Ubiquitous plasticizer, Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate enhances existing inflammatory profile in monocytes of children with autism

The concentrations and behavior of classic phthalates and emerging phthalate alternatives in different environmental matrices and their biological health risks

Because of their excellent plasticity, phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are widely used in plastic products. However, due to the recognized toxicity of PAEs and legislative requirements, the production and use of emerging PAE alternatives have rapidly grown, such as di-isononyl cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) which are the primary replacements for classic PAEs. Nowadays, PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives are frequently found in a variety of environmental media, including the atmosphere, sludge, rivers, and seawater/sediment. PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives are involved in endocrine-disrupting effects, and they affect the reproductive physiology of different species of fish and mammals. Therefore, their presence in the environment is of considerable concern due to their potential effects on ecosystem function and public health. Nevertheless, current research on the prevalence, destiny, and conduct of PAEs in the environment has primarily focused on classic PAEs, with little attention given to emerging PAE alternatives. The present article furnishes a synopsis of the physicochemical characteristics, occurrence, transport, fate, and adverse effects of both classic PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives on organisms in the ecosystem. Our analysis reveals that both classic PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives are widely distributed in all environmental media, with emerging PAE alternatives increasingly replacing classic PAEs. Various pathways can transform and degrade both classic PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives, and their own and related metabolites can have toxic effects on organisms. This research offers a more extensive comprehension of the health hazards associated with classic PAEs and emerging PAE alternatives.

Maternal exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate impaired the social interaction via activating microglia in male pups

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a common endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), is widely used in daily articles, early exposure to DEHP is associated with many behavioral changes in pups. This study aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of maternal exposure to DEHP on the impaired social interaction in pups. Pregnant rats were administered 0, 30, 300, or 750 mg/kg/d DEHP daily by oral gavage. Highly aggressive proliferating immortalized (HAPI) cells were treated with mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and tyrosine phosphorylation inhibitor (AG490). Our results showed that DEHP exposure induced the activation of microglias (MGs) via activating the janus kinase 2 / signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (JAK2/STAT3) signaling pathway, and increased the level of pro-inflammatory factors, then impaired the social behavior in male pups, but not female pups. Moreover, MEHP exposure could also activate HAPI via activating this signaling pathway, and AG490 could inhibit the activation of this signaling pathway caused by MEHP. Therefore, we indicated that maternal exposure to DEHP could cause the gender-specific impaired social interaction in pups that might be related to the activation of MGs.

Worsening of imiquimod-induced psoriasiform inflammation in mice by environmental pollutant, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate through dysregulation in IL-17A and Nrf2/iNOS signaling in peripheral myeloid and CD4 + T cells

Psoriasis is a devastating autoimmune illness resulting from excessive keratinocyte growth and leukocyte infiltration into the dermis/epidermis. In the pathogenesis of psoriasis, different immune cells such as myeloid cells and CD4 + T cells play a key role. Th17/Th1 immune responses and oxidant-antioxidant responses are critical in regulation of psoriatic inflammation. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is one of the well-known plasticizers and has widespread use worldwide. DEHP exposure through ingestion may produce harmful effects on the skin through systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, which may modify psoriatic inflammation. However, the effect of oral DEHP exposure on inflammatory cytokines and Nrf2/iNOS signaling in myeloid cells and CD4 + T cells in the context of psoriatic inflammation has not been investigated earlier. Therefore, this study explored the effect of DEHP on systemic inflammation in myeloid cells (IL-6, IL-17A, IL-23), Th17 (p-STAT3, IL-17A, IL-23R, TNF-α), Th1 (IFN-γ), Treg (Foxp3, IL-10), and Nrf2/iNOS signaling in imiquimod (IMQ)-induced mouse model of psoriasis-like inflammation. Our study showed increased Th17 signaling in imiquimod model which was further aggravated by DEHP exposure. Further, Nrf2 and iNOS signaling were also elevated in IMQ model where DEHP exposure further increased iNOS expression but did not modify the Nrf2 expression. Most importantly, IL-17A levels were also elevated in myeloid cells along with IL-6 which were further elevated by DEHP exposure. Overall, this study shows that IL-17A signaling is upregulated, whereas there is deficiency of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling by DEHP exposure in mice with psoriasiform inflammation. These observations suggest that DEHP aggravates IL-17A-mediated signaling both in CD4 + T cells as well as myeloid cells which is linked to exacerbation of IMQ-induced psoriatic inflammation in mice. Strategies that counteract the effect of DEHP exposure in the context of psoriatic inflammation through downregulation of IL-17A may be fruitful.

Associations of Urinary Phthalate Metabolites with Thyroid Function and the Mediated Role of Cytokines: A Panel Study of Healthy Children

Evidence on joint association of a phthalate mixture with thyroid function among children and its underlying mechanism is largely unknown. We aimed to explore the associations of 10 urinary phthalate metabolites (mPAEs), either as individuals or as a mixture, with thyroid function indicators [free thyroxine, free triiodothyronine (FT3), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)] in 144 children aged 4-12 years with up to 3 repeated visits across 3 seasons. Significant and positive associations were observed for mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), mono-iso-butyl phthalate (MiBP), and mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) with TSH, as well as monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) with FT3 in dose-response manners. The relationship between MEHP and TSH remained robust in multiple-phthalate models. Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models revealed overall linear associations of the 10 mPAE mixture with higher TSH and FT3 levels, and MEHP and MBzP were major contributors. Meanwhile, MEHP, MiBP, and MnBP were linked to the elevation of multiple cytokines including CCL 27, CCL3, CXCL1, and IL-16. Among them, IL-16 mediated the relationships of MEHP and MiBP with TSH, and the mediated proportions were 24.16% and 24.27%, respectively. Our findings suggested that mPAEs dominated by MEHP were dose-responsively associated with elevated TSH among healthy children and mediated by IL-16.

Subchronic exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) elicits blood-brain barrier dysfunction and neuroinflammation in male C57BL/6J mice

BACKGROUND

Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) can cause neurotoxicity but the mechanism is not clear. Blood brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most important tissues to protect the brain. However, whether DEHP can disrupt the BBB or not remains unclear. The objective of this study is to investigate the potential effects of subchronic DEHP exposure on BBB integrity and discuss the role of BBB in DEHP inducible neurotoxicity with an emphasis on neuroinflammatory responses. Male adult C57BL/6J mice were orally administered with vehicle or 200 or 750 mg/kg/day DEHP for 90 days. Subchronic exposure to high-dose DEHP increased water intake but decreased body weight and brain weight. The concentrations of DEHP metabolites increased in serum from all DEHP-exposed groups while increased in brain only from the high-dose group. DEHP induced neurobehavioural alterations and damaged hippocampal neurons. DEHP increased BBB permeability by Evans blue (EB) extravasation and decreased tight junction proteins (ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5) while presenting a neuroinflammatory feature characterized by the upregulated inflammatory mediators TNF-α and the NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1β inflammasome pathway. Our data provide new insights into neurotoxicity caused by subchronic DEHP exposure, which is probably involved in BBB dysfunction and neuroinflammatory responses.

Green Tea Polyphenols Alleviate Kidney Injury Induced by Di(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate in Mice

INTRODUCTION

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common plasticizer. Studies have revealed that DEHP exposure can cause kidney damage. Green tea is among the most popular beverages in China. Green tea polyphenols (GTPs) have been proven to have therapeutic effects on organ damage induced by heavy metal exposure. However, few studies have reported on GTP-relieving DEHP-induced kidney damage.

METHODS

C57BL/6J male mice aged 6-8 weeks were treated with distilled water (control group), 1,500 mg/kg/d DEHP + corn oil (model group), 1,500 mg/kg/d DEHP + corn oil + 70 mg/kg GTP (treatment group), corn oil (oil group), and 70 mg/kg GTP (GTP group) by gavage for 8 weeks, respectively. The renal function of mice and renal tissue histopathology of each group were evaluated. The renal tissues of mice in the model, treatment, and control groups were analyzed using high-throughput sequencing. We calculated the differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) using the limma R package, the CIBERSORT algorithm was used to predict immune infiltration, the starBase database was used to screen the miRNA-mRNA regulatory axis, and immunohistochemical analyses were performed to verify protein expression.

RESULTS

GTP alleviated the deterioration of renal function, renal inflammation and fibrosis, and mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum lesions induced by DEHP in mice. Differential immune infiltrations of plasma, dendritic, T, and B cells were noted between the model and treatment groups. We found that three differentially expressed miRNAs (mmu-miR-383-5p, mmu-miR-152-3p, and mmu-miR-144-3p), three differentially expressed mRNAs (Ddit4, Dusp1, and Snx18), and three differentially expressed proteins (Ddit4, Dusp1, and Snx18) played crucial roles in the miRNA-mRNA-protein regulatory axes when GTPs mitigate DEHP-induced kidney damage in mice.

CONCLUSION

GTP can alleviate DEHP-induced kidney damage and regulate immune cell infiltration. We screened four important miRNA-mRNA-protein regulatory axes of GTP, mitigating DEHP-induced kidney damage in mice.

Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) - Gene, molecular and pathway signatures linking systemic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, transsynaptic signalling, and neurodevelopment

Background

Despite advances in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research and the vast genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data available, there are still controversies regarding the pathways and molecular signatures underlying the neurodevelopmental disorders leading to ASD.

Purpose

To delineate these underpinning signatures, we examined the two largest gene expression meta-analysis datasets obtained from the brain and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 1355 ASD patients and 1110 controls.

Methods

We performed network, enrichment, and annotation analyses using the differentially expressed genes, transcripts, and proteins identified in ASD patients.

Results

Transcription factor network analyses in up- and down-regulated genes in brain tissue and PBMCs in ASD showed eight main transcription factors, namely: BCL3, CEBPB, IRF1, IRF8, KAT2A, NELFE, RELA, and TRIM28. The upregulated gene networks in PBMCs of ASD patients are strongly associated with activated immune-inflammatory pathways, including interferon-α signaling, and cellular responses to DNA repair. Enrichment analyses of the upregulated CNS gene networks indicate involvement of immune-inflammatory pathways, cytokine production, Toll-Like Receptor signalling, with a major involvement of the PI3K-Akt pathway. Analyses of the downregulated CNS genes suggest electron transport chain dysfunctions at multiple levels. Network topological analyses revealed that the consequent aberrations in axonogenesis, neurogenesis, synaptic transmission, and regulation of transsynaptic signalling affect neurodevelopment with subsequent impairments in social behaviours and neurocognition. The results suggest a defense response against viral infection.

Conclusions

Peripheral activation of immune-inflammatory pathways, most likely induced by viral infections, may result in CNS neuroinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to abnormalities in transsynaptic transmission, and brain neurodevelopment.

Prenatal phthalate exposure and cord blood DNA methylation

Exposure to phthalates has been shown to impede the human endocrine system, resulting in deleterious effects on pregnant women and their children. Phthalates modify DNA methylation patterns in infant cord blood. We examined the association between prenatal phthalate exposure and DNA methylation patterns in cord blood in a Korean birth cohort. Phthalate levels were measured in 274 maternal urine samples obtained during late pregnancy and 102 neonatal urine samples obtained at birth, and DNA methylation levels were measured in cord blood samples. For each infant in the cohort, associations between CpG methylation and both maternal and neonate phthalate levels were analyzed using linear mixed models. The results were combined with those from a meta-analysis of the levels of phthalates in maternal and neonatal urine samples, which were also analyzed for MEOHP, MEHHP, MnBP, and DEHP. This meta-analysis revealed significant associations between the methylation levels of CpG sites near the CHN2 and CUL3 genes, which were also associated with MEOHP and MnBP in neonatal urine. When the data were stratified by the sex of the infant, MnBP concentration was found to be associated with one CpG site near the OR2A2 and MEGF11 genes in female infants. In contrast, the concentrations of the three maternal phthalates showed no significant association with CpG site methylation. Furthermore, the data identified distinct differentially methylated regions in maternal and neonatal urine samples following exposure to phthalates. The CpGs with methylation levels that were positively associated with phthalate levels (particularly MEOHP and MnBP) were found to be enriched genes and related pathways. These results indicate that prenatal phthalate exposure is significantly associated with DNA methylation at multiple CpG sites. These alterations in DNA methylation may serve as biomarkers of maternal exposure to phthalates in infants and are potential candidates for investigating the mechanisms by which phthalates impact maternal and neonatal health.

Environmental endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A induces metabolic derailment and obesity via upregulating IL-17A in adipocytes

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptor, has been extensively demonstrated to be associated with metabolic disorders, including obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, the underlying mechanism underpinning the environmental etiology of chronic metabolic disorders has not been sufficiently elucidated.

OBJECTIVES

This study is designed to explore the toxicological pathogenesis of chronic inflammation in BPA exposure during obesity.

METHODS

We investigated the role of IL-17A in the association of BPA exposure and obesity from human cross-sectional study to animal models, including genetically modified IL-17A^-/- mice.

RESULTS

Here, our work started from case-control observation that BPA exposure was significantly associated with risk of obesity (odds ratio = 4.72, 95%CI: 3.18 - 11.18, P < 0.01), metabolic disorder and levels of interleukin-17A (IL-17A) in human adipose (estimated changes β = 0.46, 95%CI: 0.15 - 1.01, P < 0.01) with bariatric surgery. Animal model fed with high-fat diet (HFD) confirmed that BPA exposure aggravated body weight gain and insulin resistance, concurrent with much heightened inflammatory responses in the adipose tissue including increase in IL-17A and macrophage polarization towards M1 stage. Genetically modified IL-17A ablated mice (IL-17A^-/-) showed reversed adipose tissue inflammation response, improved macrophage polarization homeostasis, along with insulin sensitivity in both HFD group alone or much more significantly the HFD + BPA group. Moreover, mediation analysis in human epidemiological investigation demonstrated that plasma IL-17A attributed up to 30.01% mediating role in the associations between BPA exposure and obesity risk.

DISCUSSION

This research paradigm from human to animal provides strong evidence for the elucidation of IL-17A moderating inflammation and insulin resistance in obesity. Such findings reiterate the obesogenic role of environmental endocrine disruptor BPA in metabolic disorders and unveils the potential toxicological mechanisms underpinning such effect.

Heme-oxygenase-1 as a target for phthalate-induced cardiomyocytes ferroptosis

Phthalates as a large group of environmental pollutants are used primarily as plasticizers and solvents, which have become a growing problem worldwide. Epidemiological results show that severity of heart disease is related to degree of environmental contamination. As the most usually used phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has toxic effects on organism health and is also a major cause of heart damage. Ingestion of food, liquid, or dust contaminated with DEHP are major routes of exposure. The purpose of the present research was to determine the mechanism of cardiotoxicity in mice after exposure to DEHP. Here, male mice were treated by gavage with three different doses of (50, 200 and 500 mg/kg b.w.) DEHP for 28 days. Our research showed that DEHP brought about histopathological changes involving cardiomyocyte lysis and rupture, and ultrastructural damage such as dissolution and loss of mitochondrial cristae. Furthermore, DEHP induced oxidative stress and a significant decline in the antioxidant function, which activates nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme-oxygense-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways. Interestingly, DEHP resulted in lipid peroxidation and increased ferrous ion content, suggesting that ferroptosis occurred in mouse hearts. Therefore, our findings demonstrated that DEHP could induce cardiac ferroptosis via upregulation of HO-1. The present study provides novel evidence of HO-1 as a target for DEHP-induced cardiotoxicity.

An insight into sex-specific neurotoxicity and molecular mechanisms of DEHP: A critical review

Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) is often used as an additive in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to give plastics flexibility, which makes DEHP widely used in food packaging, daily necessities, medical equipment, and other products. However, due to the unstable combination of DEHP and polymer, it will migrate to the environment in the materials and eventually contact the human body. It has been recorded that low-dose DEHP will increase neurotoxicity in the nervous system, and the human health effects of DEHP have been paid attention to because of the extensive exposure to DEHP and its high absorption during brain development. In this study, we review the evidence that DEHP exposure is associated with neurodevelopmental abnormalities and neurological diseases based on human epidemiological and animal behavioral studies. Besides, we also summarized the oxidative damage, apoptosis, and signal transduction disorder related to neurobehavioral abnormalities and nerve injury, and described the potential mechanisms of neurotoxicity caused by DEHP. Overall, we found exposure to DEHP during the critical developmental period will increase the risk of neurobehavioral abnormalities, depression, and autism spectrum disorders. This effect is sex-specific and will continue to adulthood and even have an intergenerational effect. However, the research results on the sex-dependence of DEHP neurotoxicity are inconsistent, and there is a lack of systematic mechanisms research as theoretical support. Future investigations need to be carried out in a large-scale population and model organisms to produce more consistent and convincing results. And we emphasize the importance of mechanism research, which can enhance the understanding of the environmental and human health risks of DEHP exposure.

Systemic maternal inflammation promotes ASD via IL-6 and IFN-γ

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder that manifests during early development, impacting individuals through their ways of communicating, social behaviors, and their ability to perform day-to-day activities. There have been different proposed mechanisms on how ASD precipitates within a patient, one of which being the impact cytokines have on fetal development once a mother's immune system has been activated (referred to as maternal immune activation, MIA). The occurrence of ASD has long been associated with elevated levels of several cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). These proinflammatory cytokines can achieve high systemic levels in response to immune activating pathogens from various extrinsic sources. Transfer of cytokines such as IL-6 across the placental barrier allows accumulation in the fetus, potentially inducing neuroinflammation and consequently altering neurodevelopmental processes. Individuals who have been later diagnosed with ASD have been observed to have elevated levels of IL-6 and other proinflammatory cytokines during gestation. Moreover, the outcome of MIA has been associated with neurological effects such as impaired social interaction and an increase in repetitive behavior in animal models, supporting a mechanistic link between gestational inflammation and development of ASD-like characteristics. The present review attempts to provide a concise overview of the available preclinical and clinical data that suggest cross-talk between IL-6 and IFN-γ through both extrinsic and intrinsic factors as a central mechanism of MIA that may promote the development of ASD.

HDAC inhibitor Vorinostat and BET inhibitor Plx51107 epigenetic agents' combined treatments exert a therapeutic approach upon acute myeloid leukemia cell model

The process of cancer initiation and development is regulated via the transcriptional expression of cells going under genomic and epigenetic changes. Targeting epigenetic "readers", i.e., bromodomains (BRD) and post-translational modifications of nucleosomal histone proteins regulate gene expression in both cancerous and healthy cells. In this study, the new epigenetic agent BRD inhibitor PLX51107 and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor SAHA' s (Vorinostat) single/combined applications' reflections were analyzed in case of cell proliferation, cytotoxicity, apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and finally target gene expression regulation upon both AML and healthy B-lymphocyte cells; HL60 and NCIBL2171, respectively; in vitro. Since mono treatments of either Vorinostat or Plx51107 regulated cellular responses such as growth, proliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest of tumor cells; their combination treatments exerted accelerated results. We detected that combined treatment of Plx51107 and Vorinostat strengthened effects detected upon leukemic cells for gaining more sensitization to the agents, decreasing cell proliferation, dramatically inducing apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest; thus regulating target gene expressions. We have shown for the first time that the newly analyzed BRD inhibitor Plx51107 could be a promising therapeutic approach for hematological malignancies and its mono or combined usage might support a rapid transition to clinical trials.

Role of the DUB enzyme USP7 in dendritic arborization, neuronal migration, and autistic-like behaviors in mice

Duplication and haploinsufficiency of the USP7 gene are implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but the role for USP7 in neurodevelopment and contribution to ASD pathogenesis remain unknown. We find that in primary neurons, overexpression of USP7 increases dendritic branch number and total dendritic length, whereas knockdown leads to opposite alterations. Besides, USP7 deubiquitinates the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP). The USP7-induced increase in XIAP suppresses caspase 3 activity, leading to a reduction in tubulin cleavage and suppression of dendritic pruning. When USP7 is introduced into the brains of prenatal mice via in utero electroporation (IUE), it results in abnormal migration of newborn neurons and increased dendritic arborization. Importantly, intraventricular brain injection of AAV-USP7 in P0 mice leads to autistic-like phenotypes including aberrant social interactions, repetitive behaviors, as well as changes in somatosensory sensitivity. These findings provide new insights in USP7-related neurobiological functions and its implication in ASD.

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Overexpression of USP7 increases dendritic arborization

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USP7 targets XIAP for deubiquitination and regulates XIAP proteostasis in neurons

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USP7 regulates dendritic remodeling via the XIAP-caspase 3-tubulin pathway

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Prenatal overexpression of USP7 in mice leads to autistic-like behaviors

Associating diethylhexyl phthalate to gestational diabetes mellitus via adverse outcome pathways using a network-based approach

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common pregnancy complication that is harmful to both the woman and fetus. Several epidemiological studies have found that exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), an endocrine disruptor ubiquitous in the environment, may be associated with GDM. This study aims to investigate the mechanism between DEHP and GDM using the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework, which can integrate information from different sources to elucidate the causal pathways between chemicals and adverse outcomes. We applied a network-based workflow to integrate diverse information to generate computational AOPs and accelerate the AOP development. The interactions among DEHP, genes, phenotypes, and GDM were retrieved from several publicly available databases, including the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), Computational Toxicology (CompTox) Chemicals Dashboard, DisGeNET, MalaCards, Gene Ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Based on the above interactions, a DEHP-Gene-Phenotype-GDM network consisting of 52 nodes and 227 edges was formed to support AOP construction. The filtered genes and phenotypes were assembled as molecular initiating events (MIEs) and key events (KEs) according to the upstream and downstream relationships, generating a computational AOP (cAOP) network. Based on the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development handbook of AOPs, a cAOP was assessed and applied to determine the effects of DEHP on GDM. DEHP could increase TNF-α, downregulate the glucose uptake process, and lead to GDM. Overall, this study revealed the utility of computational methods in integrating a variety of datasets, supporting AOP development, and facilitating a better understanding of the underlying mechanism of exposure to chemicals on human health.

Role of JAK-STAT and PPAR-Gamma Signalling Modulators in the Prevention of Autism and Neurological Dysfunctions

The Janus-kinase (JAK) and signal transducer activator of transcription (STAT) signalling pathways regulate gene expression and control various factors involved in normal physiological functions such as cell proliferation, neuronal development, and cell survival. JAK activation phosphorylates STAT3 in astrocytes and microglia, and this phosphorylation has been linked to mitochondrial damage, apoptosis, neuroinflammation, reactive astrogliosis, and genetic mutations. As a regulator, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma), in relation to JAK-STAT signalling, prevents this phosphorylation and aids in the treatment of the above-mentioned neurocomplications. Changes in cellular signalling may also contribute to the onset and progression of autism. Thus, PPAR-gamma agonist upregulation may be associated with JAK-STAT signal transduction downregulation. It may also be responsible for attenuating neuropathological changes by stimulating SOCS3 or involving RXR or SMRT, thereby reducing transcription of the various cytokine proteins and genes involved in neuronal damage. Along with JAK-STAT inhibitors, PPAR-gamma agonists could be used as target therapeutic interventions for autism. This research-based review explores the potential involvement and mutual regulation of JAK-STAT and PPAR-gamma signalling in controlling multiple pathological factors associated with autism.

Prenatal Exposures to Common Phthalates and Prevalent Phthalate Alternatives and Infant DNA Methylation at Birth

Phthalates are a diverse group of chemicals used in consumer products. Because they are so widespread, exposure to these compounds is nearly unavoidable. Recently, growing scientific consensus has suggested that phthalates produce health effects in developing infants and children. These effects may be mediated through mechanisms related to the epigenome, the constellation of mitotically heritable chemical marks and small compounds that guide transcription and translation. The present study examined the relationship between prenatal, first-trimester exposure of seven phthalates and epigenetics in two pregnancy cohorts (n = 262) to investigate sex-specific alterations in infant blood DNA methylation at birth (cord blood or neonatal blood spots). Prenatal exposure to several phthalates was suggestive of association with altered DNA methylation at 4 loci in males (all related to ΣDEHP) and 4 loci in females (1 related to ΣDiNP; 2 related to BBzP; and 1 related to MCPP) at a cutoff of q < 0.2. Additionally, a subset of dyads (n = 79) was used to interrogate the relationships between two compounds increasingly used as substitutions for common phthalates (ΣDINCH and ΣDEHTP) and cord blood DNA methylation. ΣDINCH, but not ΣDEHTP, was suggestive of association with DNA methylation (q < 0.2). Together, these results demonstrate that prenatal exposure to both classically used phthalate metabolites and their newer alternatives is associated with sex-specific infant DNA methylation. Research and regulatory actions regarding this chemical class should consider the developmental health effects of these compounds and aim to avoid regrettable substitution scenarios in the present and future.

Effects of Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate on Central Nervous System Functions: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Phthalates are widely used in the plastics industry. Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) is one of the most important phthalate metabolites that disrupt the function of endocrine glands. Exposure to DEHP causes numerous effects on animals, humans, and the environment. Low doses of DEHP increase neurotoxicity in the nervous system that has arisen deep concerns due to the widespread nature of DEHP exposure and its high absorption during brain development.

OBJECTIVE

In this review article, we evaluated the impacts of DEHP exposure from birth to adulthood on neurobehavioral damages. Then, the possible mechanisms of DEHP-induced neurobehavioral impairment were discussed.

METHODOLOGY

Peer-reviewed articles were extracted through Embase, PubMed, and Google Scholar till the year 2021.

RESULTS

The results showed that exposure to DEHP during pregnancy and infancy leads to memory loss and irreversible nervous system damage.

CONCLUSION

Overall, it seems that increased levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators possess a pivotal role in DEHP-induced neurobehavioral impairment.

Prenatal exposure to di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate causes autism-like behavior through inducing Nischarin expression in the mouse offspring

Epidemiologic evidence has suggested a relationship between di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) prenatal exposure and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but the underlying mechanisms are still at large unknown. In this study, pregnant mice were intragastrically administered with DEHP once a day from GD 3 to GD 17 and the neurobehavioral changes of offspring were evaluated. In addition to the repetitive stereotyped behaviors, DEHP at the concentration of 50 mg/kg/day and above significantly impaired the sociability of the offspring (P < 0.05) and decreased the density of dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex (P < 0.05). At the same time, the expression of Nischarin protein in prefrontal lobe increased (P < 0.05). Similarly, after 12-h incubation of DEHP at the concentration of 100 nM, the total spine density, especially the mushroom and stubby spine populations, significantly decreased in the primary cultured prefrontal cortical neurons (P < 0.05). However, the inhibitory effect of DEHP were reversed by knockdown of Nischarin expression. Collectively, these results suggest that prenatal DEHP exposure induces Nischarin expression, causes dendritic spine loss, and finally leads to autism-like behavior in mouse offspring.

Imbalance in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines milieu in B cells of children with autism

B cells play multiple roles in preservation of healthy immune system including management of immune responses by expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Several earlier studies have documented that B cells express both pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10. However, it is yet to be examined whether these pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines are expressed in B cells of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Pathophysiology of ASD begins in early childhood and is characterized by repetitive/restricted behavioral patterns, and dysfunction in communal/communication skills. ASD pathophysiology also has a strong component of immune dysfunction which has been highlighted in numerous earlier publications. In this study, we specifically explored pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-17A, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10) in B cells of ASD subjects and compared them typically developing control (TDC) children. Present study shows that inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α are elevated in B cells of ASD subjects, while anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10 is decreased in ASD group when compared to TDC group. Further, TLR4 activation by its ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) further upregulates inflammatory potential of B cells from ASD group by increasing IL-6 expression, whereas LPS has no significant effect on IL-10 expression in ASD group. Furthermore, LPS-induced inflammatory signaling of IL-6 in B cells of ASD subjects was partially mitigated by the pretreatment with NF-kB inhibitor. Present study propounds the idea that B cells could be crucial players in causing immune dysfunction in ASD subjects through an imbalance in expression of pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines.

Perinatal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and neurodevelopment: How articles of daily use influence the development of our children

Substances that interfere with the body's hormonal balance or their function are called endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Many EDCs are ubiquitous in the environment and are an unavoidable aspect of daily life, including during early embryogenesis. Developmental exposure to these chemicals is of critical relevance, as EDCs can permanently alter developmental programs, including those that pattern and wire the brain. Of emerging interest is how these chemicals may also affect the immune response, given the cross-talk between the endocrine and immune systems. As brain development is strongly dependent on hormones including thyroid, androgens, and estrogens, and can also be affected by immunomodulation, this complicated interplay may have long-lasting neurodevelopmental consequences. This review focuses on data available from human cohorts, in vivo models, and in vitro assays regarding the impact of EDCs after a gestational and/or lactational exposure, and how they may impact the immune system and/or neurodevelopment.