomics and transcriptomics datasets revealed reduced inflammatory and immune responses and cytoskeleton remodelling in the suboptimal Se status group. This is the first study combining omics technologies to describe the impact of differences in Se status on colorectal expression patterns, revealing that suboptimal Se status could alter inflammatory signaling and cytoskeleton in human rectal mucosa and so influence cancer risk.-Méplan, C., Johnson, I. T., Polley, A. C. J., Cockell, S., Bradburn, D. M., Commane, D. M., Arasaradnam, R. P., Mulholland, F., Zupanic, A., Mathers, J. C., Hesketh, J. Transcriptomics and proteomics show that selenium affects inflammation, cytoskeleton, and cancer pathways in human rectal biopsies.

Mitochondrial Redox Dysfunction and Environmental Exposures

SIGNIFICANCE

Mitochondria are structurally and biochemically diverse, even within a single type of cell. Protein complexes localized to the inner mitochondrial membrane synthesize ATP by coupling electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation. The organelles produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) from mitochondrial oxygen and ROS can, in turn, alter the function and expression of proteins used for aerobic respiration by post-translational and transcriptional regulation.

RECENT ADVANCES

New interest is emerging not only into the roles of mitochondria in disease development and progression but also as a target for environmental toxicants.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Dysregulation of respiration has been linked to cell death and is a major contributor to acute neuronal trauma, peripheral diseases, as well as chronic neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Here, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the sensitivity of the mitochondrial respiratory complexes to redox modulation, as well as examine the effects of environmental contaminants that have well-characterized mitochondrial toxicity. The contaminants discussed in this review are some of the most prevalent and potent environmental contaminants that have been linked to neurological dysfunction, altered cellular respiration, and oxidation.

Methylmercury exposure during early Xenopus laevis development affects cell proliferation and death but not neural progenitor specification

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a widespread environmental toxin that preferentially and adversely affects developing organisms. To investigate the impact of MeHg toxicity on the formation of the vertebrate nervous system at physiologically relevant concentrations, we designed a graded phenotype scale for evaluating Xenopus laevis embryos exposed to MeHg in solution. Embryos displayed a range of abnormalities in response to MeHg, particularly in brain development, which is influenced by both MeHg concentration and the number of embryos per ml of exposure solution. A TC50 of ~50μg/l and LC50 of ~100μg/l were found when maintaining embryos at a density of one per ml, and both increased with increasing embryo density. In situ hybridization and microarray analysis showed no significant change in expression of early neural patterning genes including sox2, en2, or delta; however a noticeable decrease was observed in the terminal neural differentiation genes GAD and xGAT, but not xVGlut. PCNA, a marker for proliferating cells, was negatively correlated with MeHg dose, with a significant reduction in cell number in the forebrain and spinal cord of exposed embryos by tadpole stages. Conversely, the number of apoptotic cells in neural regions detected by a TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling) assay was significantly increased. These results provide evidence that disruption of embryonic neural development by MeHg may not be directly due to a loss of neural progenitor specification and gene transcription, but to a more general decrease in cell proliferation and increase in cell death throughout the developing nervous system.

The change in heat shock protein expression in avermectin induced neurotoxicity of the pigeon (Columba livia) both in vivo and in vitro

The expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps) commonly increases to provide neuroprotection when brain tissues are under stress conditions. Residues of avermectins (AVMs) have neurotoxic effects on a number of non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of AVM exposure on the expression levels of Hsp 60, Hsp 70 and Hsp 90 for pigeon (Columba livia) neurons both in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that in general, the mRNA and protein levels of Hsps were increased in treated groups relative to control groups after AVM exposure for 30d, 60d and 90d in the cerebrum, cerebellum and optic lobe in vivo. However, AVM exposure had no significant effects on the transcription expression of Hsps for 90d in the optic lobe and decreased the translation expression of Hsps significantly for 90d in the optic lobe. In vitro, the LC50 of avermectin for King pigeon neurons is between 15μgL(-1) and 20μgL(-1). Following AVM (2.5-20μgL(-1)) exposure, the mRNA expression of the 3 Hsps was up-regulated to different degrees. Compared with the control groups, a significant decrease, a remarkable increase and a non-significant change was found in the protein expression of Hsp 60, Hsp 70 and Hsp 90 separately following AVM (2.5-20μgL(-1)) exposure. Based on these results, we conclude that AVM exposure can induce a protective stress response in pigeons by means of promoting the mRNA and protein expression of Hsps under in vivo and in vitro conditions, thus easing the neurotoxic effects of AVM to some extent.

60-Day chronic exposure to low concentrations of HgCl2 impairs sperm quality: hormonal imbalance and oxidative stress as potential routes for reproductive dysfunction in rats

Mercury is a toxic and bio-accumulative heavy metal of global concern. While good deals of research have been conducted on the toxic effects of mercury, little is known about the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of male reproductive dysfunction induced by mercury. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the effects and underlying mechanisms of chronic mercury exposure at low levels on male reproductive system of rats. Three-month-old male Wistar rats were divided into two groups and treated for 60 days with saline (i.m., Control) and HgCl2 (i.m. 1st dose: 4.6 µg/kg, subsequent doses 0.07 µg/kg/day). We analyzed sperm parameters, hormonal levels and biomarkers of oxidative stress in testis, epididymis, prostate and vas deferens. Mercury treatment decreased daily sperm production, count and motility and increased head and tail morphologic abnormalities. Moreover, mercury treatment decreased luteinizing hormone levels, increased lipid peroxidation on testis and decreased antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase) on reproductive organs. Our data demonstrate that 60-day chronic exposure to low concentrations of HgCl2 impairs sperm quality and promotes hormonal imbalance. The raised oxidative stress seems to be a potential mechanism involved on male reproductive toxicity by mercury.

Methylmercury alters the activities of Hsp90 client proteins, prostaglandin E synthase/p23 (PGES/23) and nNOS

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a persistent pollutant with known neurotoxic effects. We have previously shown that astrocytes accumulate MeHg and play a prominent role in mediating MeHg toxicity in the central nervous system (CNS) by altering glutamate signaling, generating oxidative stress, depleting glutathione (GSH) and initiating lipid peroxidation. Interestingly, all of these pathways can be regulated by the constitutively expressed, 90-kDa heat shock protein, Hsp90. As Hsp90 function is regulated by oxidative stress, we hypothesized that MeHg disrupts Hsp90-client protein functions. Astrocytes were treated with MeHg and expression of Hsp90, as well as the abundance of complexes of Hsp90-neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and Hsp90-prostaglandin E synthase/p23 (PGES/p23) were assessed. MeHg exposure decreased Hsp90 protein expression following 12 h of treatment while shorter exposures had no effect on Hsp90 protein expression. Interestingly, following 1 or 6 h of MeHg exposure, Hsp90 binding to PGES/p23 or nNOS was significantly increased, resulting in increased prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) synthesis from MeHg-treated astrocytes. These effects were attenuated by the Hsp90 antagonist, geldanmycin. NOS activity was increased following MeHg treatment while cGMP formation was decreased. This was accompanied by an increase in •O₂⁻ and H₂O₂ levels, suggesting that MeHg uncouples NO formation from NO-dependent signaling and increases oxidative stress. Altogether, our data demonstrates that Hsp90 interactions with client proteins are increased following MeHg exposure, but over time Hsp90 levels decline, contributing to oxidative stress and MeHg-dependent excitotoxicity.

Methionine stimulates motor impairment and cerebellar mercury deposition in methylmercury-exposed mice

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a highly toxic environmental contaminant that produces neurological and developmental impairments in animals and humans. Although its neurotoxic properties have been widely reported, the molecular mechanisms by which MeHg enters the cells and exerts toxicity are not yet completely understood. Taking into account that MeHg is found mostly bound to sulfhydryl-containing molecules such as cysteine in the environment and based on the fact that the MeHg-cysteine complex (MeHg-S-Cys) can be transported via the L-type neutral amino acid carrier transport (LAT) system, the potential beneficial effects of L-methionine (L-Met, a well known LAT substrate) against MeHg (administrated as MeHg-S-Cys)-induced neurotoxicity in mice were investigated. Mice were exposed to MeHg (daily subcutaneous injections of MeHg-S-Cys, 10 mg Hg/kg) and/or L-Met (daily intraperitoneal injections, 250 mg/kg) for 10 consecutive days. After treatments, the measured hallmarks of toxicity were mostly based on behavioral parameters related to motor performance, as well as biochemical parameters related to the cerebellar antioxidant glutathione (GSH) system. MeHg significantly decreased motor activity (open-field test) and impaired motor performance (rota-rod task) compared with controls, as well as producing disturbances in the cerebellar antioxidant GSH system. Interestingly, L-Met administration did not protect against MeHg-induced behavioral and cerebellar changes, but rather increased motor impairments in animals exposed to MeHg. In agreement with this observation, cerebellar levels of mercury (Hg) were higher in animals exposed to MeHg plus L-Met compared to those only exposed to MeHg. However, this event was not observed in kidney and liver. These results are the first to demonstrate that L-Met enhances cerebellar deposition of Hg in mice exposed to MeHg and that this higher deposition may be responsible for the greater motor impairment observed in mice simultaneously exposed to MeHg and L-Met.

Cloning and functional analysis of glutathione peroxidase gene in red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii

Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) are key enzymes in the antioxidant defense systems of living organisms, including crustaceans. The red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii is the most commonly farmed freshwater crayfish in Chinese inland nowadays due to its commercial value. However, high stocking density has resulted in adverse effects in growth performance and health. To investigate the function of GPxs in immune defense of the crayfish, we cloned and characterized a full length GPx (PcGPx) from P. clarkii by a reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The 931 bp PcGPx cDNA contains a 38 bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), a 519 bp coding sequence (CDS) and a 375 bp 3'-UTR with a selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS). The PcGPx was predicted to encode 172 amino acids, and its putative molecular mass was 20.9 kDa with a pI of 4.37. A selenocysteine (Sec) encoded by the unusual stop codon, TGA, was in the protein coding region. Phylogenetic analysis showed that PcGPx clustered with the GPxs from the penaeid shrimp Metapenaeus ensis and Caenorhabditis elegans, sharing much higher similarity with vertebrate GPx1 and GPx2 than with GPx3 and GPx5. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that PcGPx was extremely highly expressed in ovary and early embryos. In addition, the levels of PcGPx mRNA and reactive oxygen species (ROS) significantly increased after challenge with gram-negative Vibrio harveyi, gram-positive Staphyloccocus aureus or white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). These results suggest that PcGPx may play important roles not only in immune defense, but also in oogenesis in the crayfish.

Apocynin prevents vascular effects caused by chronic exposure to low concentrations of mercury

Mercury increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and oxidative stress and alters vascular reactivity. This metal elicits endothelial dysfunction causing decreased NO bioavailability via increased oxidative stress and contractile prostanoid production. NADPH oxidase is the major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the vasculature. Our aim was to investigate whether treatment with apocynin, an NADPH oxidase inhibitor, prevents the vascular effects caused by chronic intoxication with low concentrations of mercury. Three-month-old male Wistar rats were treated for 30 days with a) intramuscular injections (i.m.) of saline; b) HgCl₂ (i.m. 1^st dose: 4.6 µg/kg, subsequent doses: 0.07 µg/kg/day); c) Apocynin (1.5 mM in drinking water plus saline i.m.); and d) Apocynin plus HgCl₂. The mercury treatment resulted in 1) an increased aortic vasoconstrictor response to phenylephrine and reduced endothelium-dependent responses to acetylcholine; 2) the increased involvement of ROS and vasoconstrictor prostanoids in response to phenylephrine, whereas the endothelial NO modulation of such responses was reduced; and 3) the reduced activity of aortic superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and increased plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Treatment with apocynin partially prevented the increased phenylephrine responses and reduced the endothelial dysfunction elicited by mercury treatment. In addition, apocynin treatment increased the NO modulation of vasoconstrictor responses and aortic SOD activity and reduced plasma MDA levels without affecting the increased participation of vasoconstrictor prostanoids observed in aortic segments from mercury-treated rats. Conclusions: Mercury increases the vasoconstrictor response to phenylephrine by reducing NO bioavailability and increasing the involvement of ROS and constrictor prostanoids. Apocynin protects the vessel from the deleterious effects caused by NADPH oxidase, but not from those caused by prostanoids, thus demonstrating a two-way action.

Metals, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: a focus on iron, manganese and mercury

Essential metals are crucial for the maintenance of cell homeostasis. Among the 23 elements that have known physiological functions in humans, 12 are metals, including iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Nevertheless, excessive exposure to these metals may lead to pathological conditions, including neurodegeneration. Similarly, exposure to metals that do not have known biological functions, such as mercury (Hg), also present great health concerns. This review focuses on the neurodegenerative mechanisms and effects of Fe, Mn and Hg. Oxidative stress (OS), particularly in mitochondria, is a common feature of Fe, Mn and Hg toxicity. However, the primary molecular targets triggering OS are distinct. Free cationic iron is a potent pro-oxidant and can initiate a set of reactions that form extremely reactive products, such as OH. Mn can oxidize dopamine (DA), generating reactive species and also affect mitochondrial function, leading to accumulation of metabolites and culminating with OS. Cationic Hg forms have strong affinity for nucleophiles, such as -SH and -SeH. Therefore, they target critical thiol- and selenol-molecules with antioxidant properties. Finally, we address the main sources of exposure to these metals, their transport mechanisms into the brain, and therapeutic modalities to mitigate their neurotoxic effects.