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Yang J, Sun W, Sun M, Cui Y, Wang L. Current Research Status of Azaspiracids. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:79. [PMID: 38393050 PMCID: PMC10890026 DOI: 10.3390/md22020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence and impact of toxins have been detected in various regions worldwide ever since the discovery of azaspiracids (AZAs) in 1995. These toxins have had detrimental effects on marine resource utilization, marine environmental protection, and fishery production. Over the course of more than two decades of research and development, scientists from all over the world have conducted comprehensive studies on the in vivo metabolism, in vitro synthesis methods, pathogenic mechanisms, and toxicology of these toxins. This paper aims to provide a systematic introduction to the discovery, distribution, pathogenic mechanism, in vivo biosynthesis, and in vitro artificial synthesis of AZA toxins. Additionally, it will summarize various detection methods employed over the past 20 years, along with their advantages and disadvantages. This effort will contribute to the future development of rapid detection technologies and the invention of detection devices for AZAs in marine environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lianghua Wang
- Basic Medical College, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (J.Y.); (W.S.); (M.S.); (Y.C.)
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Wang G, Qiu J, Li A, Ji Y, Zhang J. Apoptosis and oxidative stress of mouse breast carcinoma 4T1 and human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell lines caused by the phycotoxin gymnodimine-A. Chem Biol Interact 2023; 384:110727. [PMID: 37739050 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2023.110727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Gymnodimine-A (GYM-A) is a cyclic imine phycotoxin produced by some marine dinoflagellates. It can cause rapid death of mice via intraperitoneal administration and frequently accumulate in shellfish potentially threatening human health. In this study, four different cell lines were exposed to GYM-A for the viability assessment. Results showed that GYM-A was cytotoxic with concentration-dependent pattern to each cell type, with mean IC50 values ranging from 1.39 to 2.79 μmol L-1. Results suggested that the loss of cell viability of 4T1 and Caco-2 cells was attributed to apoptosis. Furthermore, the collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential and caspases activation were observed in the GYM-A-treated cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxides (LPO) levels were markedly increased in 4T1 and Caco-2 cells exposed to GYM-A at 2 μmol L-1, and the oxidative stress in 4T1 cells was more obvious than that in Caco-2 cells. Additionally, unusual ultrastructure impairment on mitochondria and mitophagosomes occurred in the GYM-A-treated cells. These results suggested that an ROS-mediated mitochondrial pathway for apoptosis and mitophagy was implicated in the cytotoxic effects induced by GYM-A. This is the first report to explore the cytotoxic mechanisms of GYM-A through apoptosis and oxidative stress, and it will provide theoretical foundations for the potential therapeutic applications of GYM-A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guixiang Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, China.
| | - Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jingrui Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
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Tebben J, Zurhelle C, Tubaro A, Samdal IA, Krock B, Kilcoyne J, Sosa S, Trainer VL, Deeds JR, Tillmann U. Structure and toxicity of AZA-59, an azaspiracid shellfish poisoning toxin produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 124:102388. [PMID: 37164556 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
To date, the putative shellfish toxin azaspiracid 59 (AZA-59) produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) has been the only AZA found in isolates from the Pacific Northwest coast of the USA (Northeast Pacific Ocean). Anecdotal reports of sporadic diarrhetic shellfish poisoning-like illness, with the absence of DSP toxin or Vibrio contamination, led to efforts to look for other potential toxins, such as AZAs, in water and shellfish from the region. A. poporum was found in Puget Sound and the outer coast of Washington State, USA, and a novel AZA (putative AZA-59) was detected in low quantities in SPATT resins and shellfish. Here, an A. poporum strain from Puget Sound was mass-cultured and AZA-59 was subsequently purified and structurally characterized. In vitro cytotoxicity of AZA-59 towards Jurkat T lymphocytes and acute intraperitoneal toxicity in mice in comparison to AZA-1 allowed the derivation of a provisional toxicity equivalency factor of 0.8 for AZA-59. Quantification of AZA-59 using ELISA and LC-MS/MS yielded reasonable quantitative results when AZA-1 was used as an external reference standard. This study assesses the toxic potency of AZA-59 and will inform guidelines for its potential monitoring in case of increasing toxin levels in edible shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
| | - Christian Zurhelle
- University of Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Chemistry, Leobener Straße 6, Bremen, 28359, Germany
| | - Aurelia Tubaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | | | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Silvio Sosa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Olympic Natural Resources Center, University of Washington, 1455 S. Forks Ave, Forks, WA 98331, United States
| | - Jonathan R Deeds
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland, 20740, United States of America
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
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Pradhan B, Ki JS. Phytoplankton Toxins and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A Journey toward the Quest for Potent Pharmaceuticals. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20040271. [PMID: 35447944 PMCID: PMC9030253 DOI: 10.3390/md20040271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytoplankton are prominent organisms that contain numerous bioactive substances and secondary metabolites, including toxins, which can be valuable to pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and biotechnological industries. Studies on toxins produced by phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates have become more prevalent in recent years and have sparked much interest in this field of research. Because of their richness and complexity, they have great potential as medicinal remedies and biological exploratory probes. Unfortunately, such toxins are still at the preclinical and clinical stages of development. Phytoplankton toxins are harmful to other organisms and are hazardous to animals and human health. However, they may be effective as therapeutic pharmacological agents for numerous disorders, including dyslipidemia, obesity, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension. In this review, we have focused on the properties of different toxins produced by phytoplankton, as well as their beneficial effects and potential biomedical applications. The anticancer properties exhibited by phytoplankton toxins are mainly attributed to their apoptotic effects. As a result, phytoplankton toxins are a promising strategy for avoiding postponement or cancer treatment. Moreover, they also displayed promising applications in other ailments and diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, AIDS, fungal, bacterial, schizophrenia, inflammation, allergy, osteoporosis, asthma, and pain. Preclinical and clinical applications of phytoplankton toxins, as well as future directions of their enhanced nano-formulations for improved clinical efficacy, have also been reviewed.
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Boente-Juncal A, Raposo-García S, Costas C, Louzao MC, Vale C, Botana LM. Partial Blockade of Human Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels by the Marine Toxins Azaspiracids. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2593-2604. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Sandra Raposo-García
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologı́a, Farmacia y Tecnologı́a Farmacéutica, Facultade de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Effects of Temperature, Growth Media, and Photoperiod on Growth and Toxin Production of Azadinium spinosum. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17090489. [PMID: 31443393 PMCID: PMC6780083 DOI: 10.3390/md17090489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are microalgal toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and lead to human intoxications. To facilitate their study and subsequent biomonitoring, purification from microalgae rather than shellfish is preferable; however, challenges remain with respect to maximizing toxin yields. The impacts of temperature, growth media, and photoperiod on cell densities and toxin production in Azadinium spinosum were investigated. Final cell densities were similar at 10 and 18 °C, while toxin cell quotas were higher (~3.5-fold) at 10 °C. A comparison of culture media showed higher cell densities and AZA cell quotas (2.5-5-fold) in f10k compared to f/2 and L1 media. Photoperiod also showed differences, with lower cell densities in the 8:16 L:D treatment, while toxin cell quotas were similar for 12:12 and 8:16 L:D treatments but slightly lower for the 16:8 L:D treatment. AZA1, -2 and -33 were detected during the exponential phase, while some known and new AZAs were only detected once the stationary phase was reached. These compounds were additionally detected in field water samples during an AZA event.
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Novel Insights on the Toxicity of Phycotoxins on the Gut through the Targeting of Enteric Glial Cells. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17070429. [PMID: 31340532 PMCID: PMC6669610 DOI: 10.3390/md17070429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that phycotoxins can impact intestinal epithelial cells and can cross the intestinal barrier to some extent. Therefore, phycotoxins can reach cells underlying the epithelium, such as enteric glial cells (EGCs), which are involved in gut homeostasis, motility, and barrier integrity. This study compared the toxicological effects of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), 13-desmethyl-spirolide C (SPX), and palytoxin (PlTX) on the rat EGC cell line CRL2690. Cell viability, morphology, oxidative stress, inflammation, cell cycle, and specific glial markers were evaluated using RT-qPCR and high content analysis (HCA) approaches. PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX induced neurite alterations, oxidative stress, cell cycle disturbance, and increase of specific EGC markers. An inflammatory response for YTX, OA, and AZA1 was suggested by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis and induction of DNA double strand breaks (γH2AX) were also observed with PTX2, YTX, OA, and AZA1. These findings suggest that PTX2, YTX, OA, AZA1, and PlTX may affect intestinal barrier integrity through alterations of the human enteric glial system. Our results provide novel insight into the toxicological effects of phycotoxins on the gut.
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Daguer H, Hoff RB, Molognoni L, Kleemann CR, Felizardo LV. Outbreaks, toxicology, and analytical methods of marine toxins in seafood. Curr Opin Food Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
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Assunção J, Guedes AC, Malcata FX. Biotechnological and Pharmacological Applications of Biotoxins and Other Bioactive Molecules from Dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E393. [PMID: 29261163 PMCID: PMC5742853 DOI: 10.3390/md15120393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-lasting interest in bioactive molecules (namely toxins) produced by (microalga) dinoflagellates has risen in recent years. Exhibiting wide diversity and complexity, said compounds are well-recognized for their biological features, with great potential for use as pharmaceutical therapies and biological research probes. Unfortunately, provision of those compounds is still far from sufficient, especially in view of an increasing demand for preclinical testing. Despite the difficulties to establish dinoflagellate cultures and obtain reasonable productivities of such compounds, intensive research has permitted a number of advances in the field. This paper accordingly reviews the characteristics of some of the most important biotoxins (and other bioactive substances) produced by dinoflagellates. It also presents and discusses (to some length) the main advances pertaining to dinoflagellate production, from bench to large scale-with an emphasis on material published since the latest review available on the subject. Such advances encompass improvements in nutrient formulation and light supply as major operational conditions; they have permitted adaptation of classical designs, and aided the development of novel configurations for dinoflagellate growth-even though shearing-related issues remain a major challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Assunção
- LEPABE-Laboratory of Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Catarina Guedes
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, P-4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - F Xavier Malcata
- LEPABE-Laboratory of Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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Kim JH, Tillmann U, Adams NG, Krock B, Stutts WL, Deeds JR, Han MS, Trainer VL. Identification of Azadinium species and a new azaspiracid from Azadinium poporum in Puget Sound, Washington State, USA. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 68:152-167. [PMID: 28962976 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The identification of a new suite of toxins, called azaspiracids (AZA), as the cause of human illnesses after the consumption of shellfish from the Irish west coast in 1995, resulted in interest in understanding the global distribution of these toxins and of species of the small dinoflagellate genus Azadinium, known to produce them. Clonal isolates of four species of Azadinium, A. poporum, A. cuneatum, A. obesum and A. dalianense were obtained from incubated sediment samples collected from Puget Sound, Washington State in 2016. These Azadinium species were identified using morphological characteristics confirmed by molecular phylogeny. Whereas AZA could not be detected in any strains of A. obesum, A. cuneatum and A. dalianense, all four strains of A. poporum produced a new azaspiracid toxin, based on LC-MS analysis, named AZA-59. The presence of AZA-59 was confirmed at low levels in situ using a solid phase resin deployed at several stations along the coastlines of Puget Sound. Using a combination of molecular methods for species detection and solid phase resin deployment to target shellfish monitoring of toxin at high-risk sites, the risk of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning can be minimized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Hwan Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nicolaus G Adams
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Whitney L Stutts
- United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, USA
| | - Jonathan R Deeds
- United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, USA
| | - Myung-Soo Han
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, South Korea.
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Morabito
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Serena Silvestro
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Caterina Faggio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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Botana LM, Hess P, Munday R, Nathalie A, DeGrasse SL, Feeley M, Suzuki T, van den Berg M, Fattori V, Garrido Gamarro E, Tritscher A, Nakagawa R, Karunasagar I. Derivation of toxicity equivalency factors for marine biotoxins associated with Bivalve Molluscs. Trends Food Sci Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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14
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Twiner MJ, Doucette GJ, Pang Y, Fang C, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. Structure-Activity Relationship Studies Using Natural and Synthetic Okadaic Acid/Dinophysistoxin Toxins. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:md14110207. [PMID: 27827901 PMCID: PMC5128750 DOI: 10.3390/md14110207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) and the closely related dinophysistoxins (DTXs) are algal toxins that accumulate in shellfish and are known serine/threonine protein phosphatase (ser/thr PP) inhibitors. Phosphatases are important modulators of enzyme activity and cell signaling pathways. However, the interactions between the OA/DTX toxins and phosphatases are not fully understood. This study sought to identify phosphatase targets and characterize their structure–activity relationships (SAR) with these algal toxins using a combination of phosphatase activity and cytotoxicity assays. Preliminary screening of 21 human and yeast phosphatases indicated that only three ser/thr PPs (PP2a, PP1, PP5) were inhibited by physiologically saturating concentrations of DTX2 (200 nM). SAR studies employed naturally-isolated OA, DTX1, and DTX2, which vary in degree and/or position of methylation, in addition to synthetic 2-epi-DTX2. OA/DTX analogs induced cytotoxicity and inhibited PP activity with a relatively conserved order of potency: OA = DTX1 ≥ DTX2 >> 2-epi-DTX. The PPs were also differentially inhibited with sensitivities of PP2a > PP5 > PP1. These findings demonstrate that small variations in OA/DTX toxin structures, particularly at the head region (i.e., C1/C2), result in significant changes in toxicological potency, whereas changes in methylation at C31 and C35 (tail region) only mildly affect potency. In addition to this being the first study to extensively test OA/DTX analogs’ activities towards PP5, these data will be helpful for accurately determining toxic equivalence factors (TEFs), facilitating molecular modeling efforts, and developing highly selective phosphatase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Twiner
- School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA.
| | - Gregory J Doucette
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, NOAA/National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC 29412, USA.
| | - Yucheng Pang
- Department of Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, USA.
| | - Chao Fang
- Department of Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, USA.
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, USA.
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo 0454, Norway.
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Doerr B, O'Halloran J, O'Brien N, van Pelt F. Investigation of the genotoxic potential of the marine biotoxins azaspiracid 1-3. Toxicon 2016; 121:61-69. [PMID: 27576062 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recently discovered group of biotoxins and are the cause of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) in humans. To date over thirty analogues have been identified. However, toxicological studies of AZAs are limited due to the lack of availability of toxins and toxin standards. Most data available are on acute toxicity and there are no data available on genotoxicity of AZAs. This study presents an integrated approach investigating the genotoxic potential of AZA1-3 in cell culture systems using the Comet assay combined with assays to provide information on possible apoptotic processes, cytotoxicity and changes in cell number. Results demonstrate a time and dose dependent increase in DNA fragmentation in most cell lines, indicating a genotoxic effect of AZA1-3. However, a significant reduction in cell number and a clear shift from early to late apoptosis was observed for all analogues in Jurkat T cells and HepG-2 cells; CaCo-2 cells did not show a clear apoptotic profile. Late apoptotic/necrotic cells correlate well with the percentage of tail DNA for all analogues in all three cell lines. All data taken together indicate that AZA1-3 is not genotoxic per se and demonstrate apoptotic/necrotic processes to be involved to some extent in AZAs toxicity. The sensitivities of cell lines and the different potencies of AZA1-3 are in agreement with the literature available. The order of sensitivity for all three AZAs tested in the present study is, in increasing order, CaCo-2 cells < HepG-2 cells < Jurkat T cells. The order of potency of AZA1-3 varies among the cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Doerr
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - John O'Halloran
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Nora O'Brien
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Frank van Pelt
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Modulation of CYP3A4 activity alters the cytotoxicity of lipophilic phycotoxins in human hepatic HepaRG cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2016; 33:136-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Hjørnevik LV, Frøyset AK, Grønset TA, Rungruangsak-Torrissen K, Fladmark KE. Algal Toxin Azaspiracid-1 Induces Early Neuronal Differentiation and Alters Peripherin Isoform Stoichiometry. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7390-402. [PMID: 26694421 PMCID: PMC4699245 DOI: 10.3390/md13127072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid-1 is an algal toxin that accumulates in edible mussels, and ingestion may result in human illness as manifested by vomiting and diarrhoea. When injected into mice, it causes neurotoxicological symptoms and death. Although it is well known that azaspiracid-1 is toxic to most cells and cell lines, little is known about its biological target(s). A rat PC12 cell line, commonly used as a model for the peripheral nervous system, was used to study the neurotoxicological effects of azaspiracid-1. Azaspiracid-1 induced differentiation-related morphological changes followed by a latter cell death. The differentiated phenotype showed peripherin-labelled neurite-like processes simultaneously as a specific isoform of peripherin was down-regulated. The precise mechanism behind this down-regulation remains uncertain. However, this study provides new insights into the neurological effects of azaspiracid-1 and into the biological significance of specific isoforms of peripherin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda V Hjørnevik
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Ann K Frøyset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Toril A Grønset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | | | - Kari E Fladmark
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
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18
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Potvin É, Jeong HJ, Drebing W, Kilcoyne J, Al-Jorani A, Twiner MJ, Göthel Q, Köck M. Structure Elucidation and in Vitro Toxicity of New Azaspiracids Isolated from the Marine Dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6687-702. [PMID: 26528990 PMCID: PMC4663548 DOI: 10.3390/md13116687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Two strains of Azadinium poporum, one from the Korean West coast and the other from the North Sea, were mass cultured for isolation of new azaspiracids. Approximately 0.9 mg of pure AZA-36 (1) and 1.3 mg of pure AZA-37 (2) were isolated from the Korean (870 L) and North Sea (120 L) strains, respectively. The structures were determined to be 3-hydroxy-8-methyl-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (1) and 3-hydroxy-7,8-dihydro-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (2) by ¹H- and (13)C-NMR. Using the Jurkat T lymphocyte cell toxicity assay, (1) and (2) were found to be 6- and 3-fold less toxic than AZA-1, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Éric Potvin
- Division of Polar Ocean Environment, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon 406-840, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Wolfgang Drebing
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, H91 R673, Ireland; E-Mail:
| | - Ahmed Al-Jorani
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Michael J. Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Qun Göthel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Matthias Köck
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
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19
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Kilcoyne J, Twiner MJ, McCarron P, Crain S, Giddings SD, Foley B, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Structure Elucidation, Relative LC-MS Response and In Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracids 7-10 Isolated from Mussels (Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5083-5091. [PMID: 25909151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that can accumulate in shellfish, which if consumed can lead to poisoning events. AZA7-10, 7-10, were isolated from shellfish and their structures, previously proposed on the basis of only LC-MS/MS data, were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. Purified AZA4-6, 4-6, and 7-10 were accurately quantitated by qNMR and used to assay cytotoxicity with Jurkat T lymphocyte cells for the first time. LC-MS(MS) molar response studies performed using isocratic and gradient elution in both selected ion monitoring and selected reaction monitoring modes showed that responses for the analogues ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 relative to AZA1, 1. All AZA analogues tested were cytotoxic to Jurkat T lymphocyte cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner; however, there were distinct differences in their EC50 values, with the potencies for each analogue being: AZA6 > AZA8 > AZA1 > AZA4 ≈ AZA9 > AZA5 ≈ AZA10. This data contributes to the understanding of the structure-activity relationships of AZAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- †Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Michael J Twiner
- §School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Pearse McCarron
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sheila Crain
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Barry Foley
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- ∥Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, N-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- ▽Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | | | - Christopher O Miles
- ○Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo Norway
- #Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo Norway
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20
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Kilcoyne J, Nulty C, Jauffrais T, McCarron P, Herve F, Foley B, Rise F, Crain S, Wilkins AL, Twiner MJ, Hess P, Miles CO. Isolation, structure elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of azaspiracids from the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:2465-2474. [PMID: 25356854 DOI: 10.1021/np500555k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We identified three new azaspiracids (AZAs) with molecular weights of 715, 815, and 829 (AZA33 (3), AZA34 (4), and AZA35, respectively) in mussels, seawater, and Azadinium spinosum culture. Approximately 700 μg of 3 and 250 μg of 4 were isolated from a bulk culture of A. spinosum, and their structures determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. These compounds differ significantly at the carboxyl end of the molecule from known AZA analogues and therefore provide valuable information on structure-activity relationships. Initial toxicological assessment was performed using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cytotoxicity, and the potencies of 3 and 4 were found to be 0.22- and 5.5-fold that of AZA1 (1), respectively. Thus, major changes in the carboxyl end of 1 resulted in significant changes in toxicity. In mussel extracts, 3 was detected at low levels, whereas 4 and AZA35 were detected only at extremely low levels or not at all. The structures of 3 and 4 are consistent with AZAs being biosynthetically assembled from the amino end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, Ireland
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21
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Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. In vitro chronic effects on hERG channel caused by the marine biotoxin azaspiracid-2. Toxicon 2014; 91:69-75. [PMID: 25286396 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that accumulate in many shellfish species. Azaspiracid poisoning caused by AZA-contaminated seafood consumption is primarily manifested by diarrhea in humans. To protect human health, AZA-1, AZA-2 and AZA-3 content in seafood has been regulated by food safety authorities in many countries. Recently AZAs have been reported as a low/moderate hERG channel blockers. Furthermore AZA-2 has been related to arrhythmia appearance in rats, suggesting potential heart toxicity. In this study AZA-2 in vitro effects on hERG channel after chronic exposure are analyzed to further explore potential cardiotoxicity. The amount of hERG channel in the plasma membrane, hERG channel trafficking and hERG currents were evaluated up to 12 h of toxin exposure. In these conditions AZA-2 caused an increase of hERG levels in the plasma membrane, probably related to hERG retrograde trafficking impairment. Although this alteration did not translate into an increase of hERG channel-related current, more studies will be necessary to understand its mechanism and to know what consequences could have in vivo. These findings suggest that azaspiracids might have chronic cardiotoxicity related to hERG channel trafficking and they should not be overlooked when evaluating the threat to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara F Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael O Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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22
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Eschenbrenner-Lux V, Kumar K, Waldmann H. The asymmetric hetero-Diels-Alder reaction in the syntheses of biologically relevant compounds. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:11146-57. [PMID: 25220929 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201404094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The hetero-Diels-Alder reaction is one of the most powerful transformations in the chemistry toolbox for the synthesis of aza- and oxa-heterocycles embodying multiple stereogenic centers. However, as compared to other cycloadditions, in particular the dipolar cycloadditions and the Diels-Alder reaction, the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction has been much less explored and exploited in organic synthesis. Nevertheless, this powerful transformation has opened up efficient and creative routes to biologically relevant small molecules and different natural products which contain six-membered oxygen or nitrogen ring systems. Recent developments in this field, in particular in the establishment of enantioselectively catalyzed hetero-Diels-Alder cycloadditions steered by a plethora of different catalysts and the application of the resulting small molecules in chemical biology and medicinal chemistry research, are highlighted in this Minireview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Eschenbrenner-Lux
- Max-Planck-Institut für molekulare Physiologie, Dortmund (Germany); Technische Universität, Dortmund, Dortmund (Germany)
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23
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Eschenbrenner-Lux V, Kumar K, Waldmann H. Die asymmetrische Hetero-Diels-Alder-Reaktion in Synthesen biologisch relevanter Verbindungen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201404094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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24
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Nulty C, Crain S, Quilliam MA, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Epimers of azaspiracids: Isolation, structural elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of 37-epi-azaspiracid-1. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:587-600. [PMID: 24506502 DOI: 10.1021/tx400434b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) was identified in 1998, the number of AZA analogues has increased to over 30. The development of an LC-MS method using a neutral mobile phase led to the discovery of isomers of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3, present at ~2-16% of the parent analogues in phytoplankton and shellfish samples. Under acidic mobile phase conditions, isomers and their parents are not separated. Stability studies showed that these isomers were spontaneous epimerization products whose formation is accelerated with the application of heat. The AZA1 isomer was isolated from contaminated shellfish and identified as 37-epi-AZA1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and chemical analyses. Similar analysis indicated that the isomers of AZA2 and AZA3 corresponded to 37-epi-AZA2 and 37-epi-AZA3, respectively. The 37-epimers were found to exist in equilibrium with the parent compounds in solution. 37-epi-AZA1 was quantitated by NMR, and relative molar response studies were performed to determine the potential differences in LC-MS response of AZA1 and 37-epi-AZA1. Toxicological effects were determined using Jurkat T lymphocyte cells as an in vitro cell model. Cytotoxicity experiments employing a metabolically based dye (i.e., MTS) indicated that 37-epi-AZA1 elicited a lethal response that was both concentration- and time-dependent, with EC50 values in the subnanomolar range. On the basis of EC50 comparisons, 37-epi-AZA1 was 5.1-fold more potent than AZA1. This data suggests that the presence of these epimers in seafood products should be considered in the analysis of AZAs for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County, Galway, Ireland
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25
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Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Santamarina G, Cantalapiedra AG, Rodríguez LP, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. In vivo arrhythmogenicity of the marine biotoxin azaspiracid-2 in rats. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:425-34. [PMID: 23934164 PMCID: PMC3946725 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that accumulate in several shellfish species. Azaspiracid poisoning episodes have been described in humans due to ingestion of AZA-contaminated seafood. Therefore, the contents of AZA-1, AZA-2 and AZA-3, the best-known analogs of the group, in shellfish destined to human consumption have been regulated by food safety authorities of many countries to protect human health. In vivo and in vitro toxicological studies have described effects of AZAs at different cellular levels and on several organs, however, AZA target remains unknown. Very recently, AZAs have been demonstrated to block the hERG cardiac potassium channel. In this study, we explored the potential cardiotoxicity of AZA-2 in vivo. The effects of AZA-2 on rat electrocardiogram (ECG) and cardiac biomarkers were evaluated for cardiotoxicity signs besides corroborating the hERG-blocking activity of AZA-2. Our results demonstrated that AZA-2 does not induce QT interval prolongation on rat ECGs in vivo, in spite of being an in vitro blocker of the hERG cardiac potassium channel. However, AZA-2 alters the heart electrical activity causing prolongation of PR intervals and the appearance of arrhythmias. More studies will be needed to clarify the mechanism by which AZA-2 causes these ECG alterations; however, the potential cardiotoxicity of AZAs demonstrated in this in vivo study should be taken into consideration when evaluating the possible threat that these toxins pose to human health, mainly for individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular disease when regulated toxin limits are exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara F. Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Antonio G. Cantalapiedra
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Laura P. Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - J. Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Andrés C. Vieira
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - K. C. Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Michael O. Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Trainer VL, Moore L, Bill BD, Adams NG, Harrington N, Borchert J, da Silva DAM, Eberhart BTL. Diarrhetic shellfish toxins and other lipophilic toxins of human health concern in Washington State. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:1815-35. [PMID: 23760013 PMCID: PMC3721207 DOI: 10.3390/md11061815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The illness of three people in 2011 after their ingestion of mussels collected from Sequim Bay State Park, Washington State, USA, demonstrated the need to monitor diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) in Washington State for the protection of human health. Following these cases of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, monitoring for DSTs in Washington State became formalized in 2012, guided by routine monitoring of Dinophysis species by the SoundToxins program in Puget Sound and the Olympic Region Harmful Algal Bloom (ORHAB) partnership on the outer Washington State coast. Here we show that the DSTs at concentrations above the guidance level of 16 μg okadaic acid (OA) + dinophysistoxins (DTXs)/100 g shellfish tissue were widespread in sentinel mussels throughout Puget Sound in summer 2012 and included harvest closures of California mussel, varnish clam, manila clam and Pacific oyster. Concentrations of toxins in Pacific oyster and manila clam were often at least half those measured in blue mussels at the same site. The primary toxin isomer in shellfish and plankton samples was dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) with D. acuminata as the primary Dinophysis species. Other lipophilic toxins in shellfish were pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) and yessotoxin (YTX) with azaspiracid-2 (AZA-2) also measured in phytoplankton samples. Okadaic acid, azaspiracid-1 (AZA-1) and azaspiracid-3 (AZA-3) were all below the levels of detection by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A shellfish closure at Ruby Beach, Washington, was the first ever noted on the Washington State Pacific coast due to DSTs. The greater than average Fraser River flow during the summers of 2011 and 2012 may have provided an environment conducive to dinoflagellates and played a role in the prevalence of toxigenic Dinophysis in Puget Sound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera L. Trainer
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-206-860-6788; Fax: +1-206-860-3335
| | - Leslie Moore
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
| | - Brian D. Bill
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
| | - Nicolaus G. Adams
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
| | - Neil Harrington
- Jamestown S’Klallam Tribe, 1033 Old Blyn Highway, Sequim, WA 98392, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Jerry Borchert
- Office of Shellfish and Water Protection, Washington State Department of Health, 111 Israel Rd SE, Tumwater, WA 98504, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Denis A. M. da Silva
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
| | - Bich-Thuy L. Eberhart
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Environmental Conservation Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E, Seattle, WA 98112, USA; E-Mails: (L.M.); (B.D.B.); (N.G.A.); (D.A.M.S.); (B.-T.L.E.)
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Sala GL, Bellocci M, Callegari F, Rossini GP. Azaspiracid-1 Inhibits the Maturation of Cathepsin D in Mammalian Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:444-55. [DOI: 10.1021/tx300511z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gian Luca Sala
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | | | - Federica Callegari
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | - Gian Paolo Rossini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
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28
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Twiner MJ, Doucette GJ, Rasky A, Huang XP, Roth BL, Sanguinetti MC. Marine algal toxin azaspiracid is an open-state blocker of hERG potassium channels. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:1975-84. [PMID: 22856456 DOI: 10.1021/tx300283t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are polyether marine dinoflagellate toxins that accumulate in shellfish and represent an emerging human health risk. Although human exposure is primarily manifested by severe and protracted diarrhea, this toxin class has been shown to be highly cytotoxic, a teratogen to developing fish, and a possible carcinogen in mice. Until now, AZA's molecular target has not yet been determined. Using three independent methods (voltage clamp, channel binding assay, and thallium flux assay), we have for the first time demonstrated that AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 each bind to and block the hERG (human ether-à-go-go related gene) potassium channel heterologously expressed in HEK-293 mammalian cells. Inhibition of K(+) current for each AZA analogue was concentration-dependent (IC(50) value range: 0.64-0.84 μM). The mechanism of hERG channel inhibition by AZA1 was investigated further in Xenopus oocytes where it was shown to be an open-state-dependent blocker and, using mutant channels, to interact with F656 but not with Y652 within the S6 transmembrane domain that forms the channel's central pore. AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 were each shown to inhibit [(3)H]dofetilide binding to the hERG channel and thallium ion flux through the channel (IC(50) value range: 2.1-6.6 μM). AZA1 did not block the K(+) current of the closely related EAG1 channel. Collectively, these data suggest that the AZAs physically block the K(+) conductance pathway of hERG1 channels by occluding the cytoplasmic mouth of the open pore. Although the concentrations necessary to block hERG channels are relatively high, AZA-induced blockage may prove to contribute to the toxicological properties of the AZAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA.
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29
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Twiner MJ, Hanagriff JC, Butler S, Madhkoor AK, Doucette GJ. Induction of Apoptosis Pathways in Several Cell Lines following Exposure to the Marine Algal Toxin Azaspiracid. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:1493-501. [DOI: 10.1021/tx3001785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan
48128, United States
- Marine
Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United
States
| | - Joshua C. Hanagriff
- Marine
Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United
States
| | - Suzanne Butler
- Marine
Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United
States
| | - Ahmed K. Madhkoor
- Marine
Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United
States
| | - Gregory J. Doucette
- Marine
Biotoxins Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United
States
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30
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Aune T, Espenes A, Aasen JAB, Quilliam MA, Hess P, Larsen S. Study of possible combined toxic effects of azaspiracid-1 and okadaic acid in mice via the oral route. Toxicon 2012; 60:895-906. [PMID: 22750012 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Toxins from the okadaic acid (OA) and azaspiracid (AZA) group cause considerable negative health effects in consumers when present in shellfish above certain levels. The main symptoms, dominated by diarrhoea, are caused by damage to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Even though OA and AZAs exert toxicity via different mechanisms, it is important to find out whether they may enhance the health effects if present together since they act on the same organs and are regulated individually. In this study, the main issue was the possibility of enhanced lethality in mice upon combined oral exposure to OA and AZA1. In addition, pathological effects in several organs and effects on absorption from the GI tract were studied. Although the number of mice was small due to low availability of AZA1, the results indicate no additive or synergistic effect on lethality when AZA1 and OA were given together. Similar lack of increased toxicity was observed concerning pathological effects that were restricted to the GI-tract. OA and AZA1 were absorbed from the GI-tract to a very low degree, and when given together, uptake was reduced. Taken together, these results indicate that the present practice of regulating toxins from the OA and AZA group individually does not present an unwanted increased risk for consumers of shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tore Aune
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, P.O.Box 8146 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway.
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31
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Collaborative study for the detection of toxic compounds in shellfish extracts using cell-based assays. Part I: screening strategy and pre-validation study with lipophilic marine toxins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:1983-93. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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32
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Ledreux A, Sérandour AL, Morin B, Derick S, Lanceleur R, Hamlaoui S, Furger C, Biré R, Krys S, Fessard V, Troussellier M, Bernard C. Collaborative study for the detection of toxic compounds in shellfish extracts using cell-based assays. Part II: application to shellfish extracts spiked with lipophilic marine toxins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:1995-2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-6029-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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33
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Twiner MJ, El-Ladki R, Kilcoyne J, Doucette GJ. Comparative Effects of the Marine Algal Toxins Azaspiracid-1, -2, and -3 on Jurkat T Lymphocyte Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:747-54. [DOI: 10.1021/tx200553p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Twiner
- Department
of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan—Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan,
United States
| | - Racha El-Ladki
- Department
of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan—Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan,
United States
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Renville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Gregory J. Doucette
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina,
United States
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34
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Sun Y, Gan J, Fan R. Facile Construction of Oxa-Aza Spirobicycles via a Tandem Carbon-Hydrogen Bond Oxidation. Adv Synth Catal 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201100196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Aasen JAB, Espenes A, Miles CO, Samdal IA, Hess P, Aune T. Combined oral toxicity of azaspiracid-1 and yessotoxin in female NMRI mice. Toxicon 2011; 57:909-17. [PMID: 21426911 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
For many years, the presence of yessotoxins (YTXs) in shellfish has contributed to the outcome of the traditional mouse bioassay and has on many occasions caused closure of shellfisheries. Since YTXs do not appear to cause diarrhoea in man and exert low oral toxicity in animal experiments, it has been suggested that they should be removed from regulation. Before doing so, it is important to determine whether the oral toxicity of YTXs is enhanced when present together with shellfish toxins known to cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract. Consequently, mice were given high doses of YTX, at 1 or 5 mg/kg body weight, either alone or together with azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) at 200 μg/kg. The latter has been shown to induce damage to the small intestine at this level. The combined exposure caused no clinical effects, and no pathological changes were observed in internal organs. These results correspond well with the very low levels of YTX detected in internal organs by means of LC-MS/MS and ELISA after dosing. Indeed, the very low absorption of YTX when given alone remained largely unchanged when YTX was administered in combination with AZA1. Thus, the oral toxicity of YTX is not enhanced in the presence of sub-lethal levels of AZA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A B Aasen
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, P.O. Box 8146 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway.
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36
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Rodrigues SM, Vale P, Chaveca T, Laires A, Rueff J, Oliveira NG. Naturally contaminated shellfish samples: quantification of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins in unhydrolysed and hydrolysed extracts and cytotoxicity assessment. J Appl Toxicol 2011; 30:699-707. [PMID: 20981863 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Contamination of shellfish from the Portuguese coast with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins is a recurrent event, with most of the commercial bivalves contaminated with high percentages of esters of okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2). This report describes the quantification of DSP toxins in unhydrolysed and hydrolysed extracts of several cockle and mussel samples naturally contaminated and the evaluation of their cytotoxicity profiles in V79 cells. The quantification of the acyl esters in the shellfish samples involved the cleavage of the ester bond through alkaline hydrolysis and the release of the parent toxins OA and DTX2. Unhydrolysed and hydrolysed extracts were then analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) for the detection and quantification of DSP toxins. The cytotoxicity of the analysed extracts was evaluated using the MTT reduction assay and compared with the cytotoxicity presented by different concentrations of OA standard (1-100 nM). OA exhibited marked cytotoxic effects and decreased cell viability in a dose dependent mode, with an IC₅₀ of 27 nM. The cytotoxicity pattern of unhydrolysed extracts was clearly dependent on the concentration of free toxins. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of the esterified toxins present was revealed after their conversion into free toxins by alkaline hydrolysis. For the hydrolysed extracts of cockles and mussels, the cytotoxicity presented was mainly related to the concentration of OA and DTX2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana M Rodrigues
- Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos, IPIMAR, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal
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Aasen JA, Espenes A, Hess P, Aune T. Sub-lethal dosing of azaspiracid-1 in female NMRI mice. Toxicon 2010; 56:1419-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Revised: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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38
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Perez RA, Rehmann N, Crain S, LeBlanc P, Craft C, MacKinnon S, Reeves K, Burton IW, Walter JA, Hess P, Quilliam MA, Melanson JE. The preparation of certified calibration solutions for azaspiracid-1, -2, and -3, potent marine biotoxins found in shellfish. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:2243-52. [PMID: 20827466 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4161-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Revised: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The production and certification of a series of azaspiracid (AZA) calibration solution reference materials is described. Azaspiracids were isolated from contaminated mussels, purified by preparative liquid chromatography and dried under vacuum to the anhydrous form. The purity was assessed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The final concentration of each AZA in a CD(3)OH stock solution was determined by quantitative NMR spectroscopy. This solution was then diluted very accurately in degassed, high purity methanol to a concentration of 1.47 ± 0.08 μmol/L for CRM-AZA1, 1.52 ± 0.05 μmol/L for CRM-AZA2, and 1.37 ± 0.13 μmol/L for CRM-AZA3. Aliquots were dispensed into argon-filled glass ampoules, which were immediately flame-sealed. The calibration solutions are suitable for method development, method validation, calibration of liquid chromatography or mass spectrometry instrumentation and quality control of shellfish monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth A Perez
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
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Furey A, O'Doherty S, O'Callaghan K, Lehane M, James KJ. Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish: Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon 2010; 56:173-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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40
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Bellocci M, Sala GL, Callegari F, Rossini GP. Azaspiracid-1 Inhibits Endocytosis of Plasma Membrane Proteins in Epithelial Cells. Toxicol Sci 2010; 117:109-21. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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41
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Gerssen A, Pol-Hofstad IE, Poelman M, Mulder PP, van den Top HJ, de Boer J. Marine toxins: chemistry, toxicity, occurrence and detection, with special reference to the Dutch situation. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:878-904. [PMID: 22069615 PMCID: PMC3153220 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2040878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of algae can produce marine toxins under certain circumstances. These toxins can then accumulate in shellfish such as mussels, oysters and scallops. When these contaminated shellfish species are consumed severe intoxication can occur. The different types of syndromes that can occur after consumption of contaminated shellfish, the corresponding toxins and relevant legislation are discussed in this review. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) and Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) occur worldwide, Neurologic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) is mainly limited to the USA and New Zealand while the toxins causing DSP and AZP occur most frequently in Europe. The latter two toxin groups are fat-soluble and can therefore also be classified as lipophilic marine toxins. A detailed overview of the official analytical methods used in the EU (mouse or rat bioassay) and the recently developed alternative methods for the lipophilic marine toxins is given. These alternative methods are based on functional assays, biochemical assays and chemical methods. From the literature it is clear that chemical methods offer the best potential to replace the animal tests that are still legislated worldwide. Finally, an overview is given of the situation of marine toxins in The Netherlands. The rat bioassay has been used for monitoring DSP and AZP toxins in The Netherlands since the 1970s. Nowadays, a combination of a chemical method and the rat bioassay is often used. In The Netherlands toxic events are mainly caused by DSP toxins, which have been found in Dutch shellfish for the first time in 1961, and have reoccurred at irregular intervals and in varying concentrations. From this review it is clear that considerable effort is being undertaken by various research groups to phase out the animal tests that are still used for the official routine monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +0031-317-480433; Fax: 0031-317-417717
| | - Irene E. Pol-Hofstad
- Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, A. van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Marnix Poelman
- IMARES, Wageningen UR, Korringaweg 5, 4401 NT Yerseke, The Netherlands;
| | - Patrick P.J. Mulder
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Hester J. van den Top
- RIKILT, Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands; (P.P.J.M.); (H.J.T.)
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Institute for Environmental Studies, VU University, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
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López-Rivera A, O’Callaghan K, Moriarty M, O’Driscoll D, Hamilton B, Lehane M, James K, Furey A. First evidence of azaspiracids (AZAs): A family of lipophilic polyether marine toxins in scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and mussels (Mytilus chilensis) collected in two regions of Chile. Toxicon 2010; 55:692-701. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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43
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Louzao MC, Espiña B, Cagide E, Ares IR, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Cytotoxic effect of palytoxin on mussel. Toxicon 2010; 56:842-7. [PMID: 20206198 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Palytoxin is a large and complex polyhydroxylated molecule with potent neurotoxic activity. Dinoflagellates from the Ostreopsis genera were demonstrated to be producers of this compound and analogues. Even though initially palytoxin appearance was restricted to tropical areas, the recent occurrence of Ostreopsis outbreaks in Mediterranean Sea point to a worldwide dissemination probably related to climatic change. Those dinoflagellates can bioaccumulate in shellfish, especially in filter-feeding mollusks and have been involved in damaging effects in seafood or human toxic outbreaks. The present study describes palytoxins effect on metabolic activity of mantle and hepatopancreas cells from the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lmk. Our results indicate that palytoxin is highly cytotoxic to mussel cells; unlike it happens with other toxins more common in European coasts such as okadaic acid and azaspiracid. These findings have a special significance for the marine environment and aquiculture since they are evidence for the ability of palytoxin to affect the integrity of bivalve mollusks that are not adapted to the presence of this toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Improvements in the use of neuroblastomaxglioma hybrid cells (NG108-15) for the toxic effect quantification of marine toxins. Toxicon 2010; 55:381-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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45
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Cao Z, LePage KT, Frederick MO, Nicolaou KC, Murray TF. Involvement of caspase activation in azaspiracid-induced neurotoxicity in neocortical neurons. Toxicol Sci 2010; 114:323-34. [PMID: 20047973 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a novel group of marine phycotoxins that have been associated with severe human intoxication. We found that AZA-1 exposure increased lactate dehydrogense (LDH) efflux in murine neocortical neurons. AZA-1 also produced nuclear condensation and stimulated caspase-3 activity with an half maximal effective concentration (EC(50)) value of 25.8 nM. These data indicate that AZA-1 triggers neuronal death in neocortical neurons by both necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms. An evaluation of the structure-activity relationships of AZA analogs on LDH efflux and caspase-3 activation demonstrated that the full structure of AZAs was required to produce necrotic or apoptotic cell death. The similar potencies of AZA-1 to stimulate LDH efflux and caspase-3 activation and the parallel structure-activity relationships of azaspiracid analogs in the two assays are consistent with a common molecular target for both responses. To explore the molecular mechanism for AZA-1-induced neurotoxicity, we assessed the influence of AZA-1 on Ca(2+) homeostasis. AZA-1 suppressed spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations (EC(50) = 445 nM) in neocortical neurons. A distinct structure-activity profile was found for inhibition of Ca(2+) oscillations where both the full structure as well as analogs containing only the FGHI domain attached to a phenyl glycine methyl ester moiety were potent inhibitors. The molecular targets for inhibition of spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations and neurotoxicity may therefore differ. The caspase protease inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK produced a complete elimination of AZA-1-induced LDH efflux and nuclear condensation in neocortical neurons. Although the molecular target for AZA-induced neurotoxicity remains to be established, these results demonstrate that the observed neurotoxicity is dependent on a caspase signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyu Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
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46
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Phycotoxins: chemistry, mechanisms of action and shellfish poisoning. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM 2010; 100:65-122. [PMID: 20358682 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7643-8338-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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47
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Vale C, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Cell volume decrease as a link between azaspiracid-induced cytotoxicity and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase activation in cultured neurons. Toxicol Sci 2009; 113:158-68. [PMID: 19815690 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of marine toxins recently described that currently includes 20 members. Not much is known about their mechanism of action, although the predominant analog in nature, AZA-1 targets several organs in vivo, including the central nervous system, and exhibits high neurotoxicity in vitro. AZA distribution is increasing globally with mussels being most widely implicated in AZA-related food poisoning events, with human poisoning by AZAs emerging as an increasing worldwide problem in recent years. We used pharmacological tools to inhibit the cytotoxic effect of the toxin in primary cultured neurons. Several targets for AZA-induced neurotoxicity were evaluated. AZA-1 elicited a concentration-dependent hyperpolarization in cerebellar granule cells of 2-3 days in vitro; however, it did not modify membrane potential in mature neurons. Furthermore, in immature cells, AZA-1 decreased the membrane depolarization evoked by exposure of the neurons to 50mM K(+). Preincubation of the neurons with 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (SITS), 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB), amiloride, or ouabain before addition of AZA-1 decreased the AZA-1-induced neurotoxicity and the increase in phosphorylated c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) caused by the toxin, indicating that disruption in ion fluxes was involved in the neurotoxic effect of AZA-1. Furthermore, short exposures of cultured neurons to AZA-1 caused a significant decrease in neuronal volume that was reverted by preincubation of the neurons with DIDS or amiloride before addition of the toxin. The results presented here indicate that the JNK activation induced by AZA-1 is secondary to the decrease in cellular volume elicited by the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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Caillaud A, Cañete E, de la Iglesia P, Giménez G, Diogène J. Cell-based assay coupled with chromatographic fractioning: a strategy for marine toxins detection in natural samples. Toxicol In Vitro 2009; 23:1591-6. [PMID: 19720129 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2009.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell-based assays (CBA) have been proposed for the evaluation of toxicity caused by marine toxins in natural samples (fish, shellfish and microalgae). However, their application has been hindered due to the interferences present in biological matrices that may cause cellular response and interfere in toxicity evaluation. This work reviews in an extensive introduction the use of CBA for toxicity evaluation of marine toxins. Afterwards, the coupling of chromatographic fractioning with neuroblastoma Neuro-2a CBA is presented to enhance the applicability of CBA for complex matrices. Examples of application are provided for mussel samples (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and microalgae (Gambierdiscus sp.), and the results demonstrated the great potential of the combined strategy for reliable toxicological evaluation without ethical concern. Fractioning of an equivalent of 72 mg eq mL(-1) of mussel sample allowed the identification of non-toxic and toxic fractions whereas only 2.5mg eq mL(-1) of non-purified mussel sample was responsible for 20% of cell mortality. Furthermore, the application of CBA allowed selectively distinguishing between ciguatoxin-like and other unspecific toxicity in Gambierdiscus sp. extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Caillaud
- IRTA, C. Poble Nou, Km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain
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Ueoka R, Ito A, Izumikawa M, Maeda S, Takagi M, Shin-ya K, Yoshida M, van Soest RW, Matsunaga S. Isolation of azaspiracid-2 from a marine sponge Echinoclathria sp. as a potent cytotoxin. Toxicon 2009; 53:680-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2008] [Revised: 01/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Kellmann R, Schaffner CA, Grønset TA, Satake M, Ziegler M, Fladmark KE. Proteomic response of human neuroblastoma cells to azaspiracid-1. J Proteomics 2009; 72:695-707. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 02/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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