1
|
Comparative Investigation of Gene Regulatory Processes Underlying Avian Influenza Viruses in Chicken and Duck. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11020219. [PMID: 35205087 PMCID: PMC8868632 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Avian influenza poses a great risk to gallinaceous poultry, while mallard ducks can withstand most virus strains. To date, the mechanisms underlying the susceptibility of chicken and the effective immune response of duck have not been completely understood. In this study, our aim is to investigate the transcriptional gene regulation governing the expression of important avian-influenza-induced genes and to reveal the master regulators stimulating an effective immune response after virus infection in ducks while dysfunctioning in chicken. Abstract The avian influenza virus (AIV) mainly affects birds and not only causes animals’ deaths, but also poses a great risk of zoonotically infecting humans. While ducks and wild waterfowl are seen as a natural reservoir for AIVs and can withstand most virus strains, chicken mostly succumb to infection with high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). To date, the mechanisms underlying the susceptibility of chicken and the effective immune response of duck have not been completely unraveled. In this study, we investigate the transcriptional gene regulation underlying disease progression in chicken and duck after AIV infection. For this purpose, we use a publicly available RNA-sequencing dataset from chicken and ducks infected with low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H5N2 and HPAI H5N1 (lung and ileum tissues, 1 and 3 days post-infection). Unlike previous studies, we performed a promoter analysis based on orthologous genes to detect important transcription factors (TFs) and their cooperation, based on which we apply a systems biology approach to identify common and species-specific master regulators. We found master regulators such as EGR1, FOS, and SP1, specifically for chicken and ETS1 and SMAD3/4, specifically for duck, which could be responsible for the duck’s effective and the chicken’s ineffective immune response.
Collapse
|
2
|
Distinct transcriptomic response to Newcastle disease virus infection during heat stress in chicken tracheal epithelial tissue. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7450. [PMID: 33811240 PMCID: PMC8018950 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86795-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) has a great impact on poultry health and welfare with its most virulent (velogenic) strain. In addition, issues exacerbated by the increase in global temperatures necessitates a greater understanding of the host immune response when facing a combination of biotic and abiotic stress factors in poultry production. Previous investigations have revealed that the host immune response is tissue-specific. The goal of this study was to identify genes and/or signaling pathways associated with immune response to NDV (Newcastle disease virus) in the trachea, an essential organ where NDV replicate after the infection, by profiling the tissue specific transcriptome response in two genetically distinct inbred chicken lines when exposed to both abiotic and biotic stressors. Fayoumis appear to be able to respond more effectively (lower viral titer, higher antibody levels, immune gene up-regulation) and earlier than Leghorns. Our results suggest NDV infection in Fayoumis appears to elicit proinflammatory processes, and pathways such as the inhibition of cell viability, cell proliferation of lymphocytes, and transactivation of RNA, more rapidly than in Leghorns. These differences in immune response converge at later timepoints which may indicate that Leghorns eventually regulate its immune response to infection. The profiling of the gene expression response in the trachea adds to our understanding of the chicken host response to NDV infection and heat stress on a whole genome level and provides potential candidate genes and signaling pathways for further investigation into the characterization of the time-specific and pathway specific responses in Fayoumis and Leghorns.
Collapse
|
3
|
Kalenik BM, Góra-Sochacka A, Stachyra A, Olszewska-Tomczyk M, Fogtman A, Sawicka R, Śmietanka K, Sirko A. Response to a DNA vaccine against the H5N1 virus depending on the chicken line and number of doses. Virol J 2020; 17:66. [PMID: 32381003 PMCID: PMC7206725 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01335-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Avian influenza virus infections cause significant economic losses on poultry farms and pose the threat of a possible pandemic outbreak. Routine vaccination of poultry against avian influenza is not recommended in Europe, however it has been ordered in some other countries, and more countries are considering use of the avian influenza vaccine as a component of their control strategy. Although a variety of such vaccines have been tested, most research has concentrated on specific antibodies and challenge experiments. Methods We monitored the transcriptomic response to a DNA vaccine encoding hemagglutinin from the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus in the spleens of broiler and layer chickens. Moreover, in layer chickens the response to one and two doses of the vaccine was compared. Results All groups of birds immunized with two doses of the vaccine responded at the humoral level by producing specific anti-hemagglutinin antibodies. A response to the vaccine was also detected in the spleen transcriptomes. Differential expression of many genes encoding noncoding RNA and proteins functionally connected to the neuroendocrine-immune system was observed in different immunized groups. Conclusion Broiler chickens showed a higher number and wider range of fold-changes in the transcriptional response than laying hens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Małgorzata Kalenik
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Góra-Sochacka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Stachyra
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Olszewska-Tomczyk
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland
| | - Anna Fogtman
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Róża Sawicka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Śmietanka
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Sirko
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106, Warsaw, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sun H, Wang K, Yao W, Liu Q, Yang J, Teng Q, Li X, Li Z, Chen H. H9N2 Viruses Isolated From Mammals Replicated in Mice at Higher Levels Than Avian-Origin Viruses. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:416. [PMID: 30915048 PMCID: PMC6421276 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
H9N2 subtype influenza A virus (IAV) has more than 20 genotypes that are able to cross species barriers and expand from birds to mammals and humans. To better understand the impact of different H9N2 genotypes and their characteristics, five H9N2 viruses from different hosts including chickens, geese, pigs, mink, and humans representing the B69 88(Gs/14, Ck/15, and Mi/14), B35 (Sw/08) and G9 genotypes (Hu/04) were infected in chicken and mice. In mice, mammal-origin viruses replicated at higher levels in the lungs compared to avian viruses. The goose-virus replicated at the lowest levels indicating poor adaptation. Increased pro-inflammatory cytokines were positively correlated with viral loads in the lung. In chickens, all viruses were excreted from cloacal and/or oropharyngeal swabs. Interestingly, Mink-origin virus exhibited higher virulence and replication in mice and chickens. Our data indicate that mammal-origin H9N2 viruses are more adapted and virulent in mice than the avian-origin viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiwei Sun
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Yao
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Qinfang Liu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianmei Yang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiaoyang Teng
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuesong Li
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| | - Zejun Li
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongjun Chen
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China.,Animal Influenza Virus Ecology and Pathogenesis Innovation Team, The Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kalenik BM, Góra-Sochacka A, Stachyra A, Pietrzak M, Kopera E, Fogtman A, Sirko A. Transcriptional response to a prime/boost vaccination of chickens with three vaccine variants based on HA DNA and Pichia-produced HA protein. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 88:8-18. [PMID: 29986836 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza causes severe economic losses and is a potential threat to public health. Better knowledge of the mechanisms of chicken response to the novel types of vaccines against avian influenza might be helpful in their successful implementation into poultry vaccination programs in different countries. This work presents a comprehensive analysis of gene expression response elicited in chicken spleens by a combined DNA/recombinant protein prime/boost vaccination compared to DNA/DNA and protein/protein regimens. All groups of vaccinated chickens displayed changes in spleen transcriptomes in comparison to the control group with 423, 375 and 212 identified differentially expressed genes in protein/protein, DNA/DNA and DNA/protein group, respectively. Genes with most significantly changed expression belong to immune-related categories. Depending on a group, a fraction of 15-34% of up-regulated and a fraction of 15-42% of down-regulated immune-related genes are shared by all groups. Interestingly, the most upregulated genes encode β-defensins, short peptides with antimicrobial activity and immunomodulatory functions. Microarray results were validated with RT-qPCR method, which confirmed differential regulation of the selected immune-related genes. Immune-related differentially expressed genes and metabolic pathways identified in this work are compared to the available literature data on gene expression changes in vaccinated and non-vaccinated chickens after influenza infection.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Chickens
- DNA, Viral/immunology
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/genetics
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/immunology
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/isolation & purification
- Immunization, Secondary/methods
- Immunogenicity, Vaccine/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype/immunology
- Influenza Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Influenza Vaccines/genetics
- Influenza Vaccines/immunology
- Influenza in Birds/immunology
- Influenza in Birds/prevention & control
- Influenza in Birds/virology
- Metabolic Networks and Pathways/immunology
- Pichia
- Poultry Diseases/immunology
- Poultry Diseases/prevention & control
- Poultry Diseases/virology
- Recombinant Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Proteins/isolation & purification
- Spleen/immunology
- Vaccination/methods
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/genetics
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Małgorzata Kalenik
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Góra-Sochacka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Stachyra
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maria Pietrzak
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Edyta Kopera
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Fogtman
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Sirko
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5A, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jin H, Wang W, Yang X, Su H, Fan J, Zhu R, Wang S, Shi H, Liu X. Evolution of H9N2 avian influenza virus in embryonated chicken eggs with or without homologous vaccine antibodies. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:71. [PMID: 29510698 PMCID: PMC5840701 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1391-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Vaccines constitute a unique selective pressure, different from natural selection, drives the evolution of influenza virus. In this study, A/Chicken/Shanghai/F/1998 (H9N2) was continually passaged in specific pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs with or without selective pressures from antibodies induced by homologous maternal antibodies. Genetic mutations, antigenic drift, replication, and pathogenicity of the passaged virus were evaluated. Results Antigenic drift of the passaged viruses occurred in the 47th generation (vF47) under selective pressure on antibodies and in the 52nd generation (nF52) without selective pressure from antibodies. Seven mutations were observed in the vF47 virus, with three in PB2 and four in HA, whereas 12 mutations occurred in the nF52 virus, with three in PB2, two in PB1, four in HA, one in NP, one in NA, and one in NS. Remarkably, the sequences of the HA segment from vF47 were 100% homologous with those of the nF52 virus. Both the vF47 and nF52 viruses showed enhanced replication compared to the parental virus F/98, but higher levels of replication and pathogenicity were displayed by nF52 than by vF47. An inactive vaccine derived from the parental virus F/98 did not confer protection against challenges by either the vF47 or nF52 virus, but inactive vaccines derived from the vF47 or nF52 virus were able to provide protection against a challenge using F/98. Conclusion Taken together, the passage of H9N2 viruses with or without selective pressure of the antibodies induced by homologous maternal antibodies showed genetic variation, enhanced replication, and variant antigenicity. Selective pressure of the antibody does not seem to play a key role in antigenic drift in the egg model but may impact the genetic variation and replication ability of H9N2 viruses. These results improve understanding of the evolution of the H9N2 influenza virus and may aid in selecting appropriate vaccine seeds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyun Jin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Wan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Xueqin Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Hailong Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Jiawen Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Rui Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Shifeng Wang
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-0880, USA
| | - Huoying Shi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
| | - Xiufan Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, People's Republic of China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Umar S, Guerin JL, Ducatez MF. Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza and Coinfecting Pathogens: A Review of Experimental Infections in Avian Models. Avian Dis 2017; 61:3-15. [PMID: 28301244 DOI: 10.1637/11514-101316-review] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) usually causes mild disease or asymptomatic infection in poultry. LPAIV has, however, become a great threat to poultry industry due to mixed infections with other pathogens. Coinfections do frequently occur in the field but are not easily detected, and their impact on pathobiology is not clearly defined due to their complicated nature, but it is well known that there is an impact. One way to increase our knowledge of coinfections in poultry is to challenge birds in experimental and controlled conditions. While many articles report in vivo experiments with LPAIV in avian models, only a few have studied coinfections. Moreover, researchers tend to choose different bird types, ages, inoculation routes, and doses for their experiments, making it difficult to compare between studies. This review describes the state of the art for experimental infections with LPAIV alone or associated with coinfecting pathogens in avian models. It also discusses how best to mimic field infections in laboratory settings. In the field of avian diseases, experimental design is obviously directly linked with the research question addressed, but there is a gap between field and experimental data, and further studies are warranted to better understand how to bring laboratory settings closer to field situations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sajid Umar
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 37076 Toulouse, France
| | - Jean Luc Guerin
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 37076 Toulouse, France
| | - Mariette F Ducatez
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 37076 Toulouse, France
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Geng T, Guan X, Smith EJ. Screening for genes involved in antibody response to sheep red blood cells in the chicken, Gallus gallus. Poult Sci 2015. [PMID: 26217034 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody response, an important trait in both agriculture and biomedicine, plays a part in protecting animals from infection. Dissecting molecular basis of antibody response may improve artificial selection for natural disease resistance in livestock and poultry. A number of genetic markers associated with antibody response have been identified in the chicken and mouse by linkage-based association studies, which only define genomic regions by genetic markers but do not pinpoint genes for antibody response. In contrast, global expression profiling has been applied to define the molecular bases of a variety of biological traits through identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Here, we employed Affimetrix GeneChip Chicken Genome Arrays to identify differentially expressed genes for antibody response to sheep red blood cells (SRBC) using chickens challenged with and without SRBC or chickens with high and low anti-SRBC titers. The DEGs include those with known (i.e., MHC class I and IgH genes) or unknown function in antibody response. Classification test of these genes suggested that the response of the chicken to intravenous injection of SRBC involved multiple biological processes, including response to stress or other different stimuli, sugar, carbohydrate or protein binding, and cell or soluble fraction, in addition to antibody response. This preliminary study thus provides an insight into molecular basis of antibody response to SRBC in the chicken.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tuoyu Geng
- Institute of Epigenetics and Epigenomics, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Xiaojing Guan
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Edward J Smith
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Analysis of the crow lung transcriptome in response to infection with highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus. Gene 2015; 559:77-85. [PMID: 25592823 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus, currently circulating in Asia, causes severe disease in domestic poultry as well as wild birds like crow. However, the molecular pathogenesis of HPAIV infection in crows and other wild birds is not well known. Thus, as a step to explore it, a comprehensive global gene expression analysis was performed on crow lungs, infected with HPAI H5N1 crow isolate (A/Crow/India/11TI11/2011) using high throughput next generation sequencing (NGS) (GS FLX Titanium XLR70). The reference genome of crow is not available, so RNA seq analysis was performed on the basis of a de novo assembled transcriptome. The RNA seq result shows, 4052 genes were expressed uniquely in noninfected, 6277 genes were expressed uniquely in HPAIV infected sample and of the 6814 genes expressed in both samples, 2279 genes were significantly differentially expressed. Our transcriptome profile data allows for the ability to understand the molecular mechanism behind the recent lethal HPAIV outbreak in crows which was, until recently, thought to cause lethal infections only in gallinaceous birds such as chickens, but not in wild birds. The pattern of differentially expressed genes suggest that this isolate of H5N1 virus evades the host innate immune response by attenuating interferon (IFN)-inducible signalling possibly by down regulating the signalling from type I IFN (IFNAR1 and IFNAR2) and type II IFN receptors, upregulation of the signalling inhibitors suppressor of cytokine signalling 1 (SOCS1) and SOCS3 and altering the expression of toll-like receptors (TLRs). This may be the reason for disease and mortality in crows.
Collapse
|
10
|
Glycans from avian influenza virus are recognized by chicken dendritic cells and are targets for the humoral immune response in chicken. Mol Immunol 2013; 56:452-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
11
|
Okino CH, Alessi AC, Montassier MDFS, Rosa AJDM, Wang X, Montassier HJ. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to different doses of attenuated vaccine against avian infectious bronchitis virus. Viral Immunol 2013; 26:259-67. [PMID: 23865943 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2013.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The antibody and cellular immune responses against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) were evaluated at mucosal sites of chickens after immunization with various doses of an attenuated vaccine at 1 day of age. The correlation of these immune responses with protection of tracheal tissues was evaluated after experimental infection of these birds. Significantly reduced tracheal pathologic effects, measured according to ciliostasis and histology lesions, and reduced viral load were observed only in the full-dose vaccinated group at 5 days post-infection (dpi), while incomplete protection was observed for the subdose vaccinated groups. Moreover, birds of vaccinated groups, especially with full dose, developed higher levels of lachrymal IBV-specific IgG and IgA and increased the expression of cell-mediated immunity (CMI) genes, such as gamma interferon (IFNγ), CD8+ T cell marker, and granzyme homolog A more rapidly. In addition, these humoral and cellular immune responses evaluated at mucosal sites correlated significantly with tracheal protection against homologous IBV challenge in a vaccine dose-dependent manner. The results indicate that IgG, IgA and CD8+ T cell responses developed at mucosal sites after IBV vaccination of day-old chicks, could be taken as good correlates of protection against this virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cintia Hiromi Okino
- Laboratory of Immunology and Virology, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Effect of age on the pathogenesis and innate immune responses in Pekin ducks infected with different H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Virus Res 2012; 167:196-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
13
|
Bridle AR, Koop BF, Nowak BF. Identification of surrogates of protection against yersiniosis in immersion vaccinated Atlantic salmon. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40841. [PMID: 22808275 PMCID: PMC3395641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple cost-effective bacterins are the earliest and most successfully used commercial vaccines in fish. In particular, those prepared from Yersinia ruckeri have proven effective at controlling Enteric Red Mouth Disease (ERM) and yersiniosis in rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon, respectively. However, the emergence of outbreaks of ERM caused by atypical biotypes of Y. ruckeri and reports of vaccine failure resulting in mass mortality of hatchery Atlantic salmon has reinvigorated interest in vaccines against fish bacterial diseases. Therefore the objective of this study was to identify surrogates of protection against yersiniosis using cDNA microarray to characterise the response of host genes in the gills of unvaccinated and vaccinated Atlantic salmon challenged with Y. ruckeri. Differentially expressed genes were identified using two-way ANOVA and restricted to those with >2.5-fold change at P<0.05. Using cDNA microarray we identified the expression of 6 genes in response to infection and 4 genes associated with the protective host response to yersiniosis. Analysis by real-time PCR confirmed that three immunologically relevant genes, namely a cathelicidin (47-fold) and a C-type lectin (19-fold) increased in response to yersiniosis. Including collagenase (17-fold increase), an important tissue remodelling and repair enzyme, these genes represent 3 of 6 non-protective and/or pathological responses to yersiniosis. Genes associated with the protective host response included an immunoglobulin gene and a selenoprotein that showed significant fold changes (15-fold increases each), highlighting the importance of antibody-mediated protection against yersiniosis. These findings provide much needed knowledge of the host-pathogen interaction in response to bacterial infection and immunisation in fish. Significantly, we identified a transcriptional biosignature consisting of predominantly immune-relevant genes (14 up and 3 down-regulated) in the gills of Atlantic salmon after immersion vaccination and before bacterial challenge. This biosignature may be used as a surrogate of protection and therefore as a predictor of vaccine success against yersiniosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Bridle
- National Centre for Marine Conservation and Resource Sustainability, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
St Paul M, Mallick AI, Read LR, Villanueva AI, Parvizi P, Abdul-Careem MF, Nagy É, Sharif S. Prophylactic treatment with Toll-like receptor ligands enhances host immunity to avian influenza virus in chickens. Vaccine 2012; 30:4524-31. [PMID: 22531557 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2012] [Revised: 04/06/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses (AIV) pose a threat towards the health of both poultry and humans. To interrupt the transmission of the virus, novel prophylactic strategies must be considered which may reduce the shedding of AIV. One potential is the prophylactic use of Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. Many cells of the immune system express TLRs, and cellular responses to TLR stimulation include activation and the production of cytokines. TLR ligands have been employed as prophylactic treatments to enhance host resistance to pathogens both in mammals and chickens. Therefore, the present study was conducted to determine whether TLR ligands may be used prophylactically in chickens to enhance host immunity to AIV. Chickens received intramuscular injections of either low or high doses of the TLR ligands poly I:C, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and CpG ODN. Twenty-four hours post-treatment, chickens were infected with the low pathogenic avian influenza virus H4N6, and both oropharyngeal and cloacal virus shedding were assessed on days 4 and 7 post-infection. To identify potential correlates of immunity, spleen and lungs were collected on days 2, 4 and 7 post-infection for RNA extraction. The results suggested that all of the TLR ligand treatments induced a significant reduction in virus shedding, with the TLR3 ligand poly I:C conferring the greatest AIV immunity compared to control birds, followed by CpG ODN and LPS. Furthermore, transcriptional analysis of gene expression in the spleen and lungs suggest IFN-α and IL-8 as correlates of immunity conferred by poly I:C, and IFN-γ for CpG ODN and LPS. In conclusion, TLR ligands, have the ability to enhance host immunity against AIV, and future studies should consider exploring the combinatory effects of poly I:C and CpG ODN prophylaxis in conjunction with AIV vaccination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael St Paul
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Jiang H, Yang H, Kapczynski DR. Chicken interferon alpha pretreatment reduces virus replication of pandemic H1N1 and H5N9 avian influenza viruses in lung cell cultures from different avian species. Virol J 2011; 8:447. [PMID: 21939525 PMCID: PMC3197513 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type I interferons, including interferon alpha (IFN-α), represent one of the first lines of innate immune defense against influenza virus infection. Following natural infection of chickens with avian influenza virus (AIV), transcription of IFN-α is quickly up regulated along with multiple other immune-related genes. Chicken IFN-α up regulates a number of important anti-viral response genes and has been demonstrated to be an important cytokine to establish anti-viral immunity. However, the mechanisms by which interferon inhibit virus replication in avian species remains unknown as does the biological activity of chicken interferon in other avian species. METHODS In these studies, we assessed the protective potential of exogenous chicken IFN-α applied to chicken, duck, and turkey primary lung cell cultures prior to infection with the pandemic H1N1 virus (A/turkey/Virginia/SEP-4/2009) and an established avian H5N9 virus (A/turkey/Wisconsin/1968). Growth kinetics and induction of select immune response genes, including IFN-α and myxovirus-resistance gene I (Mx), as well as proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-6), were measured in response to chicken IFN-α and viral infection over time. RESULTS Results demonstrate that pretreatment with chicken IFN-α before AIV infection significantly reduced virus replication in both chicken-and turkey-origin lung cells and to a lesser degree the duck-origin cells. Virus growth was reduced by approximately 200-fold in chicken and turkey cells and 30-fold in duck cells after 48 hours of incubation. Interferon treatment also significantly decreased the interferon and proinflammatory response during viral infection. In general, infection with the H1N1 virus resulted in an attenuated interferon and proinflammatory response in these cell lines, compared to the H5N9 virus. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, these studies show that chicken IFN-α reduces virus replication, lower host innate immune response following infection, and is biologically active in other avian species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| | - Hanchun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA, 30605, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Reduced immune reaction prevents immunopathology after challenge with avian influenza virus: A transcriptomics analysis of adjuvanted vaccines. Vaccine 2010; 28:6351-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.06.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
|
17
|
Reemers SS, Groot Koerkamp MJ, Holstege FC, van Eden W, Vervelde L. Cellular host transcriptional responses to influenza A virus in chicken tracheal organ cultures differ from responses in in vivo infected trachea. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2009; 132:91-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2009] [Revised: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 04/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
18
|
A genetically engineered waterfowl influenza virus with a deletion in the stalk of the neuraminidase has increased virulence for chickens. J Virol 2009; 84:940-52. [PMID: 19889765 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01581-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A deletion of about 20 amino acids in the stalk of the neuraminidase (NA) is frequently detected upon transmission of influenza A viruses from waterfowl to domestic poultry. Using reverse genetics, a recombinant virus derived from a wild duck influenza virus isolate, A/Mallard/Marquenterre/Z237/83 (MZ), and an NA stalk deletion variant (MZ-delNA) were produced. Compared to the wild type, the MZ-delNA virus showed a moderate growth advantage on avian cultured cells. In 4-week-old chickens inoculated intratracheally with the MZ-delNA virus, viral replication in the lungs, liver, and kidneys was enhanced and interstitial pneumonia lesions were more severe than with the wild-type virus. The MZ-delNA-inoculated chickens showed significantly increased levels of mRNAs encoding interleukin-6 (IL-6), transforming growth factor-beta4 (TGF-beta4), and CCL5 in the lungs and a higher frequency of apoptotic cells in the liver than did their MZ-inoculated counterparts. Molecular mechanisms possibly underlying the growth advantage of the MZ-delNA virus were explored. The measured enzymatic activities toward a small substrate were similar for the wild-type and deleted NA, but the MZ-delNA virus eluted from chicken erythrocytes at reduced rates. Pseudoviral particles expressing the MZ hemagglutinin in combination with the MZ-NA or MZ-delNA protein were produced from avian cultured cells with similar efficiencies, suggesting that the deletion in the NA stalk does not enhance the release of progeny virions and probably affects an earlier step of the viral cycle. Overall, our data indicate that a shortened NA stalk is a strong determinant of adaptation and virulence of waterfowl influenza viruses in chickens.
Collapse
|
19
|
Kim D, Kim C, Lamont S, Keeler C, Lillehoj H. Gene expression profiles of two B-complex disparate, genetically inbred Fayoumi chicken lines that differ in susceptibility to Eimeria maxima. Poult Sci 2009; 88:1565-79. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2009-00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
20
|
Reemers SS, van Haarlem DA, Groot Koerkamp MJ, Vervelde L. Differential gene-expression and host-response profiles against avian influenza virus within the chicken lung due to anatomy and airflow. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2134-46. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.012401-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
|
21
|
Degen WG, Smith J, Simmelink B, Glass EJ, Burt DW, Schijns VE. Molecular immunophenotyping of lungs in naïve and vaccinated chickens early after pulmonary avian influenza A (H9N2) virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.10.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
22
|
Xing Z, Cardona CJ, Li J, Dao N, Tran T, Andrada J. Modulation of the immune responses in chickens by low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus H9N2. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:1288-1299. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.83362-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Most low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) viruses cause no or mild disease in avian species. Little is known about the mechanisms of host defence and the immune responses of avian influenza-infected birds. This study showed that chicken macrophages are susceptible to infection with LPAI H9N2 and H6N2 viruses and that infection led to apoptosis. In H9N2 virus-infected chicken macrophages, Toll-like receptor 7 responded to infection and mediated the cytokine responses. Whilst pro-inflammatory cytokines were largely upregulated, the interferon (IFN) response was fairly weak and IFN-inducible genes were differentially regulated. Among the regulated genes, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens II were downregulated, which also occurred in the lungs of H9N2-infected chickens. Additionally, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-4 receptor and CD74 (MHC class II invariable chain) were also downregulated, all of which are pivotal in the activation of CD4+ helper T cells and humoral immunity. Remarkably, in H9N2 virus-infected chickens, the antibody response was severely suppressed. This was in contrast to the robust antibody response in chickens infected with H6N2 virus, in which expression of MHC class II antigens was upregulated. These data suggest that neutralizing antibodies and humoral immunity may not be developed efficiently in H9N2-infected chickens. These findings raise questions about how some LPAI viruses differentially regulate avian immune responses and whether they have similar effects on mammalian immune function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Xing
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Carol J. Cardona
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jinling Li
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Nguyet Dao
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Tu Tran
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jason Andrada
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Cogburn LA, Porter TE, Duclos MJ, Simon J, Burgess SC, Zhu JJ, Cheng HH, Dodgson JB, Burnside J. Functional genomics of the chicken--a model organism. Poult Sci 2007; 86:2059-94. [PMID: 17878436 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.10.2059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the sequencing of the genome and the development of high-throughput tools for the exploration of functional elements of the genome, the chicken has reached model organism status. Functional genomics focuses on understanding the function and regulation of genes and gene products on a global or genome-wide scale. Systems biology attempts to integrate functional information derived from multiple high-content data sets into a holistic view of all biological processes within a cell or organism. Generation of a large collection ( approximately 600K) of chicken expressed sequence tags, representing most tissues and developmental stages, has enabled the construction of high-density microarrays for transcriptional profiling. Comprehensive analysis of this large expressed sequence tag collection and a set of approximately 20K full-length cDNA sequences indicate that the transcriptome of the chicken represents approximately 20,000 genes. Furthermore, comparative analyses of these sequences have facilitated functional annotation of the genome and the creation of several bioinformatic resources for the chicken. Recently, about 20 papers have been published on transcriptional profiling with DNA microarrays in chicken tissues under various conditions. Proteomics is another powerful high-throughput tool currently used for examining the dynamics of protein expression in chicken tissues and fluids. Computational analyses of the chicken genome are providing new insight into the evolution of gene families in birds and other organisms. Abundant functional genomic resources now support large-scale analyses in the chicken and will facilitate identification of transcriptional mechanisms, gene networks, and metabolic or regulatory pathways that will ultimately determine the phenotype of the bird. New technologies such as marker-assisted selection, transgenics, and RNA interference offer the opportunity to modify the phenotype of the chicken to fit defined production goals. This review focuses on functional genomics in the chicken and provides a road map for large-scale exploration of the chicken genome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L A Cogburn
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark 19717, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
Infection with influenza typically results in mild‐to‐moderate illness in healthy individuals; however, it is responsible for 30,000–40,000 deaths each year in the United States. In extreme cases, such as the influenza pandemic of 1918, tens of millions of people have died from the infection. To prepare for future influenza outbreaks, it is necessary to understand how the virus interacts with the host and to determine what makes certain strains of influenza highly pathogenic. Functional genomics provides a unique approach to this effort by allowing researchers to examine the effect of influenza infection on global host mRNA levels. Researchers are making increasing use of this approach to study virus–host interactions using a variety of model systems. For example, data obtained using microarray technology, in combination with mouse and macaque infection models, is providing exciting new insights into the pathogenicity of the 1918 virus. These studies suggest that the lethality associated with this virus is in part due to an aberrant and unchecked immune response. Progress is also being made toward using functional genomics in the diagnosis and prognosis of acute lung infections and in the development of more effective influenza vaccines and antivirals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Fornek
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Keeler CL, Bliss TW, Lavric M, Maughan MN. A functional genomics approach to the study of avian innate immunity. Cytogenet Genome Res 2007; 117:139-45. [PMID: 17675854 DOI: 10.1159/000103174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2007] [Accepted: 03/09/2007] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A second-generation 4,959 element cDNA microarray has been created and evaluated for its potential use in examining the avian innate immune response. The elements in this array were obtained from EST libraries of stimulated avian PMNC-derived monocytes/macrophages and supplemented by genes of interest from several specific innate immune pathways. The elements are spotted in triplicate resulting in 14,877 total spots per slide. The avian innate immunity microarray (AIIM) contains 25 avian interleukin, chemokine, and cytokine elements. The array also contains elements for several innate immune pathways, including genes involved in the Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway (including six of the currently known avian TLR receptors), avian interferon/antiviral response pathway genes, and genes involved in apoptosis, antigen presentation and the oxidative burst. The AIIM can be used to evaluate global gene expression patterns in a number of immunologically relevant tissues and in chickens, turkeys and ducks. The array has also been evaluated for its ability to monitor the avian immune response to both bacterial (avian pathogenic Escherichia coli) and viral (avian influenza) avian pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C L Keeler
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716-2150, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|