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Robins TJ, Bedenice D, Mazan M. A Longitudinal Analysis of Equine Asthma Presentation and Response to Treatment Using Lung Function Testing and BAL Cytology Analysis in Combination with Owner Perception. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3387. [PMID: 37958142 PMCID: PMC10649418 DOI: 10.3390/ani13213387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Equine asthma (EA) is a pervasive and important cause of poor performance and respiratory morbidity in horses. Diagnosis of EA includes an owner complaint, clinical scoring, lung function testing, and cytological analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cytology. There is a paucity of information about the longitudinal course of the disease using these outcome assessments; thus, this study sought to describe and quantify, in horses with more than one visit to a specialty pulmonary clinic in New England, the type and range of clinical presentations with an eventual diagnosis of EA. It also aimed to develop and compare the outcomes of scoring systems for owner complaints and veterinary assessments, document and assess the diagnostic methods used, and evaluate the response of the horses to treatment and time. (2) Methods: This study was a retrospective, cross-sectional, STROBE-compliant observational analysis of equine patients who visited the Tufts Cummings Hospital for Large Animals (HLA) for evaluation of equine asthma (EA) from 1999-2023. The horses were categorized as having mild-moderate (mEA) or severe EA (sEA) using the ACVIM consensus statement guidelines. After excluding those with inadequate documentation or only one visit (n = 936), a total of 76 horses were included in the study. Of the 197 visits, 138 (70.0%) resulted in a diagnosis of mEA and 45 (22.8%) resulted in a diagnosis of sEA. Demographic information, owner complaints, clinical examination and scoring, lung function testing, BAL cytology, and recommendations for environmental remediation and pharmacologic treatment were recorded for all the visits. The data were analyzed for agreement between owner complaints (complaint score, CS) and clinical examination findings (examination score, ES), changes in CS and ES, lung function testing, and BAL cytology over time, with 197 visits recorded. (3) Results: A comparison between the CS and ES showed that the owners were more likely than veterinarians to detect cough, and a decrease in cough was the most common owner observation after treatment. The response to the histamine challenge, used to detect airway hyperreactivity, was significantly improved with treatment or time in the horses with mEA, whereas baseline lung function did not significantly change in mEA or sEA. (4) Conclusions: Owners can be astute observers of clinical signs, especially cough, in EA. Tests of airway hyperreactivity are more successful in detecting changes in mEA than are baseline lung function testing and assessment of BAL cytology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Melissa Mazan
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
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2
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Onasanya AE, El-Hage C, Diaz-Méndez A, Vaz PK, Legione AR, Browning GF, Devlin JM, Hartley CA. Whole genome sequence analysis of equid gammaherpesvirus -2 field isolates reveals high levels of genomic diversity and recombination. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:622. [PMID: 36042397 PMCID: PMC9426266 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08789-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equid gammaherpesvirus 2 (EHV2) is a gammaherpesvirus with a widespread distribution in horse populations globally. Although its pathogenic significance can be unclear in most cases of infection, EHV2 infection can cause upper respiratory tract disease in foals. Co-infection of different strains of EHV2 in an individual horse is common. Small regions of the EHV2 genome have shown considerable genetic heterogeneity. This could suggest genomic recombination between different strains of EHV2, similar to the extensive recombination networks that have been demonstrated for some alphaherpesviruses. This study examined natural recombination and genome diversity of EHV2 field isolates. Results Whole genome sequencing analysis of 18 EHV2 isolates, along with analysis of two publicly available EHV2 genomes, revealed variation in genomes sizes (from 173.7 to 184.8 kbp), guanine plus cytosine content (from 56.7 to 57.8%) and the size of the terminal repeat regions (from 17,196 to 17,551 bp). The nucleotide sequence identity between the genomes ranged from 86.2 to 99.7%. The estimated average inter-strain nucleotide diversity between the 20 EHV2 genomes was 2.9%. Individual gene sequences showed varying levels of nucleotide diversity and ranged between 0 and 38.1%. The ratio of nonsynonymous substitutions, Ka, to synonymous substitutions, Ks, (Ka/Ks) suggests that over 50% of EHV2 genes are undergoing diversifying selection. Recombination analyses of the 20 EHV2 genome sequences using the recombination detection program (RDP4) and SplitsTree revealed evidence of viral recombination. Conclusions Analysis of the 18 new EHV2 genomes alongside the 2 previously sequenced genomes revealed a high degree of genetic diversity and extensive recombination networks. Herpesvirus genome diversification and virus evolution can be driven by recombination, and our findings are consistent with recombination being a key mechanism by which EHV2 genomes may vary and evolve.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08789-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adepeju E Onasanya
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Charles El-Hage
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.,Centre for Equine Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Andrés Diaz-Méndez
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Paola K Vaz
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Alistair R Legione
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Glenn F Browning
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Joanne M Devlin
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
| | - Carol A Hartley
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
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3
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Stasiak K, Dunowska M, Rola J. Kinetics of the Equid Herpesvirus 2 and 5 Infections among Mares and Foals from Three Polish National Studs. Viruses 2022; 14:v14040713. [PMID: 35458443 PMCID: PMC9031536 DOI: 10.3390/v14040713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Equid herpesvirus 2 (EHV-2) and 5 (EHV-5) are two γ-herpesviruses that are commonly detected from horses worldwide, based on several cross-sectional molecular surveys. Comparatively few studies examined the dynamics of γ-herpesvirus infection over time in a group of horses. The aim of the current study was to investigate the dynamics of EHV-2/5 infections among mares and their foals at three Polish national studs with different breeds of horses: Arabians, Thoroughbreds and Polish Konik horses. Nasal swabs were collected from each of 38 mare-foal pairs monthly for a period of 6 to 8 months. Virus-specific quantitative PCR assays were used to determine the viral load of EHV-2 and EHV-5 in each sample. All 76 horses sampled were positive for EHV-2 or EHV-5 on at least one sampling occasion. The majority (73/76, 96%) were infected with both EHV-2 and EHV-5. In general, the mean load of viral DNA was higher in samples from foals than from mares, but similar for EHV-2 and EHV-5 at most sampling occasions. There was, however, a considerable variability in the viral DNA load between samples collected at different times from the same foal, as well as between samples from different foals. The latter was more apparent for EHV-2 than for EHV-5. All foals became infected with both viruses early in life, before weaning, and remained positive on all, or most, subsequent samplings. The virus shedding by mares was more intermittent, indicating the existence of age-related differences. Overall, the data presented extend our knowledge of EHV-2/5 epidemiology among mares and foals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Stasiak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Dunowska
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-818-893-069
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Association of Equine Herpesvirus 5 with Mild Respiratory Disease in a Survey of EHV1, -2, -4 and -5 in 407 Australian Horses. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123418. [PMID: 34944194 PMCID: PMC8697987 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Infectious respiratory diseases in horses represent a major health and welfare problem. Although equine influenza is well reported as a cause of respiratory disease in most continents, Australia is free of EIV despite an outbreak in two states in 2007. Horses in Victoria were tested to demonstrate proof of freedom from EIV, hence samples were able to be subsequently tested for this study with the knowledge that EIV was not present as a potential cause of any disease. The equine alphaherpesviruses, EHV1 and -4 are well known agents of equine respiratory disease. The gammaherpesviruses EHV2 and -5 on the other hand are often isolated from clinically healthy horses despite a known association in some disease processes. The consequences of infection with these enigmatic viruses remains unknown. The investigation of several hundred horses with and without respiratory disease provided valuable information in terms of association. The salient findings of this study determined that a large proportion of normal horses were positive for the gammaherpesviruses EHV2 and -5 using PCR methods. However, horses shedding EHV5 were more likely to have had signs of respiratory disease. Like EHV2, EHV5 is a gammaherpesvirus commonly found in horses: its significance is unclear, though it is closely related to the Epstein–Barr virus, the agent responsible for glandular fever in humans. These viruses are known to interfere with the immune response and have potentially wide-ranging effects on infected hosts. This study has added to our awareness of these equine herpesviruses and should stimulate further studies to determine exact causation and consequences of infection. Abstract Equine herpesviruses (EHVs) are common respiratory pathogens in horses; whilst the alphaherpesviruses are better understood, the clinical importance of the gammaherpesviruses remains undetermined. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of, and any association between, equine respiratory herpesviruses EHV1, -2, -4 and -5 infection in horses with and without clinical signs of respiratory disease. Nasal swabs were collected from 407 horses in Victoria and included clinically normal horses that had been screened for regulatory purposes. Samples were collected from horses during Australia’s equine influenza outbreak in 2007; however, horses in Victoria required testing for proof of freedom from EIV. All horses tested in Victoria were negative for EIV, hence archived swabs were available to screen for other pathogens such as EHVs. Quantitative PCR techniques were used to detect EHVs. Of the 407 horses sampled, 249 (61%) were clinically normal, 120 (29%) presented with clinical signs consistent with mild respiratory disease and 38 (9%) horses had an unknown clinical history. Of the three horses detected shedding EHV1, and the five shedding EHV4, only one was noted to have clinical signs referable to respiratory disease. The proportion of EHV5-infected horses in the diseased group (85/120, 70.8%) was significantly greater than those not showing signs of disease (137/249, 55%). The odds of EHV5-positive horses demonstrating clinical signs of respiratory disease were twice that of EHV5-negative horses (OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.25 to 3.16). No quantitative difference between mean loads of EHV shedding between diseased and non-diseased horses was detected. The clinical significance of respiratory gammaherpesvirus infections in horses remains to be determined; however, this survey adds to the mounting body of evidence associating EHV5 with equine respiratory disease.
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5
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Easton-Jones C. Recent advancements in our understanding of equid gammaherpesvirus infections. Equine Vet J 2021; 54:11-23. [PMID: 34519074 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Equid gammaherpesviruses are ubiquitous and widespread in the equine population. Despite their frequent detection, their contribution to immune system modulation and the pathogenesis of several diseases remains unclear. Genetic variability and the combination of equid gammaherpesvirus strains a horse is infected with might be clinically significant. Initial gammaherpesvirus infection occurs in foals peripartum with latency then established in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. A novel EHV-5 study suggests that following inhalation equid gammaherpesviruses might obtain direct access to T and B lymphocytes via the tonsillar crypts to establish latency. EHV-5 is associated with equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis, however, unlike with EHV-2 there is currently minimal evidence for its role in milder cases of respiratory disease and poor performance. Transmission is presumed to be via the upper respiratory tract with periodic reactivation of the latent virus in adult horses. Stress of transport has been identified as a risk factor for reactivation and shedding of equine gammaherpesviruses. There is currently a lack of evidence for the effectiveness of antiviral drugs in the treatment of equine gammaherpesvirus infections.
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6
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Couetil L, Ivester K, Barnum S, Pusterla N. Equine respiratory viruses, airway inflammation and performance in thoroughbred racehorses. Vet Microbiol 2021; 257:109070. [PMID: 33865081 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Equine asthma is a common cause of poor performance in racehorses but it is unclear if respiratory viruses contribute to its etiology. The objective of the study was to determine if respiratory viruses were associated with clinical signs and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cytology in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine herpesviruses (EHV-1, 2, 4, 5) and equine rhinitis A and B viruses (ERBV, ERAV) genomes were quantified by qPCR in nasopharyngeal, tracheal, and BALF samples collected after racing. The relationships between virus detection and load and clinical signs, performance, BALF cytology, and environmental exposures were examined with generalized linear mixed models. Ninety-two samples were collected from 31 horses. EHV-1 and ERAV were not found; EHV-4 was detected in only one sample. EHV-2, EHV-5 and ERBV were more likely to be detected in upper airway samples than in BALF (P < 0.0001). Neither respiratory virus detection nor load was associated with clinical signs or performance. Nasopharyngeal detection and load of ERBV and tracheal detection and load of EHV-5 were associated with increased proportions of neutrophils in BALF (P < 0.003). However, nasopharyngeal detection and load of EHV-5 was not (P = 0.11). Nasopharyngeal detection and load of EHV-2 were associated with decreased BALF mast cell proportions. Respirable dust exposures were significantly higher in horses with detection of ERBV when compared to horses with no detectable ERBV (P < 0.001). Our results suggest that ERBV, EHV-2 and EHV-5 are commonly present in upper airways of healthy racehorses; however, the role they play in the etiology of equine asthma remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Couetil
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA.
| | - Kathleen Ivester
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Samantha Barnum
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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7
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Couetil L, Cardwell JM, Leguillette R, Mazan M, Richard E, Bienzle D, Bullone M, Gerber V, Ivester K, Lavoie JP, Martin J, Moran G, Niedźwiedź A, Pusterla N, Swiderski C. Equine Asthma: Current Understanding and Future Directions. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:450. [PMID: 32903600 PMCID: PMC7438831 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2019 Havemeyer Workshop brought together researchers and clinicians to discuss the latest information on Equine Asthma and provide future research directions. Current clinical and molecular asthma phenotypes and endotypes in humans were discussed and compared to asthma phenotypes in horses. The role of infectious and non-infectious causes of equine asthma, genetic factors and proposed disease pathophysiology were reviewed. Diagnostic limitations were evident by the limited number of tests and biomarkers available to field practitioners. The participants emphasized the need for more accessible, standardized diagnostics that would help identify specific phenotypes and endotypes in order to create more targeted treatments or management strategies. One important outcome of the workshop was the creation of the Equine Asthma Group that will facilitate communication between veterinary practice and research communities through published and easily accessible guidelines and foster research collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Couetil
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Jacqueline M Cardwell
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Renaud Leguillette
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Melissa Mazan
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Eric Richard
- LABÉO (Frank Duncombe), Normandie Université, UniCaen, Caen, France
| | - Dorothee Bienzle
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Michela Bullone
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Vinzenz Gerber
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institut Suisse de Médecine Équine (ISME), University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Kathleen Ivester
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Jean-Pierre Lavoie
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - James Martin
- Meakins Christie Laboratories, McGill University Health Center Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Gabriel Moran
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Artur Niedźwiedź
- Department of Internal Diseases With Clinic for Horses, Dogs and Cats, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Cyprianna Swiderski
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
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8
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Bond SL, Workentine M, Hundt J, Gilkerson JR, Léguillette R. Effects of nebulized dexamethasone on the respiratory microbiota and mycobiota and relative equine herpesvirus-1, 2, 4, 5 in an equine model of asthma. J Vet Intern Med 2019; 34:307-321. [PMID: 31793692 PMCID: PMC6979091 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Prolonged exposure to environmental antigens or allergens elicits an immune response in both healthy horses and those with mild asthma. Corticosteroids often are used to treat lower airway inflammation. Objective To investigate the changes in equine herpesvirus (EHV)‐1,2,4,5 glycoprotein B gene expression and changes in respiratory bacterial and fungal communities after nebulized dexamethasone treatment of horses with asthma. Animals Horses with naturally occurring mild asthma (n = 16) and healthy control horses (n = 4). Methods Prospective, randomized, controlled, blinded clinical trial. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of EHV‐1,2,4,5 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and 16S (microbiome) and ITS2 (mycobiome) genes with subsequent sequencing was performed on DNA extracted from nasal swabs and transendoscopic tracheal aspirates before and after 13 days treatment with nebulized dexamethasone (15 mg q24h) and saline (control). Results Nebulized dexamethasone treatment decreased microbial diversity; relative abundance of 8 genera in the upper respiratory tract were altered. For both the microbiota and the mycobiota, environment had a dominant effect over treatment. Alternaria, an opportunistic pathogen and allergen in humans recognized as a risk factor for asthma, asthma severity, and exacerbations, was increased with treatment. Treatment affected relative quantification of the equine gamma herpesviruses (EHV‐2 and ‐5); EHV‐2 DNA levels increased and those of EHV‐5 decreased. Conclusions Nebulized dexamethasone treatment affected the upper respiratory tract microbiota, but not the mycobiota, which was overwhelmed by the effect of a sustained dusty environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Bond
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Matthew Workentine
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jana Hundt
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - James R Gilkerson
- Centre for Equine Infectious Disease, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Renaud Léguillette
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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9
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Thorsteinsdóttir L, Jónsdóttir S, Stefánsdóttir SB, Andrésdóttir V, Wagner B, Marti E, Torsteinsdóttir S, Svansson V. The effect of maternal immunity on the equine gammaherpesvirus type 2 and 5 viral load and antibody response. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218576. [PMID: 31226153 PMCID: PMC6588279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Two types of gammaherpesviruses (γEHV) are known to infect horses, EHV-2 and EHV-5. Foals become infected early in life, probably via the upper respiratory tract, despite maternal antibodies. In this study, we analyzed samples from a herd of mares and their foals. The foals were followed from birth to 22 months of age and the dams during the first 6 months postpartum. Blood and nasal swab samples were taken regularly for evaluation of antibody responses, virus isolation and viral load by qPCR. EHV-2 was isolated on day 5, and EHV-5 on day 12, earlier than previously reported. γEHV specific antibodies were not detectable in serum of foals before colostrum intake but peaked a few days after colostrum. Overall, EHV-2 viral load peaked in nasal swab at three to four months of age, paralleled with decline in maternal antibodies, but EHV-5 viral load did not peak until month 12. Maternal antibodies had a notable effect on the viral load and induction of endogenous antibody production. Foals were grouped in two groups depending on the mare’s γEHV specific total IgG levels in serum at birth, group-high and group-low. Group-high had higher levels of maternal γEHV specific total IgG and IgG4/7 for the first 3 months, but when the endogenous production had superseded maternal antibodies, group-low was higher. The maternal antibodies had an effect on the γEHV viral load. Group-low peaked in EHV-2 viral load one month earlier than group-high. These effects were more evident for EHV-5, as there were seven months between the viral load peaks for the groups. The study provides information on how maternal antibody transfer affects γEHV shedding and antibody production in offspring. It also extends our knowledge on the occurrence of EHV-2 and EHV-5 infection in foals during the first two years of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilja Thorsteinsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
- * E-mail:
| | - Sigríður Jónsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
- Department of Clinical Research and Veterinary Public Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Sara Björk Stefánsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Valgerður Andrésdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Bettina Wagner
- Department of Population Medicine & Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
| | - Eliane Marti
- Department of Clinical Research and Veterinary Public Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Sigurbjörg Torsteinsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Vilhjálmur Svansson
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavík, Iceland
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10
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Mazan MR. Lower Airway Disease in the Athletic Horse. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2018; 34:443-460. [PMID: 30007452 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The airways are the first part of the pathway in the oxygen transport chain that is critical to excellent athletic performance, and the lower airways are considered the final gatekeeper before oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide exits. Horses are blessed with large airways and lungs that allow them to be superb athletes, but the down side of this largesse on the part of evolution is that unless they are truly elite athletes they may withstand noninfectious disease of the lower respiratory tract for months to years before the owner or trainer notices. The two conditions of the lower respiratory tract that affect the athletic horse during exercise are exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage and inflammatory airway disease. The former may be considered, at least at the onset, as a problem of physiology rather than a disease, and the latter is a disease primarily of domestication: both are widespread among the athletic horse population and account for an impressive number of horses that fail to perform to their potential. Because of the high demands for oxygen in the athletic horse, even minor insults to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the body can affect performance, so it is of critical importance to keep the lungs as healthy as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R Mazan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA.
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11
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Stasiak K, Dunowska M, Rola J. Prevalence and sequence analysis of equid herpesviruses from the respiratory tract of Polish horses. Virol J 2018; 15:106. [PMID: 29996858 PMCID: PMC6042439 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-018-1018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equid herpesviruses (EHVs) are widespread in equine populations worldwide. While the infection with equine α-herpesviruses (EHV-1 and EHV-4) has been linked to several clinical outcomes, the pathogenic potential for equine γ-herpesviruses (EHV-2 and EHV-5) is still unclear. The objective of the current study was to determine the prevalence of infection with EHVs among Polish horses, to investigate factors associated with EHV infections among horses sampled, and to determine genetic variability within Polish EHV-2 isolates. Methods Virus-specific real-time PCR assays were used for detection of EHV-1, EHV-2, EHV-4 and EHV-5 in nasal swabs collected from 540 horses from 13 national horse studs located throughout Poland. A proportion of EHV-2/5 positive samples were subjected to virus isolation followed by amplification and analysis of partial glycoprotein B sequence. Results Overall, 448/540 (83.0%) horses sampled were positive for at least one virus. The most prevalent was infection with EHV-2 (77.2%), followed by EHV-5 (47.0%), and EHV-4 (0.4%). None of the horses was positive for EHV-1. Approximately half of the virus-infected horses were positive for both EHV-2 and EHV-5. The proportion of EHV-2/5 positive horses varied by age, breed, and season. Only 8.0% of horses sampled, mostly Arabians, showed clinical signs of respiratory disease at the time of sampling. The viral load of both EHV-2 and EHV-5 DNA was highest in swabs from young horses, which was particularly evident for EHV-2 infected foals. Mean viral loads in nasal swabs collected from diseased horses were higher than in swabs from healthy horses. That was also true for EHV-2 when only diseased Arabian foals were considered, but the levels of EHV-5 DNA were lower in swabs from diseased than from healthy foals. In agreement with other studies, there was a considerable variability between Polish EHV-2 sequences, with no clustering of sequences from horses with different health status. The level of EHV-2 variability seemed to differ between different studs/breeds. Conclusions The presence of foals and yearlings on a property is likely to increase the risk of active EHV-2/5 infection among in-contact horses. The existence of breed-specific differences in susceptibility to EHV-2/5 infections should be further investigated, as it may provide one variable that needs to be considered in attempts to associate EHV-2/5 infections with disease. Overall, the data presented add to the existing knowledge of the epidemiology and biology of equine γ-herpesviruses, with the long-term goal of better understanding of the pathogenesis and the impact of infections with these viruses on the well-being of the horse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Stasiak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Dunowska
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland.
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12
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Hue ES, Richard EA, Fortier CI, Fortier GD, Paillot R, Raue R, Pronost SL. Equine PBMC Cytokines Profile after In Vitro α- and γ-EHV Infection: Efficacy of a Parapoxvirus Ovis Based-Immunomodulator Treatment. Vaccines (Basel) 2017; 5:vaccines5030028. [PMID: 28925977 PMCID: PMC5620559 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines5030028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesviruses (EHV) infect horses early during life and the persistence of these viruses through establishment of latency represents a real risk. A better understanding of the immune response to EHV infection is necessary to improve our methods of prevention and decrease the risk of transmission. The objectives of this study were to characterise the cytokine gene expression profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) after in vitro EHV-1, EHV-4, and EHV-2 infection and to determine the efficacy of inactivated Parapoxvirus ovis (iPPVO) against these 3 viruses. PBMC were isolated from 3 horses and infected in vitro with EHV-1, EHV-4, or EHV-2 in the presence or absence of iPPVO. In vitro culture of PBMC with EHV-1, EHV-4, and iPPVO induced a significant increase of IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ gene expression. EHV-4 also triggered a significant increase of IL-6 and TNF-α mRNA. EHV-2 triggered a significant increase of IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNA. The presence of iPPVO induced an earlier and stronger expression of IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ mRNA during EHV infection and reduced the inflammatory response induced by EHV-2. In conclusion, this study suggests that the presence of iPPVO potentiates the development of the immune response to in vitro EHV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika S Hue
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Unité BioTARGen, EA 7450, Normandie Université, 14053 Caen, France.
| | - Eric A Richard
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Unité BioTARGen, EA 7450, Normandie Université, 14053 Caen, France.
| | - Christine I Fortier
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Unité BioTARGen, EA 7450, Normandie Université, 14053 Caen, France.
| | - Guillaume D Fortier
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Unité BioTARGen, EA 7450, Normandie Université, 14053 Caen, France.
| | - Romain Paillot
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket CB8 7UU, UK.
| | - Rudiger Raue
- Veterinary Medicine Research and Development, Zoetis Belgium, 1930 Zaventem, Belgium.
| | - Stéphane L Pronost
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Unité BioTARGen, EA 7450, Normandie Université, 14053 Caen, France.
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13
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Doubli-Bounoua N, Richard EA, Léon A, Pitel PH, Pronost S, Fortier G. Multiple molecular detection of respiratory viruses and associated signs of airway inflammation in racehorses. Virol J 2016; 13:197. [PMID: 27899161 PMCID: PMC5129218 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0657-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The potential involvement of viruses in inflammatory airway disease (IAD) was previously investigated through either serology or PCR from nasopharyngeal swabs (NS). The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence and incidence of viral genome detection by qPCR in the equine airways, and their association with respiratory clinical signs. Methods Both NS and tracheal washes (TW) were collected monthly on 52 Standardbred racehorses at training, over 27 consecutive months (581 samples). Equid herpesviruses (EHV)-1, −4, −2 and −5, equine rhinitis virus-A and -B (ERBV), equine adenovirus-1 and −2, equine coronavirus and equine influenza virus were systematically investigated in both NS and TW. Nasal discharge, coughing, tracheal mucus score and TW neutrophil proportions were simultaneously recorded. Results Genome for 7/10 viruses were detected at least once throughout the study; up to 4 different viruses being also concomitantly detected. Monthly incidence in TW was respectively 27.9% (EHV-5), 24.8% (EHV-2), 7.1% (ERBV), 3.8% (EHV-4), 1.9% (EAdV1) and 0.2% (EHV-1; ERAV). Neither agreement nor correlation between NS and TW was found for respectively genome detection and viral loads. Detection of viral genome in NS was not associated with any clinical sign. Coughing was significantly associated with TW detection of EHV-2 DNA (OR 3.1; P = 0.01) and ERBV RNA (OR 5.3; P < 0.001). Detection of EHV-2 DNA in TW was also significantly associated with excess tracheal mucus (OR 2.1; P = 0.02). Conclusions Detection and quantification of EHV-2 and ERBV by qPCR in TW, but not in NS, should be considered when investigating horses with IAD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-016-0657-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Doubli-Bounoua
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Caen, France.,Normandie Université, UNICAEN, EA 4655, U2RM, Caen, France
| | | | - Albertine Léon
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Caen, France.,Normandie Université, UNICAEN, EA 4655, U2RM, Caen, France
| | | | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Caen, France.,Normandie Université, UNICAEN, EA 4655, U2RM, Caen, France
| | - Guillaume Fortier
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, Caen, France.,Normandie Université, UNICAEN, EA 4655, U2RM, Caen, France
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14
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Couëtil L, Cardwell J, Gerber V, Lavoie J, Léguillette R, Richard E. Inflammatory Airway Disease of Horses--Revised Consensus Statement. J Vet Intern Med 2016; 30:503-15. [PMID: 26806374 PMCID: PMC4913592 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.13824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this manuscript is to revise and update the previous consensus statement on inflammatory airway disease (IAD) in horses. Since 2007, a large number of scientific articles have been published on the topic and these new findings have led to a significant evolution of our understanding of IAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- L.L. Couëtil
- Department of Veterinary Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicinePurdue UniversityWest LafayetteIN
| | - J.M. Cardwell
- Department of Production and Population HealthRoyal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldHertfordshireUK
| | - V. Gerber
- Swiss Institute of Equine MedicineUniversity of Berne and AgroscopeBerneSwitzerland
| | - J.‐P. Lavoie
- Faculté de Médicine VétérinaireDépartement de Sciences CliniquesUniversité de MontrealSt‐HyacintheQuébecCanada
| | - R. Léguillette
- Department of Veterinary Clinical and Diagnostic SciencesFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
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15
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Houtsma A, Bedenice D, Pusterla N, Pugliese B, Mapes S, Hoffman AM, Paxson J, Rozanski E, Mukherjee J, Wigley M, Mazan MR. Association between inflammatory airway disease of horses and exposure to respiratory viruses: a case control study. Multidiscip Respir Med 2015; 10:33. [PMID: 26535117 PMCID: PMC4630835 DOI: 10.1186/s40248-015-0030-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Inflammatory airway disease (IAD) in horses, similar to asthma in humans, is a common cause of chronic poor respiratory health and exercise intolerance due to airway inflammation and exaggerated airway constrictive responses. Human rhinovirus is an important trigger for the development of asthma; a similar role for viral respiratory disease in equine IAD has not been established yet. Methods In a case–control study, horses with IAD (n = 24) were compared to control animals from comparable stabling environments (n = 14). Horses were classified using pulmonary function testing and bronchoalveolar lavage. PCR for equine rhinitis virus A and B (ERAV, ERBV), influenza virus (EIV), and herpesviruses 2, 4, and 5 (EHV-2, EHV-4, EHV-5) was performed on nasal swab, buffy coat from whole blood, and cells from BAL fluid (BALF), and serology were performed. Categorical variables were compared between IAD and control using Fisher’s exact test; continuous variables were compared with an independent t-test. For all analyses, a value of P <0.05 was considered significant. Results There was a significant association between diagnosis of IAD and history of cough (P = 0.001) and exercise intolerance (P = 0.003) but not between nasal discharge and IAD. Horses with IAD were significantly more likely to have a positive titer to ERAV (68 %) vs. control horses (32 %). Horses with IAD had higher log-transformed titers to ERAV than did controls (2.28 ± 0.18 v.1.50 ± 0.25, P = 0.038). There was a significant association between nasal shedding (positive PCR) of EHV-2 and diagnosis of IAD (P = 0.002). Conclusions IAD remains a persistent problem in the equine population and has strong similarities to the human disease, asthma, for which viral infection is an important trigger. The association between viral respiratory infection and development or exacerbation of IAD in this study suggests that viral infection may contribute to IAD susceptibility; there is, therefore, merit in further investigation into the relationship between respiratory virus exposure and development of IAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Houtsma
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | - Daniela Bedenice
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | | | - Brenna Pugliese
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | | | - Andrew M Hoffman
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | | | - Elizabeth Rozanski
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | - Jean Mukherjee
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | - Margaret Wigley
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
| | - Melissa R Mazan
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA USA
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16
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Back H, Ullman K, Treiberg Berndtsson L, Riihimäki M, Penell J, Ståhl K, Valarcher JF, Pringle J. Viral load of equine herpesviruses 2 and 5 in nasal swabs of actively racing Standardbred trotters: Temporal relationship of shedding to clinical findings and poor performance. Vet Microbiol 2015; 179:142-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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17
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Mazan MR. Update on noninfectious inflammatory diseases of the lower airway. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2015; 31:159-85. [PMID: 25770068 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory airway disease and recurrent airway obstruction are 2 nonseptic diseases of the equine respiratory system with a shared cause of exposure to particulate matter. They appear to occupy 2 ends of a spectrum of disease, but are differentiated by history, clinical signs, and response to treatment. Diagnosis can be made by sampling of respiratory fluids and lung function testing. Treatment consists of environmental modification and pharmacologic treatment with systemic or inhaled corticosteroids and bronchodilators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R Mazan
- Large Animal Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, 200 Westborough Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA.
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18
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Marenzoni ML, Stefanetti V, Danzetta ML, Timoney PJ. Gammaherpesvirus infections in equids: a review. VETERINARY MEDICINE-RESEARCH AND REPORTS 2015; 6:91-101. [PMID: 30155436 PMCID: PMC6065615 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s39473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Although the first equine gammaherpesvirus was identified over 50 years ago, the isolation and characterization of other members of this virus group has been relatively recent. Even so, numerous clinical syndromes have been identified in equid species in association with these viruses. Equid gammaherpesviruses are a genetically heterogeneous viral subfamily, the function of which in host immune modulation and disease pathogenesis has not yet been elucidated. While they share similarities with gammaherpesviruses in humans, the role they play in their relationship with the host is the subject of continued interest and research. Their widespread presence in horses and other equid species provides a considerable challenge in linking them with particular clinical and pathological conditions and in defining their significance from a diagnostic and therapeutic viewpoint. The present review provides an update on the taxonomy, epidemiology, and clinical syndromes, especially respiratory, reported in association with gammaherpesvirus infection in horses, donkeys, and other equid species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Peter Joseph Timoney
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
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19
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Richard EA, Pitel PH, Lemaitre L, Jas D, Lekeux P, Pronost S, Fortier G. Stimulation of airway neutrophils following dexamethasone administration and equid herpesvirus-2 challenge in horses. Vet J 2014; 199:181-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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20
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Hue ES, Fortier GD, Fortier CI, Leon AM, Richard EA, Legrand LJ, Pronost SL. Detection and quantitation of equid gammaherpesviruses (EHV-2, EHV-5) in nasal swabs using an accredited standardised quantitative PCR method. J Virol Methods 2013; 198:18-25. [PMID: 24370678 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Equid gammaherpesviruses-2 and -5 are involved in respiratory problems, with potential clinical manifestations such as nasal discharge, pharyngitis and swollen lymph nodes. These viruses are sometimes associated with a poor-performance syndrome, which may result in a significant and negative economic impact for the horse industry. The aim of the present study was to develop and validate quantitative PCR methods for the detection and quantitation of EHV-2 and EHV-5 in equine respiratory fluids. Two distinct tests were characterised: (a) for the qPCR alone and (b) for the whole method (extraction and qPCR) according to the standard model AFNOR XP U47-600-2 (viz., specificity, quantifiable sensibility, linearity, accuracy, range of application, trueness, precision, repeatability and precision of reproducibility). EHV-2 and EHV-5 detection were performed on nasal swabs collected from 172 horses, all of which exhibited clinical signs of respiratory disease. The data revealed a high rate of EHV-2/EHV-5 co-detection that was correlated significantly with age. Viral load of EHV-2 was significantly higher in young horses whereas viral load of EHV-5 was not significantly different with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika S Hue
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Normandie Universite, 14000 Caen, France; Unite Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, 14032 Caen, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Guillaume D Fortier
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Normandie Universite, 14000 Caen, France; Unite Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, 14032 Caen, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Christine I Fortier
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Albertine M Leon
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Normandie Universite, 14000 Caen, France; Unite Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, 14032 Caen, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Eric A Richard
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Loïc J Legrand
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Normandie Universite, 14000 Caen, France; Unite Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, 14032 Caen, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
| | - Stéphane L Pronost
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory-LABÉO, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France; Normandie Universite, 14000 Caen, France; Unite Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, 14032 Caen, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 Caen, France.
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