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Hasuda AL, Bracarense APFRL. Toxicity of the emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins: A mini-review. Toxicon 2024; 239:107534. [PMID: 38013058 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Beauvericin and enniatins, emerging mycotoxins produced mainly by Fusarium species, are natural contaminants of cereals and cereal products. These mycotoxins are cyclic hexadepsipeptides with ionophore properties and their toxicity mechanism is related to their ability to transport cations across the cell membrane. Beauvericin and enniatins are cytotoxic, as they decrease cell viability, promote cell cycle arrest, and increase apoptosis and the generation of reactive oxygen species in several cell lines. They also cause changes at the transcriptomic level and have immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Toxicokinetic results are scarce, and, despite its proven toxic effects in vitro, no regulation or risk assessment has yet been performed due to a lack of in vivo data. This mini-review aims to report the information available in the literature on studies of in vitro and in vivo toxic effects with beauvericin and enniatins, which are mycotoxins of increasing interest to animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lopes Hasuda
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
| | - Ana Paula F R L Bracarense
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Londrina State University, P.O. Box 10.011, Londrina, PR, 86057-970, Brazil.
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Castell A, Arroyo-Manzanares N, Palma-Manrique R, Campillo N, Torres C, Fenoll J, Viñas P. Evaluation of distribution of emerging mycotoxins in human tissues: applications of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:449-459. [PMID: 37987769 PMCID: PMC10761373 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-05040-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a complete study of the distribution of emerging mycotoxins in the human body has been carried out. Specifically, the presence of enniatins (A, A1, B, B1) and beauvericin has been monitored in brain, lung, kidney, fat, liver, and heart samples. A unique methodology based on solid-liquid extraction (SLE) followed by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was proposed for the six different matrices. Mycotoxin isolation was performed by adding ultrapure water, acetonitrile, and sodium chloride to the tissue sample for SLE, while the DLLME step was performed using chloroform as extraction solvent. Subsequently, the analysis was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The proposed method allowed limits of quantification (LOQs) to be obtained in a range of 0.001-0.150 ng g-1, depending on the tissue and mycotoxin. The precision was investigated intraday and interday, not exceeding of 9.8% of relative standard deviation. In addition, trueness studies achieved 75 to 115% at a mycotoxin concentration of 25 ng g-1 and from 82 to 118% at 5 ng g-1. The application of this methodology to 26 forensic autopsies demonstrated the bioaccumulation of emerging mycotoxins in the human body since all mycotoxins were detected in tissues. Enniatin B (ENNB) showed a high occurrence, being detected in 100% of liver (7 ± 13 ng g-1) and fat samples (0.2 ± 0.8 ng g-1). The lung had a high incidence of all emerging mycotoxins at low concentrations, while ENNB, ENNB1, and ENNA1 were not quantifiable in heart samples. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was also investigated, and statistical tests were applied to evaluate the distribution of these mycotoxins in the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Castell
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain.
| | - Rosa Palma-Manrique
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Natalia Campillo
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Carmen Torres
- Department of Legal and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute (IMIB-Arrixaca), University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - José Fenoll
- Murcia Institute of Agricultural and Alimentary Research and Development IMIDA, 30150, Murcia, Spain
| | - Pilar Viñas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100, Murcia, Spain.
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Ojiro R, Okano H, Ozawa S, Yamagata H, Zou X, Tang Q, Jin M, Sasaki K, Yoshida T, Yoshinari T, Shibutani M. Pharmacokinetics and 28-day repeated-dose toxicity of enniatin B after oral administration in mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 177:113814. [PMID: 37179047 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Enniatins are emerging mycotoxins that contaminate foods. The present study investigated the oral pharmacokinetics and 28-day repeated-dose oral toxicity of enniatin B (ENNB) in CD1 (ICR) mice. In the pharmacokinetic study, male mice received a single oral or intravenous dose of ENNB [30 mg/kg body weight (BW) and 1 mg/kg BW, respectively]. After oral dosing, ENNB exhibited 139.9% bioavailability, a 5.1-hr elimination half-life, 5.26% fecal excretion from 4 to 24 h post-dose, and upregulation of Cyp7a1, Cyp2a12, Cyp2b10, and Cyp26a1 in the liver 2 h post-dosing. In the 28-day toxicity study, ENNB was administered to male and female mice by oral gavage at 0, 7.5, 15, and 30 mg/kg BW/day. Females (7.5 and 30 mg/kg) showed dose-unrelated decreased food consumption without accompanying changes in clinical parameters. Males (30 mg/kg) showed low red blood cell counts and high blood urea nitrogen levels and absolute kidney weights; however, other related parameters including the histopathology of systemic organs/tissues were unchanged. These results suggest that ENNB may not induce toxicity after 28 days of oral administration in mice, despite high absorption. The no-observed-adverse-effect level of ENNB after 28 days of repeated oral doses was 30 mg/kg BW/day for both sexes of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Ojiro
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Hiromu Okano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Ozawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Yamagata
- Toxicology Division, Gotemba Laboratory, BoZo Research Center Inc., 1284 Kamado, Gotemba-shi, Shizuoka, 412-0039, Japan.
| | - Xinyu Zou
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Qian Tang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Meilan Jin
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, No. 2 Tiansheng Road, BeiBei District, Chongqing, 400715, PR China.
| | - Kazuaki Sasaki
- Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Toshinori Yoshida
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
| | - Tomoya Yoshinari
- Division of Microbiology, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa, 210-9501, Japan.
| | - Makoto Shibutani
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Division of Animal Life Science, Institute of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan; Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo, 183-8509, Japan.
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Cytochrome P450 isoforms contribution, plasma protein binding, toxicokinetics of enniatin A in rats and in vivo clearance prediction in humans. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 164:112988. [PMID: 35398446 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins, such as enniatin A (ENNA), are becoming a worldwide concern owing to their presence in different types of food and feed. However, comprehensive toxicokinetic data that links intake, exposure and toxicological effects of ENNA has not been elucidated yet. Therefore, the present study investigated the in vitro (rat and human) and in vivo (rat) toxicokinetic properties of ENNA. Towards this, an easily applicable and sensitive bioanalytical method was developed and validated for the estimation of ENNA in rat plasma. ENNA exhibited high plasma protein binding (99%), high hepatic clearance and mainly underwent metabolism via CYP3A4 (74%). The in-house predicted hepatic clearance (54 mL/min/kg) and observed in vivo rat clearance (55 mL/min/kg) were comparable. The predicted in vivo human hepatic clearance was 18 mL/min/kg. ENNA underwent slow absorption (Tmax = 4 h) and rapid elimination following oral administration to rats. The absolute oral bioavailability was 47%. The toxicokinetic findings for ENNA from this study will help in designing and interpreting toxicological studies in rats. Besides, these findings could be used in physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model development for exposure predictions and risk assessment for ENNA in humans.
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Analysis of Mycotoxin and Secondary Metabolites in Commercial and Traditional Slovak Cheese Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020134. [PMID: 35202161 PMCID: PMC8878695 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Cheese represents a dairy product extremely inclined to fungal growth and mycotoxin production. The growth of fungi belonging to Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Claviceps, Alternaria, and Trichoderma genera in or on cheese leads to undesirable changes able to affect the quality of the final products. In the present investigation, a total of 68 types of commercial and traditional Slovak cheeses were analyzed to investigate the occurrence of fungal metabolites. Altogether, 13 fungal metabolites were identified and quantified. Aflatoxin M1, the only mycotoxin regulated in milk and dairy products, was not detected in any case. However, the presence of metabolites that have never been reported in cheeses, such as tryptophol at a maximum concentration level from 13.4 to 7930 µg/kg (average: 490 µg/kg), was recorded. Out of all detected metabolites, enniatin B represents the most frequently detected mycotoxin (0.06–0.71 µg/kg) in the analyzed samples. Attention is drawn to the lack of data on mycotoxins’ origin from Slovak cheeses; in fact, this is the first reported investigation. Our results indicate the presence of fungal mycotoxin contamination for which maximum permissible levels are not established, highlighting the importance of monitoring the source and producers of contamination in order to protect consumers’ health.
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Cimbalo A, Frangiamone M, Juan C, Font G, Lozano M, Manyes L. Proteomics evaluation of enniatins acute toxicity in rat liver. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 151:112130. [PMID: 33741480 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Enniatins (ENs) are emerging mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungi which are cytotoxic also at low concentrations due to its ionophoric properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the hepatic toxicity of ENs exposure at different concentrations in Wistar rats through a proteomic approach. Animals were intoxicated by oral gavage with medium (EN A 256, ENA1 353, ENB 540, ENB1 296 μg/mL) and high concentrations (ENA 513, ENA1 706, ENB 1021, ENB1 593 μg/mL) of an ENs mixture and sacrificed after 8 h. Protein extraction was performed using powdered liver. Peptides were analyzed using a liquid chromatography coupled with a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Proteins were filtered by abundance using Mass Professional Profiler software (Agilent Technologies) and 57 were differentially expressed when compared to the control. In terms of abundance, the liver biomarker Carboamoyl-phosphate synthase showed the highest levels in all conditions employed while actin-1 had the lowest. Bioinformatic analysis using DAVID platform reported acetylation, nucleotide phosphate-binding region:NAD and catalytic activity as the most represented terms. Furthermore, metabolism was the most significant and enriched pathway in Reactome overrepresentation. In conclusion, ENs acute exposure caused protein expression changes related to major cellular processes in rats, hinting its involvement in liver disturbance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cimbalo
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain
| | - M Frangiamone
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain
| | - C Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain
| | - G Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain
| | - M Lozano
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain.
| | - L Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Carrer Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Bujassot, Spain
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Křížová L, Dadáková K, Dvořáčková M, Kašparovský T. Feedborne Mycotoxins Beauvericin and Enniatins and Livestock Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13010032. [PMID: 33466409 PMCID: PMC7824875 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several species of fungi, including the Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species. Currently, more than 300 structurally diverse mycotoxins are known, including a group called minor mycotoxins, namely enniatins, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin. Beauvericin and enniatins possess a variety of biological activities. Their antimicrobial, antibiotic, or ionoforic activities have been proven and according to various bioassays, they are believed to be toxic. They are mainly found in cereal grains and their products, but they have also been detected in forage feedstuff. Mycotoxins in feedstuffs of livestock animals are of dual concern. First one relates to the safety of animal-derived food. Based on the available data, the carry-over of minor mycotoxins from feed to edible animal tissues is possible. The second concern relates to detrimental effects of mycotoxins on animal health and performance. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the relation of minor mycotoxins to livestock animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila Křížová
- Department of Animal Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic;
| | - Kateřina Dadáková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
| | - Michaela Dvořáčková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
| | - Tomáš Kašparovský
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic; (K.D.); (M.D.)
- Correspondence:
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Juan-García A, Bind MA, Engert F. Larval zebrafish as an in vitro model for evaluating toxicological effects of mycotoxins. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 202:110909. [PMID: 32800244 PMCID: PMC7431674 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins in food has created concern. Mycotoxin prevalence in our environment has changed in the last few years maybe due to climatic and other environmental changes. Evidence has emerged from in vitro and in vivo models: some mycotoxins have been found to be potentially carcinogenic, embryogenically harmful, teratogenic, and to generate nephrotoxicity. The risk assessment of exposures to mycotoxins at early life stages became mandatory. In this regard, the effects of toxic compounds on zebrafish have been widely studied, and more recently, mycotoxins have been tested with respect to their effects on developmental and teratogenic effects in this model system, which offers several advantages as it is an inexpensive and an accessible vertebrate model to study developmental toxicity. External post-fertilization and quick maturation make it sensitive to environmental effects and facilitate the detection of endpoints such as morphological deformities, time of hatching, and behavioral responses. Therefore, there is a potential for larval zebrafish to provide new insights into the toxicological effects of mycotoxins. We provide an overview of recent mycotoxin toxicological research in zebrafish embryos and larvae, highlighting its usefulness to toxicology and discuss the strengths and limitations of this model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés S/n, 46100, Burjassot, València, Spain; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Marie-Abèle Bind
- Department of Statistics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Florian Engert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Emmanuel K T, Els VP, Bart H, Evelyne D, Els VH, Els D. Carry-over of some Fusarium mycotoxins in tissues and eggs of chickens fed experimentally mycotoxin-contaminated diets. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111715. [PMID: 32871192 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium mycotoxins are fungal contaminants found in different crops intended for human and animal consumption. Due to the co-occurrence of several of mycotoxins, the present study aimed at examining the transfer of these toxins into tissues of broiler chickens and eggs of laying hens fed contaminated diets. After an adaptation period, the chickens were fed contaminated diets containing mg/kg levels of deoxynivalenol (DON), enniatins (ENN A, A1, B, B1) and beauvericin (BEA) and high μg/kg levels of HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) during a repletion period of two weeks, followed by a depletion period of two weeks. DON, ZEN, T-2 and HT-2 were not carried out into the skin and the liver of broiler chickens. ENN B (20.5 ± 6.6 μg/kg) and BEA (162 ± 55 μg/kg) were found in the liver, while in the skin their respective concentrations were 50 ± 17 μg/kg and 120 ± 16 μg/kg during the first week of the repletion period. Carry-over rates into liver and skin were higher for BEA (1.6% and 1.2%, respectively) than for ENNs (0.1 and 0.4%, respectively). During the depletion period, ENNs and BEA were eliminated from the skin and the liver. ENN B, ENN B1 and BEA were carried over into eggs at 0.1%, 0.05% and 0.44% upon 2-3 days of feeding the contaminated diet, respectively. These transfers were fully eliminated 9-10 days after feeding the control diet again. These results indicate the transfer of ENN B, ENN B1 and BEA from feed to chicken offal, meat products and eggs at a very low degree, thus marginally contribute to the total dietary intake of these fusariotoxins for consumers. Nevertheless, taking precautionary measures in the field, harvest, transport and storage of the raw materials is required to keep the mycotoxin concentration in feed below the safe levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tangni Emmanuel K
- Sciensano, Physical and Chemical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, 3080, Tervuren, Belgium.
| | - Van Pamel Els
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - Huybrechts Bart
- Sciensano, Physical and Chemical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, 3080, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Delezie Evelyne
- ILVO, Animal Sciences Unit, Scheldeweg 68, 9090, Melle, Belgium
| | - Van Hoeck Els
- Sciensano, Physical and Chemical Health Risks, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Leuvensesteenweg 17, 3080, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Daeseleire Els
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090, Melle, Belgium
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Taroncher M, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ. T-2 toxin and its metabolites: Characterization, cytotoxic mechanisms and adaptive cellular response in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111654. [PMID: 32777337 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The T-2 toxin (T-2) is a type A trichothecene produced by Fusarium species, and the most cytotoxic mycotoxin of the group. A study was made to determine T-2 cytotoxicity in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells; evaluate whether there is an adaptive response of HepG2 cells exposed to low concentrations of T-2; identify the T-2 metabolites by LC-Q-TOF MS; and determine whether T-2 disrupts cell proliferation in HepG2 cells. The IC50 values obtained ranged from 61.9 ± 2.4 nM to 70.7 ± 7.4 nM. No adaptive response was observed. There was no evidence of extra- or intracellular accumulation of T-2 after 24 h of exposure as determined by LC-Q-TOF MS. However, some T-2 metabolites such as HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol and T-2 triol showed important (>75%) intracellular accumulation. Cell distribution was significantly increased in SubG0/G1 phase (11.8-fold higher) and decreased (12%) in G2/M phase at 60 nM T-2, versus the control. Simultaneously, increased necrosis (238%) and apoptosis/necrosis (up to 35.5%) were observed in HepG2 cells exposed to T-2. In conclusion, the results show that T-2 leads to loss of cell viability without an adaptive response, and that the metabolites generated play an important role in T-2 cytotoxicity, increasing HepG2 cell damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Taroncher
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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Cimbalo A, Alonso-Garrido M, Font G, Manyes L. Toxicity of mycotoxins in vivo on vertebrate organisms: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 137:111161. [PMID: 32014537 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are considered to be a major risk factor affecting human and animal health as they are one of the most dangerous contaminants of food and feed. This review aims to compile the research developed up to date on the toxicological effects that mycotoxins can induce on human health, through the examination of a selected number of studies in vivo. AFB1 shows to be currently the most studied mycotoxin in vivo, followed by DON, ZEA and OTA. Scarce data was found for FBs, PAT, CIT, AOH and Fusarium emerging mycotoxins. The majority of them concerned the investigation of immunotoxicity, whereas the rest consisted in the study of genotoxicity, oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity, cytotoxicity, teratogenicity and neurotoxicity. In order to assess the risk, a wide range of different techniques have been employed across the reviewed studies: qPCR, ELISA, IHC, WB, LC-MS/MS, microscopy, enzymatic assays, microarray and RNA-Seq. In the last decade, the attention has been drawn to immunologic and transcriptomic aspects of mycotoxins' action, confirming their toxicity at molecular level. Even though, more in vivo studies are needed to further investigate their mechanism of action on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cimbalo
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avinguda Vicent Andrés Estellés S/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain.
| | - M Alonso-Garrido
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avinguda Vicent Andrés Estellés S/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - G Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avinguda Vicent Andrés Estellés S/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - L Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avinguda Vicent Andrés Estellés S/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
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12
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Arroyo-Manzanares N, Peñalver-Soler R, Campillo N, Viñas P. Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction using Magnetic Carbon Nanotube Composite for the Determination of Emergent Mycotoxins in Urine Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E51. [PMID: 31952350 PMCID: PMC7020456 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dispersive magnetic solid-phase extraction (DMSPE) has received growing attention for sample treatment preconcentration prior to the separation of analytes due to its many advantages. In the present work, the potential of DMSPE for the determination of emergent mycotoxins (enniatins A, A1, B and B1, and beauvericin) is investigated for the first time. Different magnetic nanoparticles were tested and a magnetic multiwalled carbon nanotube (Fe3O4@MWCNT) composite was selected for the extraction and preconcentration of the five target mycotoxins in human urine samples before their analysis by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). The nanocomposite was characterized by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry, and X-ray diffraction. Several parameters affecting the adsorption and desorption of DMSPE steps were optimized and the method was fully validated. Due to a matrix effect, matrix-matched calibration curves were necessary to carry out quantification. In this way, limits of quantification of between 0.04 and 0.1 μg/L, relative standard deviation values lower than 12% and recoveries between 89.3% and 98.9% were obtained. Finally, a study of the reuse of the Fe3O4@MWCNT composite was carried out, confirming that it can be reused at least four times.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pilar Viñas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence “Campus Mare Nostrum”, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain; (N.A.-M.); (R.P.-S.); (N.C.)
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13
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Battilani P, Palumbo R, Giorni P, Dall’Asta C, Dellafiora L, Gkrillas A, Toscano P, Crisci A, Brera C, De Santis B, Rosanna Cammarano R, Della Seta M, Campbell K, Elliot C, Venancio A, Lima N, Gonçalves A, Terciolo C, Oswald IP. Mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed: holistic, innovative, flexible risk assessment modelling approach:. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2020.en-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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14
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Sotnichenko A, Pantsov E, Shinkarev D, Okhanov V. Hydrophobized Reversed-Phase Adsorbent for Protection of Dairy Cattle against Lipophilic Toxins from Diet. Efficiensy in Vitro and in Vivo. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050256. [PMID: 31067794 PMCID: PMC6563209 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The steady growth of inflammatory diseases of the udder in dairy cattle forces us to look for the causes of this phenomenon in the context of growing chemical pollution of the environment and feeds. Within the framework of this concept, an analysis was made of the polarity level of the three toxic impurity groups, which are commonly present in dairy cattle feeds. These impurities are presented by mycotoxins, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and persistent organic pollutants (POP). It has been determined that 46% of studied mycotoxins (n = 1500) and 100% of studied polyaromatic hydrocarbons (n = 45) and persistent organic pollutants (n = 55) are lipophilic compounds, prone to bioaccumulation. A comparative evaluation of the sorption capacity of four adsorbents of a different nature and polarity with respect to the simplest PAH, naphthalene and lipophilic estrogenic mycotoxin, zearalenone in vitro has been carried out. The highest efficiency in these experiments was demonstrated by the reversed-phase polyoctylated polysilicate hydrogel (POPSH). The use of POPSH in a herd of lactating cows significantly reduced the transfer of aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor, typical POPs from the “dirty dozen”, to the milk. The relevance of protecting the main functional systems of animals from the damaging effects of lipophilic toxins from feeds using non-polar adsorbents, and the concept of evaluating the effectiveness of various feed adsorbents for dairy cattle by their influence on the somatic cell count in the collected milk are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Sotnichenko
- Research and Production Center "Fox & Co" Ltd., 117149, Simferopol Boulevard, 8, 117149 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Evgeny Pantsov
- Research and Production Center "Fox & Co" Ltd., 117149, Simferopol Boulevard, 8, 117149 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Dmitry Shinkarev
- Research and Production Center "Fox & Co" Ltd., 117149, Simferopol Boulevard, 8, 117149 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Victor Okhanov
- Research and Production Center "Fox & Co" Ltd., 117149, Simferopol Boulevard, 8, 117149 Moscow, Russia.
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15
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Mamur S, Yuzbasioglu D, Yılmaz S, Erikel E, Unal F. Assessment of cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of enniatin-A in vitro. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:1633-1644. [PMID: 29889654 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1486513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Enniatin A (EN-A) is a Fusarium mycotoxin which is a common contaminant in grains and especially in maize and it causes serious loss of product. The aim of this study was to investigate the cytotoxic effects using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay in human cervix carcinoma (HeLa) cell line, and genotoxic effects of EN-A using chromosome aberrations (CAs), sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), micronuclei (MN) and comet assays in human lymphocytes. The cells were treated with 0.07, 0.14, 0.29, 0.57, 1.15, 2.29, 4.59 and 9.17 μM concentrations of EN-A. It exhibited cytotoxic effects in HeLa cell lines especially when the concentrations were increased. The half-inhibitory value (IC50) was determined as 1.15 μM concentration for 24 h and 0.57 μM concentration for 48 h. However, EN-A failed to affect the frequency of CAs, SCEs and MN in human lymphocytes. Only a slight increase was observed in the frequency of SCEs at 0.57 μM concentration over 48 h. The replication (RI) and nuclear division (NDI) indices were not affected. On the contrary, EN-A decreased the mitotic index (MI) significantly at all concentrations compared to the negative control and solvent control (except at 0.29 μM for 24 h, and except at 0.14, 0.29 and 0.57 μM for 48 h). Treatments over 2.29 μM showed toxic effects in human lymphocytes. EN-A significantly increased comet tail intensity (except at 0.07 and 0.57 μM) in isolated human lymphocytes. The results of this study demonstrate that EN-A has an obvious cytotoxic effect especially when the EN-A concentration was increased. In addition, EN-A could exhibit a mild genotoxic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevcan Mamur
- a Life Sciences Application and Research Center , Gazi University , Ankara , Turkey
| | - Deniz Yuzbasioglu
- b Science Faculty, Department of Biology , Gazi University , Ankara , Turkey
| | - Serkan Yılmaz
- c Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Midwifery , Ankara University , Ankara , Turkey
| | - Esra Erikel
- b Science Faculty, Department of Biology , Gazi University , Ankara , Turkey
| | - Fatma Unal
- b Science Faculty, Department of Biology , Gazi University , Ankara , Turkey
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16
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Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Izzo L, Gaspari A, Graziani G, Mañes J, Ritieni A. Urinary levels of enniatin B and its phase I metabolites: First human pilot biomonitoring study. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:454-459. [PMID: 29802944 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Enniatins (Enns) are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. and are widely distributed contaminants of cereals and derivate products. Among the different identified enniatins, Enn B is the most relevant analogue in cereals in Europe. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the occurrence of Enn B and Enn B phase I metabolites in 300 human urine samples throughout an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) methodology. Three different sample preparation procedures were evaluated and salting-out liquid-liquid extraction showed satisfactory validation results. Enn B was quantified in 83.7% of samples ranging from 0.006 to 0.391 ng/mL (average content: 0.016 ng/mL). In line with the in vitro observations with human liver microsomes, in the here analyzed samples the Enn B monooxygenated, N-demethylated and dioxygenated metabolites were tentatively found in 87.7%, 96.3% and 6.7% of samples. The data of this pilot biomonitoring survey indicate a frequent intake of enniatins in Italy, supporting further toxicological studies to provide better basis for understanding their potential effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- University of Valencia, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Luana Izzo
- Università di Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, Via D. Montesano, 49 - 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Anna Gaspari
- Università di Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, Via D. Montesano, 49 - 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Giulia Graziani
- Università di Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, Via D. Montesano, 49 - 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Jordi Mañes
- University of Valencia, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Ritieni
- Università di Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, Via D. Montesano, 49 - 80131 Napoli, Italy
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17
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Maranghi F, Tassinari R, Narciso L, Tait S, Rocca CL, Felice GD, Butteroni C, Corinti S, Barletta B, Cordelli E, Pacchierotti F, Eleuteri P, Villani P, Hegarat LL, Fessard V, Reale O. In vivo toxicity and genotoxicity of beauvericin and enniatins. Combined approach to study in vivo toxicity and genotoxicity of mycotoxins beauvericin (BEA) and enniatin B (ENNB). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2018.en-1406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eugenia Cordelli
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) Italy
| | - Francesca Pacchierotti
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) Italy
| | - Patrizia Eleuteri
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) Italy
| | - Paola Villani
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) Italy
| | - Ludovic Le Hegarat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) France
| | - Valérie Fessard
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) France
| | - Océane Reale
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) France
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18
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Manyes L, Escrivá L, Ruiz M, Juan-García A. Beauvericin and enniatin B effects on a human lymphoblastoid Jurkat T-cell model. Food Chem Toxicol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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19
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Prosperini A, Berrada H, Ruiz MJ, Caloni F, Coccini T, Spicer LJ, Perego MC, Lafranconi A. A Review of the Mycotoxin Enniatin B. Front Public Health 2017; 5:304. [PMID: 29201864 PMCID: PMC5697211 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin enniatin B (ENN B) is a secondary metabolism product by Fusarium fungi. It is a well-known antibacterial, antihelmintic, antifungal, herbicidal, and insecticidal compound. It has been found as a contaminant in several food commodities, particularly in cereal grains, co-occurring also with other mycotoxins. The primary mechanism of action of ENN B is mainly due to its ionophoric characteristics, but the exact mechanism is still unclear. In the last two decades, it has been a topic of great interest since its potent mammalian cytotoxic activity was demonstrated in several mammalian cell lines. Moreover, the co-exposure in vitro with other mycotoxins enhances its toxic potential through synergic effects, depending on the concentrations tested. Despite its clear cytotoxic effect, European Food Safety Authority stated that acute exposure to ENNs, such as ENN B, does not indicate concern for human health, but a concern might be the chronic exposure. However, given the lack of relevant toxicity data, no firm conclusion could be drawn and a risk assessment was not possible. In fact, very few studies have been carried out in vivo and, in these studies, no adverse effects were observed. So, research on toxicological effects induced by ENN B is still on-going. Recently, some studies are dealing with new advances regarding ENN B. This review summarizes the information on biochemical and biological activity of ENN B, focusing on toxicological aspects and on the latest advances in research on ENN B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Prosperini
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Houda Berrada
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Francesca Caloni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine (DIMEVET), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Teresa Coccini
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Toxicology, Toxicology Unit, Maugeri Clinical Scientific Institutes SpA-BS, IRCCS Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Leon J Spicer
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Maria Chiara Perego
- Department of Animal Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Alessandra Lafranconi
- Centro di Studio e Ricerca sulla Sanità Pubblica (CESP), Università Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,Department of International Health, FHML, CAPHRI, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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20
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Gruber-Dorninger C, Novak B, Nagl V, Berthiller F. Emerging Mycotoxins: Beyond Traditionally Determined Food Contaminants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7052-7070. [PMID: 27599910 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Modern analytical techniques can determine a multitude of fungal metabolites contaminating food and feed. In addition to known mycotoxins, for which maximum levels in food are enforced, also currently unregulated, so-called "emerging mycotoxins" were shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the relevance of selected emerging mycotoxins to food and feed safety. Acute and chronic toxicity as well as occurrence data are presented for enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. By far not all of the detected compounds are toxicologically relevant at their naturally occurring levels and are therefore of little or no health concern to consumers. Still, gaps in knowledge have been identified for several compounds. These gaps should be closed by the scientific community in the coming years to allow a proper risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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21
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Studies on the Presence of Mycotoxins in Biological Samples: An Overview. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9080251. [PMID: 28820481 PMCID: PMC5577585 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9080251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites with bioaccumulation levels leading to their carry-over into animal fluids, organs, and tissues. As a consequence, mycotoxin determination in biological samples from humans and animals has been reported worldwide. Since most mycotoxins show toxic effects at low concentrations and considering the extremely low levels present in biological samples, the application of reliable detection methods is required. This review summarizes the information regarding the studies involving mycotoxin determination in biological samples over the last 10 years. Relevant data on extraction methodology, detection techniques, sample size, limits of detection, and quantitation are presented herein. Briefly, liquid-liquid extraction followed by LC-MS/MS determination was the most common technique. The most analyzed mycotoxin was ochratoxin A, followed by zearalenone and deoxynivalenol—including their metabolites, enniatins, fumonisins, aflatoxins, T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Moreover, the studies were classified by their purpose, mainly focused on the development of analytical methodologies, mycotoxin biomonitoring, and exposure assessment. The study of tissue distribution, bioaccumulation, carry-over, persistence and transference of mycotoxins, as well as, toxicokinetics and ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) were other proposed goals for biological sample analysis. Finally, an overview of risk assessment was discussed.
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22
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Fraeyman S, Croubels S, Devreese M, Antonissen G. Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070228. [PMID: 28718805 PMCID: PMC5535175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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23
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Effect of Fusarium-Derived Metabolites on the Barrier Integrity of Differentiated Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2). Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8110345. [PMID: 27869761 PMCID: PMC5127141 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human, animal and plant pathogen Fusarium, which contaminates agricultural commodities worldwide, produces numerous secondary metabolites. An example is the thoroughly-investigated deoxynivalenol (DON), which severely impairs gastrointestinal barrier integrity. However, to date, the toxicological profile of other Fusarium-derived metabolites, such as enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, apicidin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, equisetin and bikaverin, are poorly characterized. Thus we examined their effects—as metabolites alone and as metabolites in combination with DON—on the intestinal barrier function of differentiated intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) over 72 h. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured at 24-h intervals, followed by evaluation of cell viability using neutral red (NR) assay. Enniatins A, A1, B and B1, apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin significantly reduced TEER. Moniliformin, equisetin, bikaverin and rubrofusarin had no effect on TEER. In the case of apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin, TEER reductions were further substantiated by the addition of otherwise no-effect DON concentrations. In all cases, viability was unaffected, confirming that TEER reductions were not due to compromised viability. Considering the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination and the diseases associated with intestinal barrier disruption, consumption of contaminated food or feed may have substantial health implications.
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Juan-García A, Juan C, Manyes L, Ruiz MJ. Binary and tertiary combination of alternariol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol on HepG2 cells: Toxic effects and evaluation of degradation products. Toxicol In Vitro 2016; 34:264-273. [PMID: 27131905 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fungi producers of mycotoxins are able to synthesize more than one toxin. Alternariol (AOH) is one of the mycotoxins produced by several Alternaria species, the most common one being Alternaria alternata. The toxins 3-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-Acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) are acetylated forms of deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium graminearum. In the present work it is determined and evaluated the toxic effects of binary and tertiary combination treatment of HepG2 cells with AOH, 3-ADON and 15-ADON, by using the MTT assay (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide), to subsequently apply the isobologram method and elucidate if the mixtures of these mycotoxins produced synergism, antagonism or additive effect; and lastly, to analyze mycotoxins conversion into metabolites produced and released by HepG2 cells after applying the treatment conditions by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) equipment and extracted from culture media. HepG2 cells were treated at different concentrations over 24, 48 and 72h. IC50 values detected at all times assayed, ranged from 0.8 to >25μM in binary combinations; while in tertiary it ranged from 7.5 to 12μM. Synergistic, antagonism or additive effect detected in the mixtures of these mycotoxins was different depending on low or high concentration. Among all four mycotoxins combinations assayed, 15-ADON+3-ADON presented the highest toxic potential. At all assayed times, recoveries values oscillated depending on the time and combination studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
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25
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Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Heilos D, Richter L, Süssmuth RD, Heffeter P, Sulyok M, Kenner L, Berger W, Dornetshuber-Fleiss R. Mouse tissue distribution and persistence of the food-born fusariotoxins Enniatin B and Beauvericin. Toxicol Lett 2016; 247:35-44. [PMID: 26892719 PMCID: PMC5850989 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The fusariotoxins Enniatin B (Enn B) and Beauvericin (Bea) have recently aroused interest as food contaminants and as potential anticancer drugs. However, limited data are available about their toxic profile. Aim of this study was to investigate their pharmacological behavior in vivo and their persistence in mice. Therefore, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to analyze the distribution of Enn B and Bea in selected tissue samples and biological fluids originating from mice treated intraperitoneally with these cyclohexadepsipeptides. Overall, no toxicological signs during life time or pathological changes were observed. Moreover, both fusariotoxins were found in all tissues and serum but not in urine. Highest amounts were measured in liver and fat demonstrating the moleculeś tendency to bioaccumulate in lipophilic tissues. While for Bea no metabolites could be detected, for Enn B three phase I metabolites (dioxygenated-Enn B, mono- and di-demethylated-Enn B) were found in liver and colon, with dioxygenated-Enn B being most prominent. Consequently, contribution of hepatic as well as intestinal metabolism seems to be involved in the overall metabolism of Enn B. Thus, despite their structural similarity, the metabolism of Enn B and Bea shows distinct discrepancies which might affect long-term effects and tolerability in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent A. Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Daniela Heilos
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lennart Richter
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Petra Heffeter
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Platform "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Lukas Kenner
- Clinical Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Vienna, Währingergürtel 18-20, Vienna, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Cancer Research, Währingerstraße 13a, Vienna, Austria,; Institute of Laboratory Animal Pathology, Veterinary University of Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, Vienna, Austria
| | - Walter Berger
- Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Platform "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", Vienna, Austria.
| | - Rita Dornetshuber-Fleiss
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Cancer Research, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Comprehensive Cancer Center of the Medical University, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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26
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Juan C, Covarelli L, Beccari G, Colasante V, Mañes J. Simultaneous analysis of twenty-six mycotoxins in durum wheat grain from Italy. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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27
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Fernández-Blanco C, Juan-García A, Juan C, Font G, Ruiz MJ. Alternariol induce toxicity via cell death and mitochondrial damage on Caco-2 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 88:32-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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28
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Escrivá L, Manyes L, Font G, Berrada H. Analysis of trichothecenes in laboratory rat feed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 33:329-38. [PMID: 26616914 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1124458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A method for the determination of seven trichothecenes, neosolaniol (NEO), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), in laboratory rat feed by GC-MS/MS was developed. Sample extraction and purification was performed by an acidified mixture of acetonitrile/water (80-20% v/v). Limits of quantitation (LOQs) were between 1 and 10 μg kg(-1) for all studied trichothecenes. Eight concentration levels between the LOQ and 100 × LOQ were used for the calibration curves. Matrix-matched calibration was used for quantitation purposes to compensate the detector signal enhancement obtained for all the analytes. The method accuracy was evaluated by recovery assays at three concentration levels, 25, 50 and 100 μg kg(-1) (n = 9). Recoveries ranged from 62% to 97% and precision, expressed as intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations, was evaluated for all compounds. The validated method was successfully applied to the analysis of 35 laboratory rat feed samples showing mycotoxin contamination in 66% of the samples. DON was the most prevalent trichothecene followed by 15-ADON, NIV and 3-ADON. The maximum DON concentration reached in real samples was 2156 ± 4.3 μg kg(-1), while NEO, DAS and FUS-X were not detected in any sample. Multi-contamination by at least two mycotoxins was observed in 17% of the analysed feed samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Escrivá
- a Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Burjassot , Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- a Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Burjassot , Spain
| | - Guillermina Font
- a Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Burjassot , Spain
| | - Houda Berrada
- a Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Burjassot , Spain
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29
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Belén Serrano A, Capriotti AL, Cavaliere C, Piovesana S, Samperi R, Ventura S, Laganà A. Development of a Rapid LC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins Enniatins and Beauvericin in Human Biological Fluids. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:3554-71. [PMID: 26371043 PMCID: PMC4591648 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7093554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel method for the simultaneous determination of enniatins A, A1, B and B1 and beauvericin, both in human urine and plasma samples, was developed and validated. The method consisted of a simple and easy pretreatment, specific for each matrix, followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) and detection by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with an electrospray ion source. The optimized SPE method was performed on graphitized carbon black cartridges after suitable dilution of the extracts, which allowed high mycotoxin absolute recoveries (76%–103%) and the removal of the major interferences from the matrix. The method was extensively evaluated for plasma and urine samples separately, providing satisfactory results in terms of linearity (R2 of 0.991–0.999), process efficiency (>81%), trueness (recoveries between 85% and 120%), intra-day precision (relative standard deviation, RSD < 18%), inter-day precision (RSD < 21%) and method quantification limits (ranging between 20 ng·L−1 and 40 ng·L−1 in plasma and between 5 ng·L−1 and 20 ng·L−1 in urine). Finally, the highly sensitive validated method was applied to some urine and plasma samples from different donors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Belén Serrano
- Laboratorio de Toxicología, Departament de Medicina Preventiva I Salut Pública, Ciències de l'Alimentació, Toxicologia I Medicina Legal Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de València, València 46010, Spain.
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Chiara Cavaliere
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Susy Piovesana
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Roberto Samperi
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Salvatore Ventura
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy.
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Escrivá L, Font G, Manyes L. In vivo toxicity studies of fusarium mycotoxins in the last decade: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 78:185-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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31
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Juan-García A, Juan C, König S, Ruiz MJ. Cytotoxic effects and degradation products of three mycotoxins: alternariol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol in liver hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Toxicol Lett 2015; 235:8-16. [PMID: 25772259 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
This work is focused in studying the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells of the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) by the MTT assay, as well as in the identification of the degradation products and/or metabolites originated after treatment by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) equipment and extracted from culture media. HepG2 cells were treated at different concentrations over 24, 48 and 72 h. The IC50 values were from 65 to 96 μM, from 3.6 to 6.2 μM and from 5.2 to 8.1 μM for AOH, 3-ADON and 15-ADON, respectively. Among all three mycotoxins assayed, deoxynivalenol (DON) derivated presented the highest toxic potential. Mass spectrometry (MS) scan chromatograms of studied mycotoxins allowed to detect products from: (i) the glutathione conjugate: (ii) sulfuric acid conjugated and (iii) amino group of cysteine conjugate. At all assayed times, the increase of recoveries values was obtained in a concentration dependent manner to finally decrease in the following ranking: 72 h>24h>48 h. The abundance relative (%) obtained for AOH's gluthathione ion product oscillated between 48 and 80% while for 3-ADON's ranged from 50 to 80%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Stefanie König
- Department of Nutrition and Home Economics, Faculty of Life Science, University of Applied Science Hamburg, Germany
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
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32
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Tolosa J, Font G, Mañes J, Ferrer E. Natural occurrence of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in feed and fish from aquaculture. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:12462-12470. [PMID: 25432004 DOI: 10.1021/jf5036838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A new analytical method for the simultaneous determination of enniatins (ENs) and beauvericin (BEA) in fish feed and fish tissues by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry with linear ion trap (LC-MS/MS-LIT) was developed. Results showed that the developed method is precise and sensitive. The presence of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, ENs and BEA, was determined in samples of aquaculture fish and feed for farmed fish, showing that all feed samples analyzed were contaminated with mycotoxins, with 100% coexistence. In aquacultured fish samples, the highest incidence was found in edible muscle and liver. As for the exposure assessment calculated, it was found that average consumer intake was lower than tolerable daily intake (TDI) values for other Fusarium mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefa Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia , Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
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33
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Scientific Opinion on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of beauvericin and enniatins in food and feed. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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