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Apoorva S, Nguyen NT, Sreejith KR. Recent developments and future perspectives of microfluidics and smart technologies in wearable devices. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1833-1866. [PMID: 38476112 DOI: 10.1039/d4lc00089g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Wearable devices are gaining popularity in the fields of health monitoring, diagnosis, and drug delivery. Recent advances in wearable technology have enabled real-time analysis of biofluids such as sweat, interstitial fluid, tears, saliva, wound fluid, and urine. The integration of microfluidics and emerging smart technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and Internet of Things (IoT), into wearable devices offers great potential for accurate and non-invasive monitoring and diagnosis. This paper provides an overview of current trends and developments in microfluidics and smart technologies in wearable devices for analyzing body fluids. The paper discusses common microfluidic technologies in wearable devices and the challenges associated with analyzing each type of biofluid. The paper emphasizes the importance of combining smart technologies with microfluidics in wearable devices, and how they can aid diagnosis and therapy. Finally, the paper covers recent applications, trends, and future developments in the context of intelligent microfluidic wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasikala Apoorva
- UKF Centre for Advanced Research and Skill Development(UCARS), UKF College of Engineering and Technology, Kollam, Kerala, India, 691 302
| | - Nam-Trung Nguyen
- Queensland Micro and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, 4111, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Kamalalayam Rajan Sreejith
- Queensland Micro and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, 4111, Queensland, Australia.
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Watkins Z, McHenry A, Heikenfeld J. Wearing the Lab: Advances and Challenges in Skin-Interfaced Systems for Continuous Biochemical Sensing. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 187:223-282. [PMID: 38273210 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Continuous, on-demand, and, most importantly, contextual data regarding individual biomarker concentrations exemplify the holy grail for personalized health and performance monitoring. This is well-illustrated for continuous glucose monitoring, which has drastically improved outcomes and quality of life for diabetic patients over the past 2 decades. Recent advances in wearable biosensing technologies (biorecognition elements, transduction mechanisms, materials, and integration schemes) have begun to make monitoring of other clinically relevant analytes a reality via minimally invasive skin-interfaced devices. However, several challenges concerning sensitivity, specificity, calibration, sensor longevity, and overall device lifetime must be addressed before these systems can be made commercially viable. In this chapter, a logical framework for developing a wearable skin-interfaced device for a desired application is proposed with careful consideration of the feasibility of monitoring certain analytes in sweat and interstitial fluid and the current development of the tools available to do so. Specifically, we focus on recent advancements in the engineering of biorecognition elements, the development of more robust signal transduction mechanisms, and novel integration schemes that allow for continuous quantitative analysis. Furthermore, we highlight the most compelling and promising prospects in the field of wearable biosensing and the challenges that remain in translating these technologies into useful products for disease management and for optimizing human performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Watkins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Adam McHenry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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3
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Yang M, Sun N, Lai X, Zhao X, Zhou W. Advances in Non-Electrochemical Sensing of Human Sweat Biomarkers: From Sweat Sampling to Signal Reading. BIOSENSORS 2023; 14:17. [PMID: 38248394 PMCID: PMC10813192 DOI: 10.3390/bios14010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Sweat, commonly referred to as the ultrafiltrate of blood plasma, is an essential physiological fluid in the human body. It contains a wide range of metabolites, electrolytes, and other biologically significant markers that are closely linked to human health. Compared to other bodily fluids, such as blood, sweat offers distinct advantages in terms of ease of collection and non-invasive detection. In recent years, considerable attention has been focused on wearable sweat sensors due to their potential for continuous monitoring of biomarkers. Electrochemical methods have been extensively used for in situ sweat biomarker analysis, as thoroughly reviewed by various researchers. This comprehensive review aims to provide an overview of recent advances in non-electrochemical methods for analyzing sweat, including colorimetric methods, fluorescence techniques, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and more. The review covers multiple aspects of non-electrochemical sweat analysis, encompassing sweat sampling methodologies, detection techniques, signal processing, and diverse applications. Furthermore, it highlights the current bottlenecks and challenges faced by non-electrochemical sensors, such as limitations and interference issues. Finally, the review concludes by offering insights into the prospects for non-electrochemical sensing technologies. By providing a valuable reference and inspiring researchers engaged in the field of sweat sensor development, this paper aspires to foster the creation of innovative and practical advancements in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingpeng Yang
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China (X.Z.)
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre on Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Nan Sun
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China (X.Z.)
| | - Xiaochen Lai
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China (X.Z.)
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre on Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Xingqiang Zhao
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China (X.Z.)
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre on Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Wangping Zhou
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China (X.Z.)
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre on Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing 210044, China
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4
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Wu SJ, Zhao X. Bioadhesive Technology Platforms. Chem Rev 2023; 123:14084-14118. [PMID: 37972301 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Bioadhesives have emerged as transformative and versatile tools in healthcare, offering the ability to attach tissues with ease and minimal damage. These materials present numerous opportunities for tissue repair and biomedical device integration, creating a broad landscape of applications that have captivated clinical and scientific interest alike. However, fully unlocking their potential requires multifaceted design strategies involving optimal adhesion, suitable biological interactions, and efficient signal communication. In this Review, we delve into these pivotal aspects of bioadhesive design, highlight the latest advances in their biomedical applications, and identify potential opportunities that lie ahead for bioadhesives as multifunctional technology platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Xuanhe Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Dai Y, Nolan J, Madsen E, Fratus M, Lee J, Zhang J, Lim J, Hong S, Alam MA, Linnes JC, Lee H, Lee CH. Wearable Sensor Patch with Hydrogel Microneedles for In Situ Analysis of Interstitial Fluid. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 38041570 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c12740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Continuous real-time monitoring of biomarkers in interstitial fluid is essential for tracking metabolic changes and facilitating the early detection and management of chronic diseases such as diabetes. However, developing minimally invasive sensors for the in situ analysis of interstitial fluid and addressing signal delays remain a challenge. Here, we introduce a wearable sensor patch incorporating hydrogel microneedles for rapid, minimally invasive collection of interstitial fluid from the skin while simultaneously measuring biomarker levels in situ. The sensor patch is stretchable to accommodate the swelling of the hydrogel microneedles upon extracting interstitial fluid and adapts to skin deformation during measurements, ensuring consistent sensing performance in detecting model biomarker concentrations, such as glucose and lactate, in a mouse model. The sensor patch exhibits in vitro sensitivities of 0.024 ± 0.002 μA mM-1 for glucose and 0.0030 ± 0.0004 μA mM-1 for lactate, with corresponding linear ranges of 0.1-3 and 0.1-12 mM, respectively. For in vivo glucose sensing, the sensor patch demonstrates a sensitivity of 0.020 ± 0.001 μA mM-1 and a detection range of 1-8 mM. By integrating a predictive model, the sensor patch can analyze and compensate for signal delays, improving calibration reliability and providing guidance for potential optimization in sensing performance. The sensor patch is expected to serve as a minimally invasive platform for the in situ analysis of multiple biomarkers in interstitial fluid, offering a promising solution for continuous health monitoring and disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Dai
- School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - James Nolan
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Emilee Madsen
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Marco Fratus
- Elmore Family School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Junsang Lee
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jinyuan Zhang
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jongcheon Lim
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Seokkyoon Hong
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Muhammad A Alam
- Elmore Family School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jacqueline C Linnes
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Department of Public Health, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hyowon Lee
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Implantable Devices, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Chi Hwan Lee
- School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Implantable Devices, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Chow PI, Roller DG, Boukhechba M, Shaffer KM, Ritterband LM, Reilley MJ, Le TM, Kunk PR, Bauer TW, Gioeli DG. Mobile sensing to advance tumor modeling in cancer patients: A conceptual framework. Internet Interv 2023; 34:100644. [PMID: 38099095 PMCID: PMC10719510 DOI: 10.1016/j.invent.2023.100644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
As mobile and wearable devices continue to grow in popularity, there is strong yet unrealized potential to harness people's mobile sensing data to improve our understanding of their cellular and biologically-based diseases. Breakthrough technical innovations in tumor modeling, such as the three dimensional tumor microenvironment system (TMES), allow researchers to study the behavior of tumor cells in a controlled environment that closely mimics the human body. Although patients' health behaviors are known to impact their tumor growth through circulating hormones (cortisol, melatonin), capturing this process is a challenge to rendering realistic tumor models in the TMES or similar tumor modeling systems. The goal of this paper is to propose a conceptual framework that unifies researchers from digital health, data science, oncology, and cellular signaling, in a common cause to improve cancer patients' treatment outcomes through mobile sensing. In support of our framework, existing studies indicate that it is feasible to use people's mobile sensing data to approximate their underlying hormone levels. Further, it was found that when cortisol is cycled through the TMES based on actual patients' cortisol levels, there is a significant increase in pancreatic tumor cell growth compared to when cortisol levels are at normal healthy levels. Taken together, findings from these studies indicate that continuous monitoring of people's hormone levels through mobile sensing may improve experimentation in the TMES, by informing how hormones should be introduced. We hope our framework inspires digital health researchers in the psychosocial sciences to consider how their expertise can be applied to advancing outcomes across levels of inquiry, from behavioral to cellular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip I. Chow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, Center for Behavioral Health and Technology, University of Virginia, USA
- Cancer Center, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Devin G. Roller
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Mehdi Boukhechba
- Department of Engineering Systems and Environment, University of Virginia, USA
- Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, USA
| | - Kelly M. Shaffer
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, Center for Behavioral Health and Technology, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Lee M. Ritterband
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, Center for Behavioral Health and Technology, University of Virginia, USA
- Cancer Center, University of Virginia, USA
| | | | - Tri M. Le
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Paul R. Kunk
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Todd W. Bauer
- Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, USA
- Cancer Center, University of Virginia, USA
| | - Daniel G. Gioeli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, USA
- Cancer Center, University of Virginia, USA
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Fu J, Gao Q, Li S. Application of Intelligent Medical Sensing Technology. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:812. [PMID: 37622898 PMCID: PMC10452530 DOI: 10.3390/bios13080812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
With the popularization of intelligent sensing and the improvement of modern medical technology, intelligent medical sensing technology has emerged as the times require. This technology combines basic disciplines such as physics, mathematics, and materials with modern technologies such as semiconductors, integrated circuits, and artificial intelligence, and has become one of the most promising in the medical field. The core of intelligent medical sensor technology is to make existing medical sensors intelligent, portable, and wearable with full consideration of ergonomics and sensor power consumption issues in order to conform to the current trends in cloud medicine, personalized medicine, and health monitoring. With the development of automation and intelligence in measurement and control systems, it is required that sensors have high accuracy, reliability, and stability, as well as certain data processing capabilities, self-checking, self-calibration, and self-compensation, while traditional medical sensors cannot meet such requirements. In addition, to manufacture high-performance sensors, it is also difficult to improve the material process alone, and it is necessary to combine computer technology with sensor technology to make up for its performance shortcomings. Intelligent medical sensing technology combines medical sensors with microprocessors to produce powerful intelligent medical sensors. Based on the original sensor functions, intelligent medical sensors also have functions such as self-compensation, self-calibration, self-diagnosis, numerical processing, two-way communication, information storage, and digital output. This review focuses on the application of intelligent medical sensing technology in biomedical sensing detection from three aspects: physical sensor, chemical sensor, and biosensor.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shuang Li
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; (J.F.); (Q.G.)
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Jin H, Zheng Z, Cui Z, Jiang Y, Chen G, Li W, Wang Z, Wang J, Yang C, Song W, Chen X, Zheng Y. A flexible optoacoustic blood 'stethoscope' for noninvasive multiparametric cardiovascular monitoring. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4692. [PMID: 37542045 PMCID: PMC10403590 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40181-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantitative and multiparametric blood analysis is of great clinical importance in cardiovascular disease diagnosis. Although there are various methods to extract blood information, they often require invasive procedures, lack continuity, involve bulky instruments, or have complicated testing procedures. Flexible sensors can realize on-skin assessment of several vital signals, but generally exhibit limited function to monitor blood characteristics. Here, we report a flexible optoacoustic blood 'stethoscope' for noninvasive, multiparametric, and continuous cardiovascular monitoring, without requiring complicated procedures. The optoacoustic blood 'stethoscope' features the light delivery elements to illuminate blood and the piezoelectric acoustic elements to capture light-induced acoustic waves. We show that the optoacoustic blood 'stethoscope' can adhere to the skin for continuous and non-invasive in-situ monitoring of multiple cardiovascular biomarkers, including hypoxia, intravascular exogenous agent concentration decay, and hemodynamics, which can be further visualized with a tailored 3D algorithm. Demonstrations on both in-vivo animal trials and human subjects highlight the optoacoustic blood 'stethoscope''s potential for cardiovascular disease diagnosis and prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Jin
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
- The State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Zesheng Zheng
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
- Institute of Microelectronics, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore, 138634, Singapore
| | - Zequn Cui
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Ying Jiang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Geng Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Wenlong Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Zhimin Wang
- School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Jilei Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Chuanshi Yang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Weitao Song
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Xiaodong Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| | - Yuanjin Zheng
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
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Yuan X, Ouaskioud O, Yin X, Li C, Ma P, Yang Y, Yang PF, Xie L, Ren L. Epidermal Wearable Biosensors for the Continuous Monitoring of Biomarkers of Chronic Disease in Interstitial Fluid. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1452. [PMID: 37512763 PMCID: PMC10385734 DOI: 10.3390/mi14071452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Healthcare technology has allowed individuals to monitor and track various physiological and biological parameters. With the growing trend of the use of the internet of things and big data, wearable biosensors have shown great potential in gaining access to the human body, and providing additional functionality to analyze physiological and biochemical information, which has led to a better personalized and more efficient healthcare. In this review, we summarize the biomarkers in interstitial fluid, introduce and explain the extraction methods for interstitial fluid, and discuss the application of epidermal wearable biosensors for the continuous monitoring of markers in clinical biology. In addition, the current needs, development prospects and challenges are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xichen Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Systems for Aerospace, School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Oumaima Ouaskioud
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Xu Yin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Systems for Aerospace, School of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Chen Li
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Pengyi Ma
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Low-Grade Energy Utilization Technologies and Systems, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Peng-Fei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Li Xie
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
| | - Li Ren
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ningbo 315103, China
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China
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Lin PH, Nien HH, Li BR. Wearable Microfluidics for Continuous Assay. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2023; 16:181-203. [PMID: 36888989 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-091322-082930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The development of wearable devices provides approaches for the realization of self-health care. Easily carried wearable devices allow individual health monitoring at any place whenever necessary. There are various interesting monitoring targets, including body motion, organ pressure, and biomarkers. An efficient use of space in one small device is a promising resolution to increase the functions of wearable devices. Through integration of a microfluidic system into wearable devices, embedding complicated structures in one design becomes possible and can enable multifunction analyses within a limited device volume. This article reviews the reported microfluidic wearable devices, introduces applications to different biofluids, discusses characteristics of the design strategies and sensing principles, and highlights the attractive configurations of each device. This review seeks to provide a detailed summary of recent advanced microfluidic wearable devices. The overview of advanced key components is the basis for the development of future microfluidic wearable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Heng Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan;
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Hua Nien
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan;
- College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Bor-Ran Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan;
- Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Center for Emergent Functional Matter of Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
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11
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Song Z, Zhou S, Qin Y, Xia X, Sun Y, Han G, Shu T, Hu L, Zhang Q. Flexible and Wearable Biosensors for Monitoring Health Conditions. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:630. [PMID: 37366995 DOI: 10.3390/bios13060630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Flexible and wearable biosensors have received tremendous attention over the past decade owing to their great potential applications in the field of health and medicine. Wearable biosensors serve as an ideal platform for real-time and continuous health monitoring, which exhibit unique properties such as self-powered, lightweight, low cost, high flexibility, detection convenience, and great conformability. This review introduces the recent research progress in wearable biosensors. First of all, the biological fluids often detected by wearable biosensors are proposed. Then, the existing micro-nanofabrication technologies and basic characteristics of wearable biosensors are summarized. Then, their application manners and information processing are also highlighted in the paper. Massive cutting-edge research examples are introduced such as wearable physiological pressure sensors, wearable sweat sensors, and wearable self-powered biosensors. As a significant content, the detection mechanism of these sensors was detailed with examples to help readers understand this area. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives are proposed to push this research area forward and expand practical applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhimin Song
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Shu Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jilin Cancer Hospital, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Yanxia Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Xiangjiao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Yanping Sun
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Nano-Biosensing Technology, International Health Science Innovation Center, Research Center for Biosensor and Nanotheranostic, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Guanghong Han
- Department of Oral Geriatrics, Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Tong Shu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Nano-Biosensing Technology, International Health Science Innovation Center, Research Center for Biosensor and Nanotheranostic, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Liang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, China
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Bi Y, Sun M, Wang J, Zhu Z, Bai J, Emran MY, Kotb A, Bo X, Zhou M. Universal Fully Integrated Wearable Sensor Arrays for the Multiple Electrolyte and Metabolite Monitoring in Raw Sweat, Saliva, or Urine. Anal Chem 2023; 95:6690-6699. [PMID: 36961950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Fully integrated wearable sensors are capable of dynamically, directly, and independently tracking biomarkers in raw noninvasive biofluids without any other equipment or accessories by integrating the unique on-body monitoring feature with the special complete functional implementation attribute. Sweat, saliva, and urine are three important noninvasive biofluids, and changes in their biomarkers hold great potential for revealing physiological conditions. However, it is still a challenge to design single fully integrated wearable sensor arrays (FIWSAs) that are universally able to concurrently measure electrolytes and metabolites in three of the most common noninvasive biofluids including sweat, saliva, and urine. Here, we propose the first single universal FIWSAs for wirelessly, noninvasively, and simultaneously measuring various metabolites (i.e., uric acid) and electrolytes (i.e., Na+ and H+) in raw sweat, saliva, or urine under subjects' exercise by integrating the specifically designed microfluidic, sensing, and electronic modules in a seamless manner. We evaluate its utility for noninvasive gout management in healthy subjects and in gout patients through a purine-rich meal challenge and with a medicine-treatment control, respectively. Noninvasive monitoring of multiple electrolytes and metabolites in a variety of raw noninvasive biofluids via such single universal FIWSAs may enrich the understanding of the biomarkers' levels in the body and would also facilitate self-health management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanni Bi
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Mimi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Jingjuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Ziyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Jing Bai
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Mohammed Y Emran
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Kotb
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Xiangjie Bo
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Ming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
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13
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Fluorescent Probes as a Tool in Diagnostic and Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16030381. [PMID: 36986481 PMCID: PMC10056067 DOI: 10.3390/ph16030381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last few years, the development of fluorescent probes has received considerable attention. Fluorescence signaling allows noninvasive and harmless real-time imaging with great spectral resolution in living objects, which is extremely useful for modern biomedical applications. This review presents the basic photophysical principles and strategies for the rational design of fluorescent probes as visualization agents in medical diagnosis and drug delivery systems. Common photophysical phenomena, such as Intramolecular Charge Transfer (ICT), Twisted Intramolecular Charge Transfer (TICT), Photoinduced Electron Transfer (PET), Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer (ESIPT), Fluorescent Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), and Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE), are described as platforms for fluorescence sensing and imaging in vivo and in vitro. The presented examples are focused on the visualization of pH, biologically important cations and anions, reactive oxygen species (ROS), viscosity, biomolecules, and enzymes that find application for diagnostic purposes. The general strategies regarding fluorescence probes as molecular logic devices and fluorescence–drug conjugates for theranostic and drug delivery systems are discussed. This work could be of help for researchers working in the field of fluorescence sensing compounds, molecular logic gates, and drug delivery.
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14
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He T, Wen F, Yang Y, Le X, Liu W, Lee C. Emerging Wearable Chemical Sensors Enabling Advanced Integrated Systems toward Personalized and Preventive Medicine. Anal Chem 2023; 95:490-514. [PMID: 36625107 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianyiyi He
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
| | - Feng Wen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
| | - Yanqin Yang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
| | - Xianhao Le
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
| | - Weixin Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
| | - Chengkuo Lee
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117583, Singapore.,Center for Intelligent Sensors and MEMS, National University of Singapore, Block E6 #05-11, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608, Singapore
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15
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Sempionatto JR, Lasalde-Ramírez JA, Mahato K, Wang J, Gao W. Wearable chemical sensors for biomarker discovery in the omics era. Nat Rev Chem 2022; 6:899-915. [PMID: 37117704 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-022-00439-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Biomarkers are crucial biological indicators in medical diagnostics and therapy. However, the process of biomarker discovery and validation is hindered by a lack of standardized protocols for analytical studies, storage and sample collection. Wearable chemical sensors provide a real-time, non-invasive alternative to typical laboratory blood analysis, and are an effective tool for exploring novel biomarkers in alternative body fluids, such as sweat, saliva, tears and interstitial fluid. These devices may enable remote at-home personalized health monitoring and substantially reduce the healthcare costs. This Review introduces criteria, strategies and technologies involved in biomarker discovery using wearable chemical sensors. Electrochemical and optical detection techniques are discussed, along with the materials and system-level considerations for wearable chemical sensors. Lastly, this Review describes how the large sets of temporal data collected by wearable sensors, coupled with modern data analysis approaches, would open the door for discovering new biomarkers towards precision medicine.
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16
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Pei X, Sun M, Wang J, Bai J, Bo X, Zhou M. A Bifunctional Fully Integrated Wearable Tracker for Epidermal Sweat and Wound Exudate Multiple Biomarkers Monitoring. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2205061. [PMID: 36180393 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202205061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Fully integrated wearable electronics that combine the extraordinary feature of incessant and on-body operation with the distinctive external equipment-free trait are the ultimate goal of modern wearables. Epidermal sweat and wound exudate, as two noninvasively accessible biofluids on/surrounding the skin, reflect underlying health conditions. However, the design of universal wearable sensors with the bifunctional capability to monitor both epidermal secretions is still a challenge. Here, a single bifunctional fully integrated wearable tracker for wirelessly, simultaneously, and dynamically in situ measuring multiple epidermal sweat or wound exudate biomarkers is propos. Considering the electrolytes (e.g., Na+ , K+ , and H+ ) and metabolites (e.g., uric acid (UA)) levels in sweat or wound exudate may correlate with health or wound conditions, the dynamic and skin-on tracking of the biomarkers of Na+ , K+ , pH, and UA levels in sweat under subjects' exercise and in wound exudate during subjects' wound healing are performed through the seamless integration of microfluidic, sensing, and electronic modules. Its applicability is evaluated for noninvasive hyperuricemia management in hyperuricemia/healthy subjects through a purine-rich intake test and for wound management in subjects' infected wounds through a control medical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Pei
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Mimi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Jingjuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Jing Bai
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Xiangjie Bo
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
| | - Ming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130024, P. R. China
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17
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Corsi M, Paghi A, Mariani S, Golinelli G, Debrassi A, Egri G, Leo G, Vandini E, Vilella A, Dähne L, Giuliani D, Barillaro G. Bioresorbable Nanostructured Chemical Sensor for Monitoring of pH Level In Vivo. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2202062. [PMID: 35618637 PMCID: PMC9353472 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202202062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Here, the authors report on the manufacturing and in vivo assessment of a bioresorbable nanostructured pH sensor. The sensor consists of a micrometer-thick porous silica membrane conformably coated layer-by-layer with a nanometer-thick multilayer stack of two polyelectrolytes labeled with a pH-insensitive fluorophore. The sensor fluorescence changes linearly with the pH value in the range 4 to 7.5 upon swelling/shrinking of the polymer multilayer and enables performing real-time measurements of the pH level with high stability, reproducibility, and accuracy, over 100 h of continuous operation. In vivo studies carried out implanting the sensor in the subcutis on the back of mice confirm real-time monitoring of the local pH level through skin. Full degradation of the pH sensor occurs in one week from implant in the animal model, and its biocompatibility after 2 months is confirmed by histological and fluorescence analyses. The proposed approach can be extended to the detection of other (bio)markers in vivo by engineering the functionality of one (at least) of the polyelectrolytes with suitable receptors, thus paving the way to implantable bioresorbable chemical sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Corsi
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'InformazioneUniversità di Pisavia G. Caruso 16Pisa56122Italy
| | - Alessandro Paghi
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'InformazioneUniversità di Pisavia G. Caruso 16Pisa56122Italy
| | - Stefano Mariani
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'InformazioneUniversità di Pisavia G. Caruso 16Pisa56122Italy
| | - Giulia Golinelli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences for Children & AdultsUniversity‐Hospital of Modena and Reggio EmiliaVia del Pozzo 71Modena41124Italy
| | - Aline Debrassi
- Surflay Nanotec GmbHMax‐Planck‐Straße 312489BerlinGermany
| | - Gabriella Egri
- Surflay Nanotec GmbHMax‐Planck‐Straße 312489BerlinGermany
| | - Giuseppina Leo
- Department of Biomedical Metabolic and Neural SciencesUniversity of Modena and Reggio Emiliavia G. Campi 287Modena41125Italy
| | - Eleonora Vandini
- Department of Biomedical Metabolic and Neural SciencesUniversity of Modena and Reggio Emiliavia G. Campi 287Modena41125Italy
| | - Antonietta Vilella
- Department of Biomedical Metabolic and Neural SciencesUniversity of Modena and Reggio Emiliavia G. Campi 287Modena41125Italy
| | - Lars Dähne
- Surflay Nanotec GmbHMax‐Planck‐Straße 312489BerlinGermany
| | - Daniela Giuliani
- Department of Biomedical Metabolic and Neural SciencesUniversity of Modena and Reggio Emiliavia G. Campi 287Modena41125Italy
| | - Giuseppe Barillaro
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'InformazioneUniversità di Pisavia G. Caruso 16Pisa56122Italy
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18
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Upcycling Compact Discs for Flexible and Stretchable Bioelectronic Applications. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3727. [PMID: 35764646 PMCID: PMC9240022 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31338-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Electronic waste is a global issue brought about by the short lifespan of electronics. Viable methods to relieve the inundated disposal system by repurposing the enormous amount of electronic waste remain elusive. Inspired by the need for sustainable solutions, this study resulted in a multifaceted approach to upcycling compact discs. The once-ubiquitous plates can be transformed into stretchable and flexible biosensors. Our experiments and advanced prototypes show that effective, innovative biosensors can be developed at a low-cost. An affordable craft-based mechanical cutter allows pre-determined patterns to be scored on the recycled metal, an essential first step for producing stretchable, wearable electronics. The active metal harvested from the compact discs was inert, cytocompatible, and capable of vital biopotential measurements. Additional studies examined the material’s resistive emittance, temperature sensing, real-time metabolite monitoring performance, and moisture-triggered transience. This sustainable approach for upcycling electronic waste provides an advantageous research-based waste stream that does not require cutting-edge microfabrication facilities, expensive materials, and high-caliber engineering skills. Electronic waste is a global issue brought about by the short lifespan of electronics. Here, the authors report a process to upcycle compact discs into flexible and stretchable bio-electronics.
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19
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Brady B, Li W, Farooque N, Ehrhardt C, Meyerhoff ME, Wang X. S-Nitrosothiol-Impregnated Silicone Catheter for Colorimetric Sensing of Indole and E. coli: Toward On-Body Detection of Urinary Tract Infections. ACS Sens 2022; 7:1712-1719. [PMID: 35604028 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c00439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Although there are many techniques to detect pathogenic bacteria, most of them are only suited for in vitro diagnostics. We report a urinary catheter-based colorimetric sensor for potential on-body detection of E. coli, the most prevalent bacterial species in urinary tract infections associated with the use of urinary catheters. In urine, indole is secreted by E. coli and reacts with a nitrosating agent incorporated in a silicone catheter. A red dimeric product, indoxyl red, is generated within silicone rubber to allow for color-based indole sensing with high sensitivity, linearity, and specificity. This reaction is initiated by the nitrosation reaction of indole at its C-3 position via reagents like sodium nitrite or S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine under aerobic conditions. The generated 3-nitrosoindole undergoes tautomerization, dimerization, and deoximation to form indoxyl red with high absorbance at 537 nm. In contrast to other indole sensors, the presented method can be applied in real catheters to detect indole and E. coli in biofluids such as urine. The is because (1) S-nitroso-N-acetyl-penicillamine, the nitrosating agent, can be impregnated into silicone elastomers, (2) indole from urine is extracted into silicone due to its hydrophobicity, and (3) the high acidity and oxygen solubility of silicone facilitates the sensing reaction within the silicone matrix. This silicone-based colorimetric sensor clearly differentiates E. coli below and above 105 CFU/mL, which is the threshold concentration of bacteriuria. We expect that early diagnosis of urinary tract infections using the naked eye is possible by functionalizing an exposed section of urinary catheters with the proposed molecular probe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brock Brady
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Wuwei Li
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Nashwan Farooque
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Christopher Ehrhardt
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1015 Floyd Avenue, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Mark E. Meyerhoff
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, 930 North University, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Xuewei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
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20
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Gao Y, Xiao T, Li Q, Chen Y, Qiu X, Liu J, Bian Y, Xuan F. Flexible microstructured pressure sensors: design, fabrication and applications. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33. [PMID: 35439735 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac6812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, flexible pressure sensors have caused widespread concern for their extensive applications in human activity and health monitoring, robotics and prosthesis, as well as human-machine interface. Flexible pressure sensors in these applications are required to have a high sensitivity, large detective limit, linear response, fast response time, and mechanical stability. The mechanisms of capacitive, piezoresistive, and piezoelectric pressure sensors and the strategies to improve their performance are introduced. Sensing layers with microstructures have shown capability to significantly improve the performances of pressure sensors. Various fabrication methods for these structures are reviewed in terms of their pros and cons. Besides, the interference caused by environmental stimuli and internal stress from different directions leads to the infidelity of the signal transmission. Therefore, the anti-interference ability of flexible pressure sensors is highly desired. Several potential applications for flexible pressure sensors are also briefly discussed. Last, we conclude the future challenges for facilely fabricating flexible pressure sensors with high performance and anti-interference ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Li
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Xunlin Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiawen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuqing Bian
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Fuzhen Xuan
- Key Laboratory of Pressure Systems and Safety of MOE, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
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21
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Kim H, Kim MJ, Kwon YW, Jeon S, Lee S, Kim C, Choi BT, Shin Y, Hong SW, Shin HK. Benefits of a Skull-Interfaced Flexible and Implantable Multilight Emitting Diode Array for Photobiomodulation in Ischemic Stroke. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2104629. [PMID: 35076161 PMCID: PMC9008794 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Photobiomodulation (PBM) has received attention due to its potential for improving tissue function and enhancing regeneration in stroke. A lightweight, compact, and simple system of miniaturized electronic devices consisting of packaged light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that incorporates a flexible substrate for in vivo brain PBM in a mouse model is developed. Using this device platform, the preventive and therapeutic effects of PBM affixed to the exposed skull of mice in the photothrombosis and middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke model are evaluated. Among the wavelength range of 630, 850, and 940 nm LED array, the PBM with 630-nm LED array is proved to be the most effective for reducing the infarction volume and neurological impairment after ischemic stroke. Moreover, the PBM with 630 nm LED array remarkably improves the capability of spatial learning and memory in the chronic poststroke phase, attenuates AIM2 inflammasome activation and inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis, and modulates microglial polarization in the hippocampus and cortex 7 days following ischemic stroke. Thus, PBM may prevent tissue and functional damage in acute ischemic injury, thereby attenuating the development of cognitive impairment after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunha Kim
- Department of Korean Medical ScienceGraduate Training Program of Korean Medical Therapeutics for Healthy‐AgingSchool of Korean MedicinePusan National UniversityYangsan50612Republic of Korea
- Department of Pharmacology and NeuroscienceCreighton University School of MedicineOmahaNE68178USA
| | - Min Jae Kim
- Department of Korean Medical ScienceGraduate Training Program of Korean Medical Therapeutics for Healthy‐AgingSchool of Korean MedicinePusan National UniversityYangsan50612Republic of Korea
| | - Young Woo Kwon
- Department of Nano‐Fusion TechnologyCollege of Nanoscience & NanotechnologyPusan National UniversityBusan46241Republic of Korea
| | - Sangheon Jeon
- Department of Congo‐Mechatronics EngineeringDepartment of Optics and Mechatronics EngineeringCollege of Nanoscience & NanotechnologyPusan National UniversityBusan46241Republic of Korea
| | - Seo‐Yeon Lee
- Department of PharmacologyWonkwang University School of MedicineIksan54538Republic of Korea
| | - Chang‐Seok Kim
- Department of Congo‐Mechatronics EngineeringDepartment of Optics and Mechatronics EngineeringCollege of Nanoscience & NanotechnologyPusan National UniversityBusan46241Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Tae Choi
- Department of Korean Medical ScienceGraduate Training Program of Korean Medical Therapeutics for Healthy‐AgingSchool of Korean MedicinePusan National UniversityYangsan50612Republic of Korea
| | - Yong‐Il Shin
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineSchool of MedicinePusan National UniversityYangsan50612Republic of Korea
| | - Suck Won Hong
- Department of Congo‐Mechatronics EngineeringDepartment of Optics and Mechatronics EngineeringCollege of Nanoscience & NanotechnologyPusan National UniversityBusan46241Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Kyoung Shin
- Department of Korean Medical ScienceGraduate Training Program of Korean Medical Therapeutics for Healthy‐AgingSchool of Korean MedicinePusan National UniversityYangsan50612Republic of Korea
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22
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Veloz Martínez I, Ek JI, Ahn EC, Sustaita AO. Molecularly imprinted polymers via reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer synthesis in sensing and environmental applications. RSC Adv 2022; 12:9186-9201. [PMID: 35424874 PMCID: PMC8985154 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra00232a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) have shown their potential as artificial and selective receptors for environmental monitoring. These materials can be tailor-made to achieve a specific binding event with a template through a chosen mechanism. They are capable of emulating the recognition capacity of biological receptors with superior stability and versatility of integration in sensing platforms. Commonly, these polymers are produced by traditional free radical bulk polymerization (FRP) which may not be the most suitable for enhancing the intended properties due to the poor imprinting performance. To improve the imprinting technique and the polymer capabilities, controlled/living radical polymerization (CRP) has been used to overcome the main drawbacks of FRP. Combining CRP techniques such as RAFT (reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer) with MIP has achieved higher selectivity, sensitivity, and sorption capacity of these polymers when implemented as the transductor element in sensors. The present work focuses on RAFT-MIP design and synthesis strategies to enhance the binding affinities and their implementation in environmental contaminant sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irvin Veloz Martínez
- School of Engineering and Science, Tecnologico de Monterrey Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Monterrey N.L. 64849 Mexico
| | - Jackeline Iturbe Ek
- School of Engineering and Science, Tecnologico de Monterrey Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Monterrey N.L. 64849 Mexico
| | - Ethan C Ahn
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio San Antonio TX 78249 USA
| | - Alan O Sustaita
- School of Engineering and Science, Tecnologico de Monterrey Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Monterrey N.L. 64849 Mexico
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23
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Sun M, Pei X, Xin T, Liu J, Ma C, Cao M, Zhou M. A Flexible Microfluidic Chip-Based Universal Fully Integrated Nanoelectronic System with Point-of-Care Raw Sweat, Tears, or Saliva Glucose Monitoring for Potential Noninvasive Glucose Management. Anal Chem 2022; 94:1890-1900. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c05174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mimi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Xinyi Pei
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Tong Xin
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Jian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Chongbo Ma
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Mengzhu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Ming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National & Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
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24
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Lin PH, Sheu SC, Chen CW, Huang SC, Li BR. Wearable hydrogel patch with noninvasive, electrochemical glucose sensor for natural sweat detection. Talanta 2022; 241:123187. [PMID: 35030501 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.123187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in microelectronics and electrochemical sensing platforms have preceded the development of devices for personal monitoring and managing physiological and metabolic information that exploit sweat as a noninvasive, convenient approach for providing information about underlying health conditions, such as glucose level monitoring. Although most sweat glucose sensors have targeted applications during exercise and other active stimulation induced-sweat, natural sweating offers an attractive alternative with minimal effect on users that can be accessed during routine and sedentary activities without impeding personal lifestyle and preserves the correlation between blood and sweat glucose. Here, we present a noninvasive sweat glucose sensor with convenient hydrogel patches for rapid sampling of natural perspiration without external activities that stimulate sweating. The wearable hydrogel patch rapidly takes up natural sweat from the hand and serves as a medium for electrochemical sensing. A prussian blue-doped poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene nanocomposite (PB-PEDOT NC) electrode provides cost-effective, stable and excellent electrocatalytic activity in sweat glucose measurements. We demonstrated sweat glucose sensor functionality by long-term measurements of glucose in sweat from human subjects consuming food and drinks. By enabling the analysis of sweat glucose during routine and sedentary activities, the sweat glucose sensor shows great promise for clinical-grade glucose management and enlarges the scope of next-generation noninvasive sensing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Heng Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Sian-Chen Sheu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Wei Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Taiwan Instrument Research Institute, National Applied Research Laboratories, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Cih Huang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Bor-Ran Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.
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25
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Chang T, Li H, Zhang N, Jiang X, Yu X, Yang Q, Jin Z, Meng H, Chang L. Highly integrated watch for noninvasive continual glucose monitoring. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2022; 8:25. [PMID: 35310514 PMCID: PMC8866463 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-022-00355-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
This article reports a highly integrated watch for noninvasive continual blood glucose monitoring. The watch employs a Nafion-coated flexible electrochemical sensor patch fixed on the watchband to obtain interstitial fluid (ISF) transdermally at the wrist. This reverse iontophoresis-based extraction method eliminates the pain and inconvenience that traditional fingerstick blood tests pose in diabetic patients' lives, making continual blood glucose monitoring practical and easy. All electronic modules, including a rechargeable power source and other modules for signal processing and wireless transmission, are integrated onto a watch face-sized printed circuit board (PCB), enabling comfortable wearing of this continual glucose monitor. Real-time blood glucose levels are displayed on the LED screen of the watch and can also be checked with the smartphone user interface. With 23 volunteers, the watch demonstrated 84.34% clinical accuracy in the Clarke error grid analysis (zones A + B). In the near future, commercial products could be developed based on this lab-made prototype to provide the public with noninvasive continual glucose monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianrui Chang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Hu Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Nianrong Zhang
- General Surgery Department & Obesity and Metabolic Disease Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100029 China
| | - Xinran Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Xinge Yu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Qingde Yang
- Sense Future (HangZhou) Co., Ltd, Hangzhou, 311217 China
| | - Zhiyuan Jin
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Hua Meng
- General Surgery Department & Obesity and Metabolic Disease Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100029 China
| | - Lingqian Chang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083 China
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26
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Raza T, Qu L, Khokhar WA, Andrews B, Ali A, Tian M. Progress of Wearable and Flexible Electrochemical Biosensors With the Aid of Conductive Nanomaterials. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:761020. [PMID: 34881233 PMCID: PMC8645837 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.761020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Conductive nanomaterials have recently gained a lot of interest due to their excellent physical, chemical, and electrical properties, as well as their numerous nanoscale morphologies, which enable them to be fabricated into a wide range of modern chemical and biological sensors. This study focuses mainly on current applications based on conductive nanostructured materials. They are the key elements in preparing wearable electrochemical Biosensors, including electrochemical immunosensors and DNA biosensors. Conductive nanomaterials such as carbon (Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene), metals and conductive polymers, which provide a large effective surface area, fast electron transfer rate and high electrical conductivity, are summarized in detail. Conductive polymer nanocomposites in combination with carbon and metal nanoparticles have also been addressed to increase sensor performance. In conclusion, a section on current challenges and opportunities in this growing field is forecasted at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahir Raza
- Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lijun Qu
- Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Boakye Andrews
- Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Mingwei Tian
- Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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27
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Sharma R, Geranpayehvaghei M, Ejeian F, Razmjou A, Asadnia M. Recent advances in polymeric nanostructured ion selective membranes for biomedical applications. Talanta 2021; 235:122815. [PMID: 34517671 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Nano structured ion-selective membranes (ISMs) are very attractive materials for a wide range of sensing and ion separation applications. The present review focuses on the design principles of various ISMs; nanostructured and ionophore/ion acceptor doped ISMs, and their use in biomedical engineering. Applications of ISMs in the biomedical field have been well-known for more than half a century in potentiometric analysis of biological fluids and pharmaceutical products. However, the emergence of nanotechnology and sophisticated sensing methods assisted in miniaturising ion-selective electrodes to needle-like sensors that can be designed in the form of implantable or wearable devices (smartwatch, tattoo, sweatband, fabric patch) for health monitoring. This article provides a critical review of recent advances in miniaturization, sensing and construction of new devices over last decade (2011-2021). The designing of tunable ISM with biomimetic artificial ion channels offered intensive opportunities and innovative clinical analysis applications, including precise biosensing, controlled drug delivery and early disease diagnosis. This paper will also address the future perspective on potential applications and challenges in the widespread use of ISM for clinical use. Finally, this review details some recommendations and future directions to improve the accuracy and robustness of ISMs for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajni Sharma
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Marzieh Geranpayehvaghei
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia; Department of Nanobiotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 14115-175, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Ejeian
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan, Iran; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 73441-81746, Iran
| | - Amir Razmjou
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 73441-81746, Iran; Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, University of Technology Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; UNESCO Center for Membrane Technology, School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Mohsen Asadnia
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
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28
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Abe H, Sato K, Kimura N, Kusama S, Inoue D, Yamasaki K, Nishizawa M. Porous Microneedle Patch for Electroosmosis‐Promoted Transdermal Delivery of Drugs and Vaccines. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202100066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroya Abe
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Kaito Sato
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Natsumi Kimura
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Shinya Kusama
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Daisuke Inoue
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Kenshi Yamasaki
- Department of Dermatology Graduate School of Medicine Tohoku University 1-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8574 Japan
| | - Matsuhiko Nishizawa
- Department of Finemechanics Graduate School of Engineering Tohoku University 6-6-01 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
- Division for the Establishment of Frontier Sciences of the Organization for Advanced Studies Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8577 Japan
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29
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Godage NH, Olomukoro AA, Emmons RV, Gionfriddo E. In vivo analytical techniques facilitated by contemporary materials. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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30
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Ghaffari R, Yang DS, Kim J, Mansour A, Wright JA, Model JB, Wright DE, Rogers JA, Ray TR. State of Sweat: Emerging Wearable Systems for Real-Time, Noninvasive Sweat Sensing and Analytics. ACS Sens 2021; 6:2787-2801. [PMID: 34351759 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.1c01133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Skin-interfaced wearable systems with integrated colorimetric assays, microfluidic channels, and electrochemical sensors offer powerful capabilities for noninvasive, real-time sweat analysis. This Perspective details recent progress in the development and translation of novel wearable sensors for personalized assessment of sweat dynamics and biomarkers, with precise sampling and real-time analysis. Sensor accuracy, system ruggedness, and large-scale deployment in remote environments represent key opportunity areas, enabling broad deployment in the context of field studies, clinical trials, and recent commercialization. On-body measurements in these contexts show good agreement compared to conventional laboratory-based sweat analysis approaches. These device demonstrations highlight the utility of biochemical sensing platforms for personalized assessment of performance, wellness, and health across a broad range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roozbeh Ghaffari
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Da Som Yang
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
| | - Joohee Kim
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
| | - Amer Mansour
- Division of Biological Sciences, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - John A. Wright
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jeffrey B. Model
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Donald E. Wright
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - John A. Rogers
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, and Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60202, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Tyler R. Ray
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai’i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai’i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, United States
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31
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Azeredo NFB, Gonçalves JM, Lima IS, Araki K, Wang J, Angnes L. Screen‐printed Nickel‐Cerium Hydroxide Sensor for Acetaminophen Determination in Body Fluids. ChemElectroChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202100417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathália F. B. Azeredo
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry Institute of Chemistry University of São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
- Department of Nanoengineering University of California San Diego La Jolla USA
| | - Josué M. Gonçalves
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry Institute of Chemistry University of São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Irlan S. Lima
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry Institute of Chemistry University of São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Koiti Araki
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry Institute of Chemistry University of São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering University of California San Diego La Jolla USA
| | - Lúcio Angnes
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry Institute of Chemistry University of São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
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32
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Al-Qahtani SD, Azher OA, Felaly R, Subaihi A, Alkabli J, Alaysuy O, El-Metwaly NM. Development of sponge-like cellulose colorimetric swab immobilized with anthocyanin from red-cabbage for sweat monitoring. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 182:2037-2047. [PMID: 34087294 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Novel sponge-like biochromic swab was developed via immobilization of natural anthocyanin (Cy) biomolecular probe into microporous cellulose aerogel. The current biosensor is characterized with simple preparation, environmentally-friendly, biocompatibility, biodegradability, flexibility, portability and reversibility. This biochromic sponge-like aerogel detector displayed a color change from pink to green-yellow in response to the biochemical changes occurs to sweat. This could be ascribed to intramolecular charge transfer occurs to the molecular system of Cy. Thus, the anthocyanin probe displayed colorimetric variations in UV-Vis absorption spectra via a blue shifting from 620 to 529 nm when raising the pH value of the prepared mimic sweat solution. Natural pH sensitive anthocyanin spectroscopic probe was extracted from red-cabbage plant, characterized by HPLC, and encapsulated into microporous cellulose. The microporous sponge-like cellulose swab was prepared by activating wood pulp utilizing phosphoric acid, and then subjected to freeze-drying. This anthocyanin probe is highly soluble in water. Thus, it was encapsulated as a direct dye into cellulose substrate during the freeze-drying process. To allow a better fixation of this water-soluble anthocyanin probe to the cellulose substrate, potash alum was added to the freeze-dried mixture to act as a fixing agent or mordant (M) generating Cy/M coordination complex. The produced Cy/M nanoparticles (NPs) were explored by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The morphological features of the generated aerogels were investigated by scan electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra, and Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FT-IR). The cytotoxicity of the prepared aerogel-based biosensor was also evaluated. The naked-eye colorimetric changes were studied by exploring color strength, UV-Vis spectra and CIE Lab colorimetric coordinates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salhah D Al-Qahtani
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Omer A Azher
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biomedical Sciences, Al-Baha University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rasha Felaly
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, Umm-Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdu Subaihi
- Department of Chemistry, University College in Al-Qunfudah, Umm-Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia
| | - J Alkabli
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Arts-Alkamil, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, 23218, Saudi Arabia
| | - Omaymah Alaysuy
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nashwa M El-Metwaly
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, Umm-Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, El-Gomhoria Street, Egypt.
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33
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Stuart T, Cai L, Burton A, Gutruf P. Wireless and battery-free platforms for collection of biosignals. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 178:113007. [PMID: 33556807 PMCID: PMC8112193 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in biosensors have quantitively expanded current capabilities in exploratory research tools, diagnostics and therapeutics. This rapid pace in sensor development has been accentuated by vast improvements in data analysis methods in the form of machine learning and artificial intelligence that, together, promise fantastic opportunities in chronic sensing of biosignals to enable preventative screening, automated diagnosis, and tools for personalized treatment strategies. At the same time, the importance of widely accessible personal monitoring has become evident by recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Progress in fully integrated and chronic sensing solutions is therefore increasingly important. Chronic operation, however, is not truly possible with tethered approaches or bulky, battery-powered systems that require frequent user interaction. A solution for this integration challenge is offered by wireless and battery-free platforms that enable continuous collection of biosignals. This review summarizes current approaches to realize such device architectures and discusses their building blocks. Specifically, power supplies, wireless communication methods and compatible sensing modalities in the context of most prevalent implementations in target organ systems. Additionally, we highlight examples of current embodiments that quantitively expand sensing capabilities because of their use of wireless and battery-free architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tucker Stuart
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Le Cai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Alex Burton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Philipp Gutruf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA; Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA; Neuroscience GIDP, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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34
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Xiao X, Chen G, Libanori A, Chen J. Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Therapeutics. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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35
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Ghaffari R, Rogers JA, Ray TR. Recent progress, challenges, and opportunities for wearable biochemical sensors for sweat analysis. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS. B, CHEMICAL 2021; 332:129447. [PMID: 33542590 PMCID: PMC7853653 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2021.129447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Sweat is a promising, yet relatively unexplored biofluid containing biochemical information that offers broad insights into the underlying dynamic metabolic activity of the human body. The rich composition of electrolytes, metabolites, hormones, proteins, nucleic acids, micronutrients, and exogenous agents found in sweat dynamically vary in response to the state of health, stress, and diet. Emerging classes of skin-interfaced wearable sensors offer powerful capabilities for the real-time, continuous analysis of sweat produced by the eccrine glands in a manner suitable for use in athletics, consumer wellness, military, and healthcare industries. This perspective examines the rapid and continuous progress of wearable sweat sensors through the most advanced embodiments that address the fundamental challenges currently restricting widespread deployment. It concludes with a discussion of efforts to expand the overall utility of wearable sweat sensors and opportunities for commercialization, in which advances in biochemical sensor technologies will be critically important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roozbeh Ghaffari
- -Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- -Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - John A. Rogers
- -Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- -Epicore Biosystems, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
- -Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- -Department of Neurological Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tyler R. Ray
- -Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI
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36
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Jiang N, Davies S, Jiao Y, Blyth J, Butt H, Montelongo Y, Yetisen AK. Doubly Photopolymerized Holographic Sensors. ACS Sens 2021; 6:915-924. [PMID: 33557517 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c02109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Holographic sensors are two-dimensional (2D) photonic crystals that diffract narrow-band light in the visible spectrum to quantify analytes in aqueous solutions. Here, a holographic fabrication setup was developed to produce holographic sensors through a doubly polymerization system of a poly-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate hydrogel film using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser (λ = 355 nm, 5 ns, 100 mJ). Wavelength shifts of holographic Bragg peak in response to alcohol species (0-100 vol %) were characterized. Diffraction spectra showed that the holographic sensors could be used for short-chain alcohols at concentrations up to 60 vol %. The reversibility of the sensor was demonstrated, exhibiting a response time of 7.5 min for signal saturation. After 30 cycles, the Bragg peak and color remained the same in both 20 and 60 vol %. The fabrication parameters were simulated in MATLAB using a 2D finite-difference time-domain algorithm to model the interference pattern and energy flux profile of laser beam recording in the hydrogel medium. This work demonstrates a particle-free holographic sensor that offers continuous, reversible, and rapid colorimetric readouts for the real-time quantification of alcohols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Jiang
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Sam Davies
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Yimeng Jiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Jeff Blyth
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Haider Butt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, UAE
| | - Yunuen Montelongo
- Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, A.C., Colonia Lomas del campestre, PC, León 37150, Mexico
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, U.K
| | - Ali K. Yetisen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
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37
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Voulgari E, Krummenacher F, Kayal M. ANTIGONE: A Programmable Energy-Efficient Current Digitizer for an ISFET Wearable Sweat Sensing System. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:2074. [PMID: 33809491 PMCID: PMC8002162 DOI: 10.3390/s21062074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This article describes the design and the characterization of the ANTIGONE (ANalog To dIGital cONvErter) ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) built in AMS 0.35 m technology for low dc-current sensing. This energy-efficient ASIC was specifically designed to interface with multiple Ion-Sensitive Field-Effect Transistors (ISFETs) and detect biomarkers like pH, Na+, K+ and Ca2+ in human sweat. The ISFET-ASIC system can allow real-time noninvasive and continuous health monitoring. The ANTIGONE ASIC architecture is based on the current-to-frequency converter through the charge balancing principle. The same front-end can digitize multiple currents produced by four sweat ISFET sensors in time multiplexing. The front-end demonstrates good linearity over a dynamic range that spans from 1 pA up to 500 nA. The consumed energy per conversion is less than 1 J. The chip is programmable and works in eight different modes of operation. The system uses a standard Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) to configure, control and read the digitally converted sensor data. The chip is controlled by a portable device over Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) through a Microcontroller Unit (MCU). The sweat sensing system is part of a bigger wearable platform that exploits the convergence of multiparameter biosensors and environmental sensors for personalized and preventive healthcare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgenia Voulgari
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (F.K.); (M.K.)
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Li H, Gu S, Zhang Q, Song E, Kuang T, Chen F, Yu X, Chang L. Recent advances in biofluid detection with micro/nanostructured bioelectronic devices. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:3436-3453. [PMID: 33538736 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr07478k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Most biofluids contain a wide variety of biochemical components that are closely related to human health. Analyzing biofluids, such as sweat and tears, may deepen our understanding in pathophysiologic conditions associated with human body, while providing a variety of useful information for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders and disease. Emerging classes of micro/nanostructured bioelectronic devices for biofluid detection represent a recent breakthrough development of critical importance in this context, including traditional biosensors (TBS) and micro/nanostructured biosensors (MNBS). Related biosensors are not restricted to flexible and wearable devices; solid devices are also involved here. This article is a timely overview of recent technical advances in this field, with an emphasis on the new insights of constituent materials, design architectures and detection methods of MNBS that support the necessary levels of biocompatibility, device functionality, and stable operation for component analysis. An additional section discusses and analyzes the existing challenges, possible solutions and future development of MNBS for detecting biofluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Shaochun Gu
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang, 310014, P. R. China.
| | - Qianmin Zhang
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang, 310014, P. R. China.
| | - Enming Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Tairong Kuang
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang, 310014, P. R. China.
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Zhejiang, 310014, P. R. China.
| | - Xinge Yu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Lingqian Chang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China. and School of Biomedical Engineering, Research and Engineering Center of Biomedical Materials, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, P. R. China
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39
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Shin S, Li M, Wu X, Saha A, Bae J. Role of soft-gel substrates on bouncing-merging transition in drop impact on a liquid film. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:571-579. [PMID: 33185222 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm01675f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Liquid droplets impacting on liquid films is common in many industrial and natural processes. It is crucial to understand the impact of droplets on a liquid film resting on soft deformable substrates in some of the applications including 3D printing of engineering structures, prosthetic implants and tissue engineering. By recognizing the practical relevance of soft-substrates, we present an experimental investigation to assess the role of deformable substrates on bouncing-to-merging transition in droplet impact on the liquid film. First, we prepared polyacrylamide (PAAm) soft-gel substrates with various "softness" (i.e., Young's modulus) by modulating the concentration of a crosslinker, N,N-methylene-bis-acrylamide (BIS). We found that the Young's modulus of PAAm initially increases with the concentration of crosslinker, and subsequently becomes almost constant due to inhomogeneity of crosslinking. Next, through the experiments of droplet impact on the liquid film resting on soft substrates with different Young's moduli, we observe that the early merging and corresponding bouncing-to-merging transitional boundaries remain unaffected by the "softness" since such merging occurs further away from the substrate. However, the late merging, which appears during the retraction process of the deformed droplet, occurs relatively close to the substrate, and hence is found to be significantly affected by its "softness". A scaling analysis is presented to quantify the role of change in Young's modulus of the substrate on late merging, which is supported by the experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soyoung Shin
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA. and Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Minghao Li
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Xian Wu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Abhishek Saha
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Jinhye Bae
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA. and Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA and Material Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA and Sustainable Power and Energy Center (SPEC), University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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40
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Garg A, Nam W, Zhou W. Reusable Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Membranes and Textiles via Template-Assisted Self-Assembly and Micro/Nanoimprinting. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:56290-56299. [PMID: 33283507 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c16351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has emerged as a powerful tool for ultrasensitive fingerprint recognition of molecules with considerable potential in wearable biochemical sensing. However, previous efforts to fabricate wearable SERS devices by directly treating fabrics with plasmonic nanoparticles have generated a nonuniform assembly of nanoparticles, weakly adsorbed on fabrics via van der Waals forces. Here, we report the creation of washing reusable SERS membranes and textiles via template-assisted self-assembly and micro/nanoimprinting approaches. Uniquely, we employ the capillary force driven self-assembly process to generate micropatch arrays of Au nanoparticle (NP) aggregates within hydrophobic microstructured templates, which are then robustly bonded onto semipermeable transparent membranes and stretchable textiles using the UV-resist based micro/nanoimprinting technique. A mild reactive ion etching (RIE) treatment of SERS membranes and textiles can physically expose the SERS hotspots of Au NP-aggregates embedded within the polymer UV resist for further improvement of their SERS performance. Also, we demonstrate that the semipermeable transparent SERS membranes can keep the moisture content of meat from evaporating to enable stable in situ SERS monitoring of biochemical environments at the fresh meat surface. By contrast, stretchable SERS textiles can allow the spreading, soaking, and evaporation of solution analyte samples on the fabric matrix for continuous enrichment of analyte molecules at the hotspots in biochemical SERS detection. Due to the mechanical robustness of the UV-resist immobilized Au NP aggregates, simple detergent-water washing with ultrasound sonication or mechanical stirring can noninvasively clean contaminated hot spots to reuse SERS textiles. Therefore, we envision that washing reusable SERS membranes and textiles by template-assisted self-assembly and micro/nanoimprinting fabrication are promising for wearable biochemical sensing applications, such as wound monitoring and body fluid monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Garg
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Wonil Nam
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
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Falk M, Psotta C, Cirovic S, Shleev S. Non-Invasive Electrochemical Biosensors Operating in Human Physiological Fluids. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E6352. [PMID: 33171750 PMCID: PMC7664326 DOI: 10.3390/s20216352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Non-invasive healthcare technologies are an important part of research and development nowadays due to the low cost and convenience offered to both healthcare receivers and providers. This work overviews the recent advances in the field of non-invasive electrochemical biosensors operating in secreted human physiological fluids, viz. tears, sweat, saliva, and urine. Described electrochemical devices are based on different electrochemical techniques, viz. amperometry, coulometry, cyclic voltammetry, and impedance spectroscopy. Challenges that confront researchers in this exciting area and key requirements for biodevices are discussed. It is concluded that the field of non-invasive sensing of biomarkers in bodily fluid is highly convoluted. Nonetheless, if the drawbacks are appropriately addressed, and the pitfalls are adroitly circumvented, the approach will most certainly disrupt current clinical and self-monitoring practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Falk
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms—Research Center for Biointerfaces, Malmö University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden; (M.F.); (C.P.); (S.C.)
| | - Carolin Psotta
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms—Research Center for Biointerfaces, Malmö University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden; (M.F.); (C.P.); (S.C.)
- Aptusens AB, 293 94 Kyrkhult, Sweden
| | - Stefan Cirovic
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms—Research Center for Biointerfaces, Malmö University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden; (M.F.); (C.P.); (S.C.)
| | - Sergey Shleev
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms—Research Center for Biointerfaces, Malmö University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden; (M.F.); (C.P.); (S.C.)
- Aptusens AB, 293 94 Kyrkhult, Sweden
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42
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Moonen EJ, Haakma JR, Peri E, Pelssers E, Mischi M, den Toonder JM. Wearable sweat sensing for prolonged, semicontinuous, and nonobtrusive health monitoring. VIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/viw.20200077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emma J.M. Moonen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS) Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Jelte R. Haakma
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Elisabetta Peri
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Eduard Pelssers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Philips Research Royal Philips High Tech Campus Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Massimo Mischi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of Biomedical Diagnostics Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
| | - Jaap M.J. den Toonder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS) Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven The Netherlands
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43
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Electrochemical Hybrid Methods and Sensors for Antioxidant/Oxidant Activity Monitoring and Their Use as a Diagnostic Tool of Oxidative Stress: Future Perspectives and Challenges. CHEMOSENSORS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors8040090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The terminology used in electrochemical methods which are used to generate the measured signal in antioxidant/oxidant activity (AOA/OA) sensors is briefly considered. The review presents a hybrid version of electrochemical methods for the determination of AOA/OA. Invasive electrochemical methods/sensors for AOA/OA of blood/serum/plasma, and non-invasive ones for semen, sweat, saliva and skin determination are described. AOA/OA sensors application in health estimation, cosmetology, food and nutrients is presented. Attention is paid to widely described approaches and technologies used in chemical/biochemical sensors. It will be considered as base/prototypes for developing sensors of the kind for AOA/OA determination. Prospects for the development of wearable, written sensors and biosensors are considered. Miniature and wireless sensors will allow for the monitoring of the patient’s state, both at the bedside and far beyond the hospital. The development of wearable self-powered written and printed sensors is an important step towards personalized medicine.
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44
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Bian S, Zhu B, Rong G, Sawan M. Towards wearable and implantable continuous drug monitoring: A review. J Pharm Anal 2020; 11:1-14. [PMID: 32837742 PMCID: PMC7428759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2020.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Continuous drug monitoring is a promising alternative to current therapeutic drug monitoring strategies and has a strong potential to reshape our understanding of pharmacokinetic variability and to improve individualised therapy. This review highlights recent advances in biosensing technologies that support continuous drug monitoring in real time. We focus primarily on aptamer-based biosensors, wearable and implantable devices. Emphasis is given to the approaches employed in constructing biosensors. We pay attention to sensors' biocompatibility, calibration performance, long-term characteristics stability and measurement quality. Last, we discuss the current challenges and issues to be addressed in continuous drug monitoring to make it a promising, future tool for individualised therapy. The ongoing efforts are expected to result in fully integrated implantable drug biosensing technology. Thus, we may anticipate an era of advanced healthcare in which wearable and implantable biochips will automatically adjust drug dosing in response to patient health conditions, thus enabling the management of diseases and enhancing individualised therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mohamad Sawan
- Corresponding author. Cutting-Edge Net of Biomedical Research and Innovation (CenBRAIN), 18, Shilongshan Road, Cloud Town, Xihu District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310024, China.
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45
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Tu E, Pearlmutter P, Tiangco M, Derose G, Begdache L, Koh A. Comparison of Colorimetric Analyses to Determine Cortisol in Human Sweat. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:8211-8218. [PMID: 32309731 PMCID: PMC7161047 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c00498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Colorimetric analysis, which relies on a chemical reaction to facilitate a change in visible color, is a great strategy for detecting cortisol, which is necessary to diagnose and manage the wide variety of diseases related to the hormone, because it is simple in design, inexpensive, and reliable as a standard cortisol analysis technique. In this study, four different colorimetric cortisol analyses that use various chromogens, which include sulfuric acid, Porter-Silber reagent, Prussian blue, and blue tetrazolium, are studied. Modifications to the classic Porter-Silber method are made by increasing the carbon content of the alcohol and adding gold nanoparticles, which result in a twofold increase in reaction rate and a slight decrease in the limit of detection (LoD). After a comparison of the reaction rate, LoD, dynamic range, characteristic peaks, and color stability of all methods, blue tetrazolium demonstrates a low LoD (97 ng/mL), broad dynamic range (0.05-2 μg/mL), and quick reaction rate (color development as fast as 10 min), which are well within the requirements for human biofluids. Cortisol in artificial saliva and sweat and in human sweat was determined while confirming that no excipients or other biomarkers interfered with the reactions. Twenty-one human sweat samples were tested using blue tetrazolium and revealed a significant difference between male and female apocrine cortisol concentrations and showed a highly significant difference between apocrine and eccrine cortisol concentrations. Colorimetric methods of cortisol can compete with existing electrochemical sensors because of their similar accuracy and detection range in certain wearable biosensor applications. The simplicity of colorimetric methods advances potential applications in skin-interfaced bio-electronics and point-of-care devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Tu
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University—State
University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Paul Pearlmutter
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University—State
University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Michelle Tiangco
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University—State
University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Gia Derose
- Health
and Wellness Studies Department, Binghamton
University—State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Lina Begdache
- Health
and Wellness Studies Department, Binghamton
University—State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Ahyeon Koh
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University—State
University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
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Lee HB, Meeseepong M, Trung TQ, Kim BY, Lee NE. A wearable lab-on-a-patch platform with stretchable nanostructured biosensor for non-invasive immunodetection of biomarker in sweat. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 156:112133. [PMID: 32174559 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Conformable, wearable biosensor-integrated systems are a promising approach to non-invasive and quantitative on-body detection of biomarkers in body fluids. However, realizing such a system has been slowed by the difficulty of fabricating a soft affinity-based biosensor patch capable of precise on-body fluid handling with minimal wearer intervention and a simple measurement protocol. Herein, we demonstrate a conformable, wearable lab-on-a-patch (LOP) platform composed of a stretchable, label-free, impedimetric biosensor and a stretchable microfluidic device for on-body detection of the hormone biomarker, cortisol. The all-in-one, stretchable microfluidic device can precisely collect and deliver sweat for cortisol quantitation and offers one-touch operation of reagent delivery for simultaneous electrochemical signal generation and washing. Three-dimensional nanostructuring of the Au working electrode enables the high sensitivity required to detect the pM-levels of cortisol in sweat. Our integrated LOP detected sweat cortisol quantitatively and accurately during exercise. This LOP will open a new horizon for non-invasive, highly sensitive, and quantitative on-body immunodetection for wearable personal diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Byeol Lee
- School of Advanced Materials Science & Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea
| | - Montri Meeseepong
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nano Technology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea
| | - Tran Quang Trung
- School of Advanced Materials Science & Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea
| | - Bo-Yeong Kim
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nano Technology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea
| | - Nae-Eung Lee
- School of Advanced Materials Science & Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea; SKKU Advanced Institute of Nano Technology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea; Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences and Technology (SAIHST), Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea; Institute of Quantum Biophysics (IQB), Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea; Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS) Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16419, South Korea.
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48
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Manjakkal L, Dervin S, Dahiya R. Flexible potentiometric pH sensors for wearable systems. RSC Adv 2020; 10:8594-8617. [PMID: 35496561 PMCID: PMC9050124 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra00016g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing demand for developing wearable sensors that can non-invasively detect the signs of chronic diseases early on to possibly enable self-health management. Among these the flexible and stretchable electrochemical pH sensors are particularly important as the pH levels influence most chemical and biological reactions in materials, life and environmental sciences. In this review, we discuss the most recent developments in wearable electrochemical potentiometric pH sensors, covering the key topics such as (i) suitability of potentiometric pH sensors in wearable systems; (ii) designs of flexible potentiometric pH sensors, which may vary with target applications; (iii) materials for various components of the sensor such as substrates, reference and sensitive electrode; (iv) applications of flexible potentiometric pH sensors, and (v) the challenges relating to flexible potentiometric pH sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libu Manjakkal
- Bendable Electronics and Sensing Technologies (BEST) Group, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
| | - Saoirse Dervin
- Bendable Electronics and Sensing Technologies (BEST) Group, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
| | - Ravinder Dahiya
- Bendable Electronics and Sensing Technologies (BEST) Group, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
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49
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Schultz J, Uddin Z, Singh G, Howlader MMR. Glutamate sensing in biofluids: recent advances and research challenges of electrochemical sensors. Analyst 2020; 145:321-347. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an01609k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensing guidelines for glutamate in biofluids, associated with different diseases, providing knowledge translation among science, engineering, and medical professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Schultz
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
| | - Zakir Uddin
- School of Rehabilitation Science
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
| | - Gurmit Singh
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada
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50
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Sempionatto JR, Jeerapan I, Krishnan S, Wang J. Wearable Chemical Sensors: Emerging Systems for On-Body Analytical Chemistry. Anal Chem 2019; 92:378-396. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juliane R. Sempionatto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Itthipon Jeerapan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Sadagopan Krishnan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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