Conotoxin truncation as a post-translational modification to increase the pharmacological diversity within the milked venom of Conus magus

Comparative study of the commonly used protein quantitation assays on different Hymenoptera venoms: A fundamental aspect of Hymenoptera venom proteome analysis

Determination of protein concentration in Hymenoptera venoms requires an accurate and reproducible assay as the results will be used to support subsequent proteomic techniques employed in their analyses. However, all protein assay techniques have inherent strengths and weaknesses, demanding their assessment before selecting the most suitable platform for sample analysis. In this study, protein profiles of ant, honeybee, and wasp venoms, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and hyaluronidase standards were qualitatively assessed using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Their amino acid and protein concentration were quantitatively determined via Amino Acid Analysis (AAA). Amino acid concentration was determined via hydrolysis, derivatization, and chromatographic quantification. Protein concentration was estimated using four different protein concentration assays. The ratios of protein concentration in venom samples to protein standards were calculated, and the accuracy of the protein concentration assays was analysed relative to the concentration determined from AAA. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that BSA contained several protein bands, while hyaluronidase contained a mixture of peptide and protein bands. Ant and honeybee venoms contained a higher proportion of peptide bands, while wasp venom contained more protein bands. As determined by AAA, the ratio of protein concentration in Hymenoptera venoms varied between 1.01 and 1.11 to BSA, and between 0.96 and 1.06 to hyaluronidase. Overall, the Bradford assay was found to be the least accurate and the BCA assay was the most accurate in estimating protein concentration in Hymenoptera venoms. There was no significant advantage in using hyaluronidase as a standard or increasing incubation temperature of BCA assay when analysing Hymenoptera venoms. Diluent solutions containing phenol and human serum albumin interfered with Lowry-based assays.

Predatory and Defensive Strategies in Cone Snails

Cone snails are carnivorous marine animals that prey on fish (piscivorous), worms (vermivorous), or other mollusks (molluscivorous). They produce a complex venom mostly made of disulfide-rich conotoxins and conopeptides in a compartmentalized venom gland. The pharmacology of cone snail venom has been increasingly investigated over more than half a century. The rising interest in cone snails was initiated by the surprising high human lethality rate caused by the defensive stings of some species. Although a vast amount of information has been uncovered on their venom composition, pharmacological targets, and mode of action of conotoxins, the venom-ecology relationships are still poorly understood for many lineages. This is especially important given the relatively recent discovery that some species can use different venoms to achieve rapid prey capture and efficient deterrence of aggressors. Indeed, via an unknown mechanism, only a selected subset of conotoxins is injected depending on the intended purpose. Some of these remarkable venom variations have been characterized, often using a combination of mass spectrometry and transcriptomic methods. In this review, we present the current knowledge on such specific predatory and defensive venoms gathered from sixteen different cone snail species that belong to eight subgenera: Pionoconus, Chelyconus, Gastridium, Cylinder, Conus, Stephanoconus, Rhizoconus, and Vituliconus. Further studies are needed to help close the gap in our understanding of the evolved ecological roles of many cone snail venom peptides.

Synthesis and Biological Activity of Novel α-Conotoxins Derived from Endemic Polynesian Cone Snails

α-Conotoxins are well-known probes for the characterization of the various subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Identifying new α-conotoxins with different pharmacological profiles can provide further insights into the physiological or pathological roles of the numerous nAChR isoforms found at the neuromuscular junction, the central and peripheral nervous systems, and other cells such as immune cells. This study focuses on the synthesis and characterization of two novel α-conotoxins obtained from two species endemic to the Marquesas Islands, namely Conus gauguini and Conus adamsonii. Both species prey on fish, and their venom is considered a rich source of bioactive peptides that can target a wide range of pharmacological receptors in vertebrates. Here, we demonstrate the versatile use of a one-pot disulfide bond synthesis to achieve the α-conotoxin fold [Cys 1-3; 2-4] for GaIA and AdIA, using the 2-nitrobenzyl (NBzl) protecting group of cysteines for effective regioselective oxidation. The potency and selectivity of GaIA and AdIA against rat nicotinic acetylcholine receptors were investigated electrophysiologically and revealed potent inhibitory activities. GaIA was most active at the muscle nAChR (IC₅₀ = 38 nM), whereas AdIA was most potent at the neuronal α6/3 β2β3 subtype (IC₅₀ = 177 nM). Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of the structure-activity relationships of α-conotoxins, which may help in the design of more selective tools.

Establishment and characterization of the ovary cell line derived from two-spot puffer Takifugu bimaculatus and its application for gene editing and marine toxicology

Takifugu bimaculatus is a marine fish with high nutritional value. Its ovary contains tetrodotoxin (TTX) which is a severe neurotoxin that limits its edible value of it. To understand the mechanism of oogenesis and production of TTX in T. bimaculatus, an ovarian cell line named TBO from an adolescent ovary was established. TBO was composed of fibroblast-like cells that expressed the ovarian follicle cells marker gene Foxl2 and highly expressed TTX binding protein 2 (PSTBP2) but did not express the germ cells marker gene Vasa. Therefore, TBO seems to be mainly composed of follicle cells and possibly a small percentage of oocytes. Electroporation was used to successfully transfect the pEGFP-N1 and pNanog-N1 vectors into the TBO cell line with a high transfection efficiency. The morphological changes and survival rates of the exposed cells proved that this cell line was effective for exposure to conotoxins (CTXs), another group of toxins related to food safety. Furthermore, PSTBP2 was knocked out in TBO using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, showing that sgRNA2 could mutate PSTBP2. The results suggested that TBO will be more convenient, efficient, and rapid for reproduction and toxicology investigation, and gene editing. This study laid the groundwork for future research into the fish gonadal cell culture and food-related marine toxins. In conclusion, a cell line has been generated from T. bimaculatus, which might represent a valuable model for fish studies in the fields of toxicology and gene editing.

Characterization of the Native Disulfide Isomers of the Novel χ-Conotoxin PnID: Implications for Further Increasing Conotoxin Diversity

χ-Conotoxins are known for their ability to selectively inhibit norepinephrine transporters, an ability that makes them potential leads for treating various neurological disorders, including neuropathic pain. PnID, a peptide isolated from the venom of Conus pennaceus, shares high sequence homology with previously characterized χ-conotoxins. Whereas previously reported χ-conotoxins seem to only have a single native disulfide bonding pattern, PnID has three native isomers due to the formation of different disulfide bond patterns during its maturation in the venom duct. In this study, the disulfide connectivity and three-dimensional structure of these disulfide isomers were explored using regioselective synthesis, chromatographic coelution, and solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Of the native isomers, only the isomer with a ribbon disulfide configuration showed pharmacological activity similar to other χ-conotoxins. This isomer inhibited the rat norepinephrine transporter (IC50 = 10 ± 2 µM) and has the most structural similarity to previously characterized χ-conotoxins. In contrast, the globular isoform of PnID showed more than ten times less activity against this transporter and the beaded isoform did not display any measurable biological activity. This study is the first report of the pharmacological and structural characterization of an χ-conotoxin from a species other than Conus marmoreus and is the first report of the existence of natively-formed conotoxin isomers.

Research into the Bioengineering of a Novel α-Conotoxin from the Milked Venom of Conus obscurus

The marine cone snail produces one of the fastest prey strikes in the animal kingdom. It injects highly efficacious venom, often causing prey paralysis and death within seconds. Each snail has hundreds of conotoxins, which serve as a source for discovering and utilizing novel analgesic peptide therapeutics. In this study, we discovered, isolated, and synthesized a novel α3/5-conotoxins derived from the milked venom of Conus obscurus (α-conotoxin OI) and identified the presence of α-conotoxin SI-like sequence previously found in the venom of Conus striatus. Five synthetic analogs of the native α-conotoxin OI were generated. These analogs incorporated single residue or double residue mutations. Three synthetic post-translational modifications (PTMs) were synthetically incorporated into these analogs: N-terminal truncation, proline hydroxylation, and tryptophan bromination. The native α-conotoxin OI demonstrated nanomolar potency in Poecilia reticulata and Homosapiens muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) isoforms. Moreover, the synthetic α-[P9K] conotoxin OI displayed enhanced potency in both bioassays, ranging from a 2.85 (LD50) to 18.4 (IC50) fold increase in comparative bioactivity. The successful incorporation of PTMs, with retention of both potency and nAChR isoform selectivity, ultimately pushes new boundaries of peptide bioengineering and the generation of novel α-conotoxin-like sequences.

Proteogenomic Assessment of Intraspecific Venom Variability: Molecular Adaptations in the Venom Arsenal of Conus purpurascens

Cone snails produce venom that contains diverse groups of peptides (conopeptides/conotoxins) and display a wide mass range, high rate of posttranslational modifications, and many potential pharmacological targets. Here we employ a proteogenomic approach to maximize conopeptide identification from the injected venom of Conus purpurascens. mRNA sequences from C. purpurascens venom ducts were assembled into a search database and complemented with known sequences and de novo approaches. We used a top-down peptidomic approach and tandem mass spectrometry identification to compare injected venom samples of 27 specimens. This intraspecific analysis yielded 543 unique conopeptide identifications, which included 33 base conopeptides and their toxiforms, 21 of which are novel. The results reveal two distinct venom profiles with different synergistic interactions to effectively target neural pathways aimed to immobilize prey. These venom expression patterns will aid target prediction, a significant step toward developing conotoxins into valuable drugs or neural probes.

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We analyzed the injected venom of 27 specimens of Conus purpurascens.

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We found 543 unique conopeptide identifications.

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We identified 21 novel base conopeptides.

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We found two distinct venom profiles with different synergistic interactions.

αM-Conotoxin MIIIJ Blocks Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors at Neuromuscular Junctions of Frog and Fish

We report the discovery and functional characterization of αM-Conotoxin MIIIJ, a peptide from the venom of the fish-hunting cone snail Conus magus. Injections of αM-MIIIJ induced paralysis in goldfish (Carassius auratus) but not mice. Intracellular recording from skeletal muscles of fish (C. auratus) and frog (Xenopus laevis) revealed that αM-MIIIJ inhibited postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) with an IC₅₀ of ~0.1 μM. With comparable potency, αM-MIIIJ reversibly blocked ACh-gated currents (I_ACh) of voltage-clamped X. laevis oocytes exogenously expressing nAChRs cloned from zebrafish (Danio rerio) muscle. αM-MIIIJ also protected against slowly-reversible block of I_ACh by α-bungarotoxin (α-BgTX, a snake neurotoxin) and α-conotoxin EI (α-EI, from Conus ermineus another fish hunter) that competitively block nAChRs at the ACh binding site. Furthermore, assessment by fluorescence microscopy showed that αM-MIIIJ inhibited the binding of fluorescently-tagged α-BgTX at neuromuscular junctions of X. laevis, C. auratus, and D. rerio. (Note, we observed that αM-MIIIJ can block adult mouse and human muscle nAChRs exogenously expressed in X. laevis oocytes, but with IC₅₀s ~100-times higher than those of zebrafish nAChRs.) Taken together, these results indicate that αM-MIIIJ inhibits muscle nAChRs and furthermore apparently does so by interfering with the binding of ACh to its receptor. Comparative alignments with homologous sequences identified in other fish hunters revealed that αM-MIIIJ defines a new class of muscle nAChR inhibitors from cone snails.

Conotoxin Diversity in the Venom Gland Transcriptome of the Magician's Cone, Pionoconus magus

The transcriptomes of the venom glands of two individuals of the magician’s cone, Pionoconus magus, from Okinawa (Japan) were sequenced, assembled, and annotated. In addition, RNA-seq raw reads available at the SRA database from one additional specimen of P. magus from the Philippines were also assembled and annotated. The total numbers of identified conotoxin precursors and hormones per specimen were 118, 112, and 93. The three individuals shared only five identical sequences whereas the two specimens from Okinawa had 30 sequences in common. The total number of distinct conotoxin precursors and hormones for P. magus was 275, and were assigned to 53 conotoxin precursor and hormone superfamilies, two of which were new based on their divergent signal region. The superfamilies that had the highest number of precursors were M (42), O1 (34), T (27), A (18), O2 (17), and F (13), accounting for 55% of the total diversity. The D superfamily, previously thought to be exclusive of vermivorous cones was found in P. magus and contained a highly divergent mature region. Similarly, the A superfamily alpha 4/3 was found in P. magus despite the fact that it was previously postulated to be almost exclusive of the genus Rhombiconus. Differential expression analyses of P. magus compared to Chelyconus ermineus, the only fish-hunting cone from the Atlantic Ocean revealed that M and A2 superfamilies appeared to be more expressed in the former whereas the O2 superfamily was more expressed in the latter.

Advances in venomics

The term “venomics” was coined to describe the global study of venom and venom glands, targeting comprehensive characterization of the whole toxin profile of a venomous animal by means of proteomics, transcriptomics, genomics and bioinformatics studies.

A perspective on toxicology of Conus venom peptides

The evolutionarily unique and ecologically diverse family Conidae presents fundamental opportunities for marine pharmacology research and drug discovery. The focus of this investigation is to summarize the worldwide distribution of Conus and their species diversity with special reference to the Indian coast. In addition, this study will contribute to understanding the structural properties of conotoxin and therapeutic application of Conus venom peptides. Cone snails can inject a mix of various conotoxins and these venoms are their major weapon for prey capture, and may also have other biological purposes, and some of these conotoxins fatal to humans. Conus venoms contain a remarkable diversity of pharmacologically active small peptides; their targets are an iron channel and receptors in the neuromuscular system. Interspecific divergence is pronounced in venom peptide genes, which is generally attributed to their species specific biotic interactions. There is a notable interspecific divergence observed in venom peptide genes, which can be justified as of biotic interactions that stipulate species peculiar habitat and ecology of cone snails. There are several conopeptides used in clinical trials and one peptide (Ziconotide) has received FDA approval for treatment of pain. This perspective provides a comprehensive overview of the distribution of cone shells and focus on the molecular approach in documenting their taxonomy and diversity with special reference to geographic distribution of Indian cone snails, structure and properties of conopeptide and their pharmacological targets and future directions.

Conotoxins and their regulatory considerations

Venom derived peptides from marine cone snails, conotoxins, have demonstrated unique pharmacological targeting properties that have been pivotal in advancing medical research. The awareness of their true toxic origins and potent pharmacological nature is emphasized by their 'select agent' classification by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. We briefly introduce the biochemical and pharmacological aspects of conotoxins, highlighting current advancements into their biological engineering, and provide details to the present regulations that govern their use in research.

A 'conovenomic' analysis of the milked venom from the mollusk-hunting cone snail Conus textile--the pharmacological importance of post-translational modifications

Cone snail venoms provide a largely untapped source of novel peptide drug leads. To enhance the discovery phase, a detailed comparative proteomic analysis was undertaken on milked venom from the mollusk-hunting cone snail, Conus textile, from three different geographic locations (Hawai'i, American Samoa and Australia's Great Barrier Reef). A novel milked venom conopeptide rich in post-translational modifications was discovered, characterized and named α-conotoxin TxIC. We assign this conopeptide to the 4/7 α-conotoxin family based on the peptide's sequence homology and cDNA pre-propeptide alignment. Pharmacologically, α-conotoxin TxIC demonstrates minimal activity on human acetylcholine receptor models (100 μM, <5% inhibition), compared to its high paralytic potency in invertebrates, PD50 = 34.2 nMol kg(-1). The non-post-translationally modified form, [Pro](2,8)[Glu](16)α-conotoxin TxIC, demonstrates differential selectivity for the α3β2 isoform of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor with maximal inhibition of 96% and an observed IC50 of 5.4 ± 0.5 μM. Interestingly its comparative PD50 (3.6 μMol kg(-1)) in invertebrates was ~100 fold more than that of the native peptide. Differentiating α-conotoxin TxIC from other α-conotoxins is the high degree of post-translational modification (44% of residues). This includes the incorporation of γ-carboxyglutamic acid, two moieties of 4-trans hydroxyproline, two disulfide bond linkages, and C-terminal amidation. These findings expand upon the known chemical diversity of α-conotoxins and illustrate a potential driver of toxin phyla-selectivity within Conus.

Identifying key amino acid residues that affect α-conotoxin AuIB inhibition of α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

α-Conotoxin AuIB is a selective α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtype inhibitor. Its analgesic properties are believed to result from it activating GABAB receptors and subsequently inhibiting CaV2.2 voltage-gated calcium channels. The structural determinants that mediate diverging AuIB activity at these targets are unknown. We performed alanine scanning mutagenesis of AuIB and α3β4 nAChR, homology modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations to identify the structural determinants of the AuIB·α3β4 nAChR interaction. Two alanine-substituted AuIB analogues, [P6A]AuIB and [F9A]AuIB, did not inhibit the α3β4 nAChR. NMR and CD spectroscopy studies demonstrated that [F9A]AuIB retains its native globular structure, so its activity loss is probably due to loss of specific toxin-receptor residue pairwise contacts. Compared with AuIB, the concentration-response curve for inhibition of α3β4 by [F9A]AuIB shifted rightward more than 10-fold, and its subtype selectivity profile changed. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations suggest that Phe-9 of AuIB interacts with a two-residue binding pocket on the β4 nAChR subunit. This hypothesis was confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of the β4-Trp-59 and β4-Lys-61 residues of loop D, which form a putative binding pocket. AuIB analogues with Phe-9 substitutions corroborated the finding of a binding pocket on the β4 subunit and gave further insight into how AuIB Phe-9 interacts with the β4 subunit. In summary, we identified critical residues that mediate interactions between AuIB and its cognate nAChR subtype. These findings might help improve the design of analgesic conopeptides that selectively "avoid" nAChR receptors while targeting receptors involved with nociception.