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Guzman RM, Savolainen NG, Hayden OM, Lee M, Osbron CA, Liu Z, Yang H, Shaw DK, Omsland A, Goodman AG. Drosophila melanogaster Sting mediates Coxiella burnetii infection by reducing accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Infect Immun 2024; 92:e0056022. [PMID: 38363133 PMCID: PMC10929449 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00560-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of query fever in humans and coxiellosis in livestock. C. burnetii infects a variety of cell types, tissues, and animal species including mammals and arthropods, but there is much left to be understood about the molecular mechanisms at play during infection in distinct species. Human stimulator of interferon genes (STING) induces an innate immune response through the induction of type I interferons (IFNs), and IFN promotes or suppresses C. burnetii replication, depending on tissue type. Drosophila melanogaster contains a functional STING ortholog (Sting) which activates NF-κB signaling and autophagy. Here, we sought to address the role of D. melanogaster Sting during C. burnetii infection to uncover how Sting regulates C. burnetii infection in flies. We show that Sting-null flies exhibit higher mortality and reduced induction of antimicrobial peptides following C. burnetii infection compared to control flies. Additionally, Sting-null flies induce lower levels of oxidative stress genes during infection, but the provision of N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) in food rescues Sting-null host survival. Lastly, we find that reactive oxygen species levels during C. burnetii infection are higher in Drosophila S2 cells knocked down for Sting compared to control cells. Our results show that at the host level, NAC provides protection against C. burnetii infection in the absence of Sting, thus establishing a role for Sting in protection against oxidative stress during C. burnetii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa M. Guzman
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Nathan G. Savolainen
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Olivia M. Hayden
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Miyoung Lee
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Chelsea A. Osbron
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Ziying Liu
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Hong Yang
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Dana K. Shaw
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Anders Omsland
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Alan G. Goodman
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
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Sam G, Plain K, Chen S, Islam A, Westman ME, Marsh I, Stenos J, Graves SR, Rehm BHA. Synthetic Particulate Subunit Vaccines for the Prevention of Q Fever. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2302351. [PMID: 38198823 PMCID: PMC11468694 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202302351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetti is an intracellular bacterium that causes Q fever, a disease of worldwide importance. Q-VAX® , the approved human Q fever vaccine, is a whole cell vaccine associated with safety concerns. Here a safe particulate subunit vaccine candidate is developed that is ambient-temperature stable and can be cost-effectively manufactured. Endotoxin-free Escherichia coli is bioengineered to efficiently self-assemble biopolymer particles (BPs) that are densely coated with either strings of 18 T-cell epitopes (COX-BP) or two full-length immunodominant antigens (YbgF-BP-Com1) all derived from C. burnetii. BP vaccine candidates are ambient-temperature stable. Safety and immunogenicity are confirmed in mice and guinea pig (GP) models. YbgF-BP-Com1 elicits specific and strong humoral immune responses in GPs with IgG titers that are at least 1 000 times higher than those induced by Q-VAX® . BP vaccine candidates are not reactogenic. After challenge with C. burnetii, YbgF-BP-Com1 vaccine leads to reduced fever responses and pathogen burden in the liver and the induction of proinflammatory cytokines IL-12 and IFN-γ inducible protein (IP-10) when compared to negative control groups. These data suggest that YbgF-BP-Com1 induces functional immune responses reducing infection by C. burnetii. Collectively, these findings illustrate the potential of BPs as effective antigen carrier for Q fever vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri Sam
- Centre for Cell Factories and BiopolymersGriffith Institute for Drug DiscoveryGriffith UniversityBrisbaneQLD4111Australia
| | - Karren Plain
- Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural InstituteNSW Department of Primary IndustriesMenangleNSW2568Australia
| | - Shuxiong Chen
- Centre for Cell Factories and BiopolymersGriffith Institute for Drug DiscoveryGriffith UniversityBrisbaneQLD4111Australia
| | - Aminul Islam
- Australian Rickettsial Reference LaboratoryUniversity HospitalGeelongVIC3220Australia
| | - Mark E. Westman
- Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural InstituteNSW Department of Primary IndustriesMenangleNSW2568Australia
| | - Ian Marsh
- Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural InstituteNSW Department of Primary IndustriesMenangleNSW2568Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference LaboratoryUniversity HospitalGeelongVIC3220Australia
| | - Stephen R. Graves
- Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural InstituteNSW Department of Primary IndustriesMenangleNSW2568Australia
- Australian Rickettsial Reference LaboratoryUniversity HospitalGeelongVIC3220Australia
| | - Bernd H. A. Rehm
- Centre for Cell Factories and BiopolymersGriffith Institute for Drug DiscoveryGriffith UniversityBrisbaneQLD4111Australia
- Menzies Health Institute QueenslandGriffith UniversityGold CoastQLD4222Australia
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Sam G, Stenos J, Graves SR, Rehm BHA. Q fever immunology: the quest for a safe and effective vaccine. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:133. [PMID: 37679410 PMCID: PMC10484952 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00727-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Q fever is an infectious zoonotic disease, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Transmission occurs from livestock to humans through inhalation of a survival form of the bacterium, the Small Cell Variant, often via handling of animal parturition products. Q fever manifests as an acute self-limiting febrile illness or as a chronic disease with complications such as vasculitis and endocarditis. The current preventative human Q fever vaccine Q-VAX poses limitations on its worldwide implementation due to reactogenic responses in pre-sensitized individuals. Many strategies have been undertaken to develop a universal Q fever vaccine but with little success to date. The mechanisms of the underlying reactogenic responses remain only partially understood and are important factors in the development of a safe Q fever vaccine. This review provides an overview of previous and current experimental vaccines developed for use against Q fever and proposes approaches to develop a vaccine that establishes immunological memory while eliminating harmful reactogenic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri Sam
- Centre for Cell Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia
| | - Stephen R Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia
- Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Menangle, NSW, 2567, Australia
| | - Bernd H A Rehm
- Centre for Cell Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia.
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia.
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Li P, Ding J, Xin T, Yu S, Banai M. Editorial: Veterinary Bacterial Zoonoses, volume II. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1245623. [PMID: 37520004 PMCID: PMC10374339 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1245623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiabo Ding
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Xin
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shengqing Yu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Menachem Banai
- Department of Bacteriology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel
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França DAD, Mioni MDSR, Fernandes J, Lemos ERSD, Duré AÍDL, Silva MVF, Langoni H, Megid J. Overview of Q fever in Brazil: an underestimated zoonosis. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2023; 65:e39. [PMID: 37377322 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-9946202365039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review aims to provide current information about Q fever, elucidating the etiological, epidemiological, pathogenic, clinical, diagnostic, therapeutic, and prophylactic aspects of the disease for the medical community. We discuss the main forms of presentation of the agent, its ability to persist in the body, the infinite possibilities of susceptible hosts, the main known forms of transmission, its importance in populations at occupational risk, and the role of arthropods in the natural history of the disease. Focusing on Brazil, we present the cases already described and studies developed since its first report, and how there is still much to unravel. We are aware of the possibilities of the persistence of the agent and the development of severe clinical pictures and the specific treatments currently instituted. We also wish to raise awareness about the future, the new genotypes that are emerging, the need to study the effects of vaccines, and the impact of Q fever on the population. Q fever is a poorly understood disease in Latin America, and recent studies, especially in Brazil, have revealed the importance of developing new studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo Alves de França
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Departamento de Higiene Veterinária e Saúde Pública, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Jorlan Fernandes
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Hantaviroses e Rickettsioses, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Íris de Lima Duré
- Fundação Ezequiel Dias, Instituto Otávio Magalhães, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Helio Langoni
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Departamento de Higiene Veterinária e Saúde Pública, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jane Megid
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Departamento de Higiene Veterinária e Saúde Pública, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
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Meletis E, Keshavamurthy R, Singh Dhaliwal BB, Aulakh RS, Dhand N, Kostoulas P. Evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of three diagnostic tests for Coxiella burnetii infection in cattle and buffaloes in Punjab (India) using Bayesian latent class analysis. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0254303. [PMID: 35511819 PMCID: PMC9070919 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Q Fever is a zoonotic disease of significant animal and public health concern, caused by Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii), an obligate intracellular bacterium. This study was done to evaluate the diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) of three diagnostic methods to diagnose C. burnetii infection in cattle and buffaloes in Punjab, India: an indirect ELISA method applied in serum samples and a trans-Polymerase Chain Reaction (trans-PCR) technique applied in milk samples and genital swabs, using a Bayesian latent class analysis. Conditional independence was assumed between the tests, given (i) the different biological principle of ELISA and trans-PCR and (ii) the fact that the trans-PCR was performed on different tissues. The ELISA method in the serum samples showed the highest DSe of 0.97 (95% Probability Intervals (PIs): 0.93; 0.99) compared to the trans-PCR method applied in milk samples 0.76 (0.63; 0.87) and genital swabs 0.73 (0.58; 0.85). The DSps of all tests were high, with trans-PCR in genital swabs recording the highest DSp of 0.99 (0.98; 1), while the DSp of trans-PCR in milk samples and ELISA in serum samples were 0.97 (0.95; 0.99) and 0.95 (0.93; 0.97) respectively. The study results show that none of the applied tests are perfect, therefore, a testing regimen based on the diagnostic characteristic of the tests may be considered for diagnosis of C. burnetii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftherios Meletis
- Faculty of Public and One Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
- * E-mail:
| | - Ravikiran Keshavamurthy
- School of Public Health & Zoonoses, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Balbir Bagicha Singh Dhaliwal
- School of Public Health & Zoonoses, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rabinder Singh Aulakh
- School of Public Health & Zoonoses, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Navneet Dhand
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Polychronis Kostoulas
- Faculty of Public and One Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
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Sireci G, Badami GD, Di Liberto D, Blanda V, Grippi F, Di Paola L, Guercio A, de la Fuente J, Torina A. Recent Advances on the Innate Immune Response to Coxiella burnetii. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:754455. [PMID: 34796128 PMCID: PMC8593175 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.754455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium and the causative agent of a worldwide zoonosis known as Q fever. The pathogen invades monocytes and macrophages, replicating within acidic phagolysosomes and evading host defenses through different immune evasion strategies that are mainly associated with the structure of its lipopolysaccharide. The main transmission routes are aerosols and ingestion of fomites from infected animals. The innate immune system provides the first host defense against the microorganism, and it is crucial to direct the infection towards a self-limiting respiratory disease or the chronic form. This review reports the advances in understanding the mechanisms of innate immunity acting during C. burnetii infection and the strategies that pathogen put in place to infect the host cells and to modify the expression of specific host cell genes in order to subvert cellular processes. The mechanisms through which different cell types with different genetic backgrounds are differently susceptible to C. burnetii intracellular growth are discussed. The subsets of cytokines induced following C. burnetii infection as well as the pathogen influence on an inflammasome-mediated response are also described. Finally, we discuss the use of animal experimental systems for studying the innate immune response against C. burnetii and discovering novel methods for prevention and treatment of disease in humans and livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Sireci
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giusto Davide Badami
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Diana Di Liberto
- Central Laboratory of Advanced Diagnostic and Biological Research (CLADIBIOR), Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), University Hospital "Paolo Giaccone", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valeria Blanda
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Francesca Grippi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Laura Di Paola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Annalisa Guercio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio Health and Biotechnology, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC -Spanish National Research Council CSIC - University of Castilla-La Mancha UCLM - Regional Government of Castilla-La Mancha JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain.,Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
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Acanthamoeba - pathogen and vector of highly pathogenic bacteria strains to healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Cent Eur J Immunol 2021; 45:228-232. [PMID: 33456336 PMCID: PMC7792437 DOI: 10.5114/ceji.2020.97667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acanthamoeba is a free-living protist pathogen, which is present in every place on Earth. 50 to 100 percent of the adult population has serum antibodies, specific for Acanthamoeba antigens. Acanthamoeba is an etiological agent of keratitis and encephalitis diagnosed in human. Acanthamoeba keratitis occurs in healthy persons and may lead to visual impairment and blindness, because corneal infection with this parasite fails to induce cell-mediated immune response due to the absence of resident antigen-presenting cells in the cornea. Systemic immunization with Acanthamoeba antigens induces Th1 cell-mediated immunity and serum IgG antibody, but do not prevent the development of keratitis. Immunization via mucosal surfaces stimulates IgA antibodies in tears and protects against the development of keratitis. Amoebae feed mainly on bacteria, fungi, and algae. By transferring intracellular bacteria, amoeba contributes to the spread of diseases dangerous to humans. Some microorganisms have evolved to become resistant to protist, since they are not internalized or able to survive, grow, and exit free-living protists after internalization. In many cases, the bacteria inside living amoebae survive longer, and multiply better, showing higher virulence. There is a hypothesis, which assumes that Acanthamoeba and symbiontic bacteria survive and multiply better in moist soil, rich in nitrogen compounds, particularly in the vicinity of the root systems of Alnus glutinosa, infected with nitrogen-fixing bacteria Frankia alni. Impact of soil environment created by nitrogen-fixing bacterium Frankia alni on specific relations between protists Acanthamoeba and highly pathogenic bacteria strains in Alnus glutinosa habitats in Poland continue to be established.
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Early Cytokine Response After Vaccination with Coxiella Burnetii Phase I in an Infected Herd of Dairy Cattle. J Vet Res 2018; 62:469-476. [PMID: 30729204 PMCID: PMC6364170 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Coxiella (C.) burnetii, the aetiological agent of Q fever, is able to modulate the macrophage/T-lymphocyte axis in an infected organism and impair synthesis of monokines and lymphokines. Material and Methods The purpose of this research was to determine the levels of the cytokines that play a key role in the response to C. burnetii antigens (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ and TNF-α) in the serum of animals originating from an infected herd prior to vaccination (day 0) and at 1, 7, and 21 days afterwards. Results The vaccination of animals did not affect the production of IL-6, IL-1β, or IL-2. The serum levels of these cytokines were too low to measure in most of the samples. The initial levels of TNFα, IFNγ, and IL-10 were higher in seropositive than in seronegative animals, although significant differences between seropositive shedders and seropositive nonshedders appeared only in the levels of IFNγ and IL-10. Additionally, the course of the post-vaccination response concerning these two cytokines was different among seronegative nonshedders, seropositive nonshedders, and seropositive shedders. Conclusion It seems that analysis of the IFNγ and IL-10 concentrations in animal blood serum may have some practical value in an assessment of the health status of seropositive animals and post-vaccination response.
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de Oliveira JMB, Rozental T, de Lemos ERS, Forneas D, Ortega-Mora LM, Porto WJN, da Fonseca Oliveira AA, Mota RA. Coxiella burnetii in dairy goats with a history of reproductive disorders in Brazil. Acta Trop 2018; 183:19-22. [PMID: 29621535 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, an intracellular bacterium, is the agent of Q fever/coxiellosis, a worldwide zoonosis. Dairy animals are the primary reservoirs of C. burnetii, and although the disease is usually asymptomatic or subclinical, abortion is a serious clinical outcome among small ruminants. This study was conducted to investigate C. burnetii seroprevalence and infection In a flock of dairy goats in Brazil. Serum samples from 312 goats collected from a dairy goat flock with a history of reproductive failure were tested by a commercial ELISA (LSIVet Ruminant Q Fever - Serum/Milk; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Lissieu, France) for anti-C. burnetii IgG antibodies. Samples of cotyledons from 23 placentas were analyzed by nested PCR for the presence of the bacterial DNA. ELISA seroreactivity was found in 55.1% (172/312; 95% CI = 49.4%-60.7%) of the serum samples analyzed. C. burnetii DNA was detected in 8.7% (2/23) of the placental samples tested, where both animals were also seropositive. This study reports the first description of C. burnetii infection in an abortion outbreak in goats in Brazil. The results point out to the importance of including this disease in animal and public health surveillance programs as well as into the list of abortive diseases in goats in Brazil.
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Hirschmann JV. From Squirrels to Biological Weapons: The Early History of Tularemia. Am J Med Sci 2018; 356:319-328. [PMID: 30146078 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjms.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
After George McCoy accidentally discovered a new infection in 1911 while investigating bubonic plague in squirrels, he transmitted the disease to experimental animals and isolated the causative organism. He called it Bacterium tularense, after Tulare County, California. In 1919, Edward Francis determined that an infection called "deer-fly fever" was the same disease, naming it "tularemia." He demonstrated that it occurred in wild rabbits and inadvertently showed that it was highly infectious, for he and all his laboratory assistants contracted the illness. This characteristic led to studies of its potential as a biological weapon, including involuntary human experimentation by Japan among civilian, political and military prisoners, and its probable use in warfare during World War II. Later, in the United States, voluntary human experimentation occurred in the 1950s-1960s with penitentiary inmates and non-combatant soldiers. Soviet Union scientists allegedly developed a vaccine-resistant strain, which they tested as a biological weapon in 1982-1983.
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Hirschmann
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
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12
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Wang T, Yu Y, Liang X, Luo S, He Z, Sun Z, Jiang Y, Omsland A, Zhou P, Song L. Lipid A Has Significance for Optimal Growth of Coxiella burnetii in Macrophage-Like THP-1 Cells and to a Lesser Extent in Axenic Media and Non-phagocytic Cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:192. [PMID: 29938202 PMCID: PMC6002510 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid A is an essential basal component of lipopolysaccharide of most Gram-negative bacteria. Inhibitors targeting LpxC, a conserved enzyme in lipid A biosynthesis, are antibiotic candidates against Gram-negative pathogens. Here we report the characterization of the role of lipid A in Coxiella burnetii growth in axenic media, monkey kidney cells (BGMK and Vero), and macrophage-like THP-1 cells by using a potent LpxC inhibitor -LPC-011. We first determined the susceptibility of C. burnetii LpxC to LPC-011 in a surrogate E. coli model. In E. coli, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of LPC-011 against C. burnetii LpxC is < 0.05 μg/mL, a value lower than the inhibitor's MIC against E. coli LpxC. Considering the inhibitor's problematic pharmacokinetic properties in vivo and Coxiella's culturing time up to 7 days, the stability of LPC-011 in cell cultures was assessed. We found that regularly changing inhibitor-containing media was required for sustained inhibition of C. burnetii LpxC in cells. Under inhibitor treatment, Coxiella has reduced growth yields in axenic media and during replication in non-phagocytic cells, and has a reduced number of productive vacuoles in such cells. Inhibiting lipid A biosynthesis in C. burnetii by the inhibitor was shown in a phase II strain transformed with chlamydial kdtA. This exogenous KdtA enzyme modifies Coxiella lipid A with an α-Kdo-(2 → 8)-α-Kdo epitope that can be detected by anti-chlamydia genus antibodies. In inhibitor-treated THP-1 cells, Coxiella shows severe growth defects characterized by poor vacuole formation and low growth yields. Coxiella progenies prepared from inhibitor-treated cells retain the capability of normally infecting all tested cells in the absence of the inhibitor, which suggests a dispensable role of lipid A for infection and early vacuole development. In conclusion, our data suggest that lipid A has significance for optimal development of Coxiella-containing vacuoles, and for robust multiplication of C. burnetii in macrophage-like THP-1 cells. Unlike many bacteria, C. burnetii replication in axenic media and non-phagocytic cells was less dependent on normal lipid A biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Yonghui Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofei Liang
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Shengdong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zemin He
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhihui Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Yongqiang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Anders Omsland
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Pei Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Lihua Song
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
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13
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Klous G, Smit LAM, Freidl GS, Borlée F, van der Hoek W, IJzermans CJ, Kretzschmar MEE, Heederik DJJ, Coutinho RA, Huss A. Pneumonia risk of people living close to goat and poultry farms - Taking GPS derived mobility patterns into account. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 115:150-160. [PMID: 29573654 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We previously observed an increased incidence of pneumonia in persons living near goat and poultry farms, using animal presence around the home to define exposure. However, it is unclear to what extent individual mobility and time spent outdoors close to home contributes to this increased risk. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the role of mobility patterns and time spent outdoors in the vicinity of goat or poultry farms in relation to pneumonia risk. In a rural Dutch cohort, 941 members logged their mobility using GPS trackers for 7 days. Pneumonia was diagnosed in 83 subjects (participants reported that pneumonia had been diagnosed by a medical doctor, or recorded in EMR from general practitioners, 2011-2014). We used logistic regression to evaluate pneumonia-risk by presence of goat farms within 500 and 1000 m around the home and around GPS-tracks (only non-motorised mobility), also we evaluated whether more time spent outdoors increased pneumonia-risks. We observed a clearly increased risk of pneumonia among people living in close proximity to goat farms, ORs increased with closer distances of homes to farms (500 m: 6.2 (95% CI 2.2-16.5) 1000 m: 2.5 (1.4-4.3)) The risk increased for individuals who spent more time outdoors close to home, but only if homes were close to goat farms (within 500 m and often outdoors: 12.7 (3.6-45.4) less often: 2.0 (0.3-9.2), no goat farms and often outdoors: 1.0 (0.6-1.6)). For poultry we found no increased risks. Pneumonia-risks increased when people lived near goat farms, especially when they spent more time outdoors, mobility does not seem to add to these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs Klous
- Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Environmental Epidemiology and Veterinary Public Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
| | - Lidwien A M Smit
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Environmental Epidemiology and Veterinary Public Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
| | - Gudrun S Freidl
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), The Netherlands; European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training.
| | - Floor Borlée
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Environmental Epidemiology and Veterinary Public Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL), The Netherlands.
| | - Wim van der Hoek
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), The Netherlands.
| | - C Joris IJzermans
- Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL), The Netherlands.
| | - Mirjam E E Kretzschmar
- Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), The Netherlands.
| | - Dick J J Heederik
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Environmental Epidemiology and Veterinary Public Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
| | - Roel A Coutinho
- Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
| | - Anke Huss
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division Environmental Epidemiology and Veterinary Public Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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14
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Abstract
Estimates of the incubation period for Q fever vary substantially between different reviews and expert advice documents. We systematically reviewed and quality appraised the literature to provide an evidence-based estimate of the incubation period of the Q fever by the aerosolised infection route. Medline (OVIDSP) and EMBASE were searched with the search limited to human studies and English language. Eligible studies included persons with symptomatic, acute Q fever, and defined exposure to Coxiella burnetti. After review of 7115 titles and abstracts, 320 records were screened at full-text level. Of these, 23 studies contained potentially useful data and were quality assessed, with eight studies (with 403 individual cases where the derivation of incubation period was possible) being of sufficient quality and providing individual-level data to produce a pooled summary. We found a median incubation period of 18 days, with 95% of cases expected to occur between 7 and 32 days after exposure.
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15
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Salinas RP, Ortiz Flores RM, Distel JS, Aguilera MO, Colombo MI, Berón W. Coxiella burnetii Phagocytosis Is Regulated by GTPases of the Rho Family and the RhoA Effectors mDia1 and ROCK. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145211. [PMID: 26674774 PMCID: PMC4682630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The GTPases belonging to the Rho family control the actin cytoskeleton rearrangements needed for particle internalization during phagocytosis. ROCK and mDia1 are downstream effectors of RhoA, a GTPase involved in that process. Coxiella burnetii, the etiologic agent of Q fever, is internalized by the host´s cells in an actin-dependent manner. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism involved in this process has been poorly characterized. This work analyzes the role of different GTPases of the Rho family and some downstream effectors in the internalization of C. burnetii by phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells. The internalization of C. burnetii into HeLa and RAW cells was significantly inhibited when the cells were treated with Clostridium difficile Toxin B which irreversibly inactivates members of the Rho family. In addition, the internalization was reduced in HeLa cells that overexpressed the dominant negative mutants of RhoA, Rac1 or Cdc42 or that were knocked down for the Rho GTPases. The pharmacological inhibition or the knocking down of ROCK diminished bacterium internalization. Moreover, C. burnetii was less efficiently internalized in HeLa cells overexpressing mDia1-N1, a dominant negative mutant of mDia1, while the overexpression of the constitutively active mutant mDia1-ΔN3 increased bacteria uptake. Interestingly, when HeLa and RAW cells were infected, RhoA, Rac1 and mDia1 were recruited to membrane cell fractions. Our results suggest that the GTPases of the Rho family play an important role in C. burnetii phagocytosis in both HeLa and RAW cells. Additionally, we present evidence that ROCK and mDia1, which are downstream effectors of RhoA, are involved in that process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romina P. Salinas
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
| | - Rodolfo M. Ortiz Flores
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
| | - Jesús S. Distel
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
| | - Milton O. Aguilera
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
| | - María I. Colombo
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
| | - Walter Berón
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo—CONICET, Mendoza, 5500, Argentina
- * E-mail:
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16
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Hagenaars JCJP, Koning OHJ, van den Haak RFF, Verhoeven BAN, Renders NHM, Hermans MHA, Wever PC, van Suylen RJ. Histological characteristics of the abdominal aortic wall in patients with vascular chronic Q fever. Int J Exp Pathol 2014; 95:282-9. [PMID: 24953727 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to describe specific histological findings of the Coxiella burnetii-infected aneurysmal abdominal aortic wall. Tissue samples of the aneurysmal abdominal aortic wall from seven patients with chronic Q fever and 15 patients without evidence of Q fever infection were analysed and compared. Chronic Q fever was diagnosed using serology and tissue PCR analysis. Histological sections were stained using haematoxylin and eosin staining, Elastica van Gieson staining and immunohistochemical staining for macrophages (CD68), T lymphocytes (CD3), T lymphocyte subsets (CD4 and CD8) and B lymphocytes (CD20). Samples were scored by one pathologist, blinded for Q fever status, using a standard score form. Seven tissue samples from patients with chronic Q fever and 15 tissue samples from patients without Q fever were collected. Four of seven chronic Q fever samples showed a necrotizing granulomatous response of the vascular wall, which was characterized by necrotic core of the arteriosclerotic plaque (P = 0.005) and a presence of high numbers of macrophages in the adventitia (P = 0.007) distributed in typical palisading formation (P = 0.005) and surrounded by the presence of high numbers of T lymphocytes located diffusely in media and adventitia. Necrotizing granulomas are a histological finding in the C. burnetii-infected aneurysmal abdominal aortic wall. Chronic Q fever should be included in the list of infectious diseases with necrotizing granulomatous response, such as tuberculosis, cat scratch disease and syphilis.
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17
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Gomes MM, Chaves A, Gouveia A, Santos L. Two rare manifestations of Q fever: splenic and hepatic abscesses and cerebral venous thrombosis, with literature review ma non troppo. BMJ Case Rep 2014; 2014:bcr-2013-202843. [PMID: 24501338 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2013-202843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. It often manifests as a flu-like syndrome; other common manifestations are pneumonia, hepatitis and endocarditis. Its course may be acute or chronic. The authors present two clinical cases of Q fever with rare manifestations. Case 1: A 55-year-old man admitted due to abdominal pain, diarrhoea and fever. Blood tests showed elevated transaminases, low platelets and elevated C reactive protein, with normal white cell counts; abdominal ultrasound showed splenic and hepatic abscesses. Serologies to C burnetii were positive (1:640), leading to the diagnosis of Q fever with splenic and hepatic abscesses. Case 2: A 47-year-old man admitted due to headache after sneezing, with unstable gait and vertigo. A brain tomography showed cerebral venous thrombosis. After an exhaustive investigation, antibodies to C burnetii were found and were undoubtedly positive (1:5120), leading to the diagnosis of Q fever. Both patients were treated with oral doxycycline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Mendes Gomes
- Serviço de Medicina Interna, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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18
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Majidzadeh K, Mohseni A, Soleimani M. Construction and Evaluation of a Novel Internal Positive Control (IPC) for Detection of Coxiella burnetii by PCR. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2014; 7:e8849. [PMID: 25147661 PMCID: PMC4138666 DOI: 10.5812/jjm.8849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2012] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Due to the limitations of the classical methods to detect Coxiella burnetii, direct diagnosis of the pathogen using PCR techniques is still the preferable approach. However, false negative results owing to the presence of PCR inhibitors are troublesome. Objectives: In order to identify the inhibitors during PCR assay, an internal positive control (IPC) was designed based on 16SrRNA gene of C. burnetii. Materials and Methods: In the current study, the initial and ending parts of the target gene in an external positive control plasmid (pTZ57R/T-16S) amplified using internal primers which had a BglII restriction site on the 5´ends. Both PCR products (fragments 1 and 2) were cloned into pTZ57R/T vector. Following BglII enzyme digestion, the two obtained linear plasmids were ligated. The ligation product was transformed into Escherichiacoli Top10 Fʹ. Screening of the desired recombinant clone was carried out using colony PCR. Results: The size of the PCR product was equal to the sum of the first and second fragments. Sequencing confirmed the presence of the desire insert (IPC sequence) in recombinant plasmid. Consequently, the IPC fragment was longer than the target gene while both ends had similar attachments to the same primer pair. Conclusions: The results showed that direct fusion of the recombinant plasmids containing the initial and ending parts of the target gene are simple and cost-effective techniques for increasing the length of the fragment and constructing IPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keivan Majidzadeh
- Tasnim Biotechnology of Research Center (TBRC), Faculty of Medicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
- Cancer Genetics Research Group, Breast Cancer Research Center (BCRC), ACECR, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Amirhossein Mohseni
- Tasnim Biotechnology of Research Center (TBRC), Faculty of Medicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
| | - Mohammad Soleimani
- Tasnim Biotechnology of Research Center (TBRC), Faculty of Medicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IR Iran
- Corresponding author: Mohammad Soleimani, Tasnim Biotechnology Research Center (TBRC), AJA University of Medical Sciences, Etemadzadeh Ave, West Fatemi, Tehran, IR Iran. Tel: +98-2188337928, Fax: +98-2188337928, E-mail:
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19
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O'Neill TJ, Sargeant JM, Poljak Z. A systematic review and meta-analysis of phase I inactivated vaccines to reduce shedding of Coxiella burnetii from sheep and goats from routes of public health importance. Zoonoses Public Health 2013; 61:519-33. [PMID: 24251777 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in livestock are both caused by Coxiella burnetii. The public health importance of vaccination against C. burnetii shedding from sheep and goats was evaluated using systematic review and meta-analysis to provide evidence for policy direction to prevent potential zoonotic spread. Publications reporting shedding of C. burnetii in vaginal and uterine secretions, milk, placenta and faeces were included. A single observational (one goat) and seven experimental (four goat and three sheep) vaccine studies were included in the review. No relevant publications on other interventions were identified. Random effects meta-analyses were performed for the risk of shedding in individuals in the control and vaccinated groups and for the mean difference in the level of bacterial shedding in sheep and goats stratified by age and previous exposure status. Limited data were available for further analytic evaluation. From the pooled analysis, an inactivated phase I vaccine significantly reduced the risk of shedding from uterine (RR = 0.10; 95%CI 0.05-0.20) secretions in previously sensitized goats. Individual studies reported significant risk reduction in milk (RR = 0.03; 95%CI 0.01-0.26), vaginal secretions (RR = 0.40; 95%CI 0.22-0.75) and faeces (RR = 0.79; 95%CI 0.63-0.97) from naïve goats. The pooled mean levels of bacteria shed from placental [mean difference (MD = -5.24 Log10 ; 95%CI -6.75 to -3.7)] and vaginal (MD = -1.78 Log10 ; 95%CI -2.19 to -1.38) routes were significantly decreased in vaccinated naïve goats compared with controls. Shedding through all other routes from vaccinated goats was not significantly different than shedding from control goats. No effect of vaccination was found on the risk of shedding or the mean level of shedding in vaccinated sheep compared with control sheep. Our conclusions are based on a limited amount of data with variable risk of systematic error.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J O'Neill
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada; Division of Epidemiology, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Health Science Building, 6th Floor, Toronto, ON, M5T 3M7, Canada
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20
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Reproductive performance of high producing lactating cows in Coxiella-infected herds following vaccination with phase-I Coxiella burnetii vaccine during advanced pregnancy. Vaccine 2013; 31:3046-50. [PMID: 23692696 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to assess the safety of phase I vaccination against Coxiella burnetii in advanced pregnancy and the effect of vaccination on subsequent reproductive performance of high producing dairy cows. C. burnetii serostatus was determined in 719 dairy cows by individual serological testing. According to their serostatus, cows were randomly assigned to a control (n=359) or vaccine (n=360) group (inactivated phase I on Days 171-177 and 192-198 of gestation, Coxevac-Ceva Sante Animale). Using a χ(2)-test, vaccination had no effect on abortion before parturition, retention of placenta and stillbirth, either in seropositive as in seronegative cows. Cox's proportional hazards model revealed that cows in the vaccine group were 1.22 times more likely to conceive during the first 150 days in milk than cows in the control group. Moreover, the likelihood of pregnancy was lower in multiparous cows, cows with a retained placenta and cows undergoing first AI during the warm season compared to the remaining animals (by factors of 0.75, 0.69 and 0.69, respectively). In animals testing seronegative for C. burnetii, the likelihood of pregnancy was 1.25 times higher in vaccinated cows compared to non-vaccinated seronegative animals. No effect of vaccination on subsequent fertility was detected in seropositive animals. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that phase I vaccination against C. burnetii during advanced pregnancy in dairy cows is safe and improves subsequent fertility of C. burnetii seronegative animals.
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21
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Abstract
In the past two decades, many Coxiella-like bacteria have been found in hard ticks and soft ticks as well as in vertebrate hosts. It is interesting to note that many ticks harbor Coxiella-like bacteria with high prevalence. Coxiella-like bacteria and virulent Coxiella burnetii have high homology to each other; they form a monophyletic clade based on 16S rRNA sequence data and subsequent phylogenetic tree analyses. In this chapter, methods of detection, phylogeny, prevalence and density, distribution in tick organs, transmission routes, bacteria-host interactions, and putative functions of the Coxiella-like bacteria are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmin Zhong
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, 1 Harpst Street, Arcata, CA 95521, USA.
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22
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Calverley M, Erickson S, Read AJ, Harmsen AG. Resident alveolar macrophages are susceptible to and permissive of Coxiella burnetii infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51941. [PMID: 23284825 PMCID: PMC3526480 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is a zoonotic disease with potentially life-threatening complications in humans. Inhalation of low doses of Coxiella bacteria can result in infection of the host alveolar macrophage (AM). However, it is not known whether a subset of AMs within the heterogeneous population of macrophages in the infected lung is particularly susceptible to infection. We have found that lower doses of both phase I and phase II Nine Mile C. burnetii multiply and are less readily cleared from the lungs of mice compared to higher infectious doses. We have additionally identified AM resident within the lung prior to and shortly following infection, opposed to newly recruited monocytes entering the lung during infection, as being most susceptible to infection. These resident cells remain infected up to twelve days after the onset of infection, serving as a permissive niche for the maintenance of bacterial infection. A subset of infected resident AMs undergo a distinguishing phenotypic change during the progression of infection exhibiting an increase in surface integrin CD11b expression and continued expression of the surface integrin CD11c. The low rate of phase I and II Nine Mile C. burnetii growth in murine lungs may be a direct result of the limited size of the susceptible resident AM cell population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Calverley
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Sara Erickson
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Amanda J. Read
- Office of the Senior Associate Vice President for Research, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Allen G. Harmsen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- * E-mail: (AGH)
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23
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Smith KF, Schmidt V, Rosen GE, Amaral-Zettler L. Microbial diversity and potential pathogens in ornamental fish aquarium water. PLoS One 2012; 7:e39971. [PMID: 22970112 PMCID: PMC3435374 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ornamental fishes are among the most popular and fastest growing categories of pets in the United States (U.S.). The global scope and scale of the ornamental fish trade and growing popularity of pet fish in the U.S. are strong indicators of the myriad economic and social benefits the pet industry provides. Relatively little is known about the microbial communities associated with these ornamental fishes or the aquarium water in which they are transported and housed. Using conventional molecular approaches and next generation high-throughput amplicon sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA gene hypervariable regions, we characterized the bacterial community of aquarium water containing common goldfish (Carassius auratus) and Chinese algae eaters (Gyrinocheilus aymonieri) purchased from seven pet/aquarium shops in Rhode Island and identified the presence of potential pathogens. Our survey identified a total of 30 phyla, the most common being Proteobacteria (52%), Bacteroidetes (18%) and Planctomycetes (6%), with the top four phyla representing >80% of all sequences. Sequences from our water samples were most closely related to eleven bacterial species that have the potential to cause disease in fishes, humans and other species: Coxiella burnetii, Flavobacterium columnare, Legionella birminghamensis, L. pneumophila, Vibrio cholerae, V. mimicus. V. vulnificus, Aeromonas schubertii, A. veronii, A. hydrophila and Plesiomonas shigelloides. Our results, combined with evidence from the literature, suggest aquarium tank water harboring ornamental fish are an understudied source for novel microbial communities and pathogens that pose potential risks to the pet industry, fishes in trade, humans and other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine F. Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Victor Schmidt
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- The Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and Evolution, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gail E. Rosen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- Columbia University Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Linda Amaral-Zettler
- The Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and Evolution, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Geological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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24
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Rosales EM, Aguilera MO, Salinas RP, Carminati SA, Colombo MI, Martinez-Quiles N, Berón W. Cortactin is involved in the entry of Coxiella burnetii into non-phagocytic cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e39348. [PMID: 22761768 PMCID: PMC3382237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cortactin is a key regulator of the actin cytoskeleton and is involved in pathogen-host cell interactions. Numerous pathogens exploit the phagocytic process and actin cytoskeleton to infect host cells. Coxiella burnetii, the etiologic agent of Q fever, is internalized by host cells through a molecular mechanism that is poorly understood. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDING Here we analyzed the role of different cortactin motifs in the internalization of C. burnetii by non-phagocytic cells. C. burnetii internalization into HeLa cells was significantly reduced when the cells expressed GFP-cortactin W525K, which carries a mutation in the SH3 domain that renders the protein unable to bind targets such as N-WASP. However, internalization was unaffected when the cells expressed the W22A mutant, which has a mutation in the N-terminal acidic region that destroys the protein's ability to bind and activate Arp2/3. We also determined whether the phosphorylation status of cortactin is important for internalization. Expression of GFP-cortactin 3F, which lacks phosphorylatable tyrosines, significantly increased internalization of C. burnetii, while expression of GFP-cortactin 3D, a phosphotyrosine mimic, did not affect it. In contrast, expression of GFP-cortactin 2A, which lacks phosphorylatable serines, inhibited C. burnetii internalization, while expression of GFP-cortactin SD, a phosphoserine mimic, did not affect it. Interestingly, inhibitors of Src kinase and the MEK-ERK kinase pathway blocked internalization. In fact, both kinases reached maximal activity at 15 min of C. burnetii infection, after which activity decreased to basal levels. Despite the decrease in kinase activity, cortactin phosphorylation at Tyr421 reached a peak at 1 h of infection. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our results suggest that the SH3 domain of cortactin is implicated in C. burnetii entry into HeLa cells. Furthermore, cortactin phosphorylation at serine and dephosphorylation at tyrosine favor C. burnetii internalization. We present evidence that ERK and Src kinases play a role early in infection by this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana M. Rosales
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Milton O. Aguilera
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Romina P. Salinas
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Sergio A. Carminati
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María I. Colombo
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
| | | | - Walter Berón
- Instituto de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo - CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina
- * E-mail:
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25
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Porter SR, Czaplicki G, Mainil J, Guattéo R, Saegerman C. Q Fever: current state of knowledge and perspectives of research of a neglected zoonosis. Int J Microbiol 2011; 2011:248418. [PMID: 22194752 PMCID: PMC3238387 DOI: 10.1155/2011/248418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is an ubiquitous zoonosis caused by an resistant intracellular bacterium, Coxiella burnetii. In certain areas, Q fever can be a severe public health problem, and awareness of the disease must be promoted worldwide. Nevertheless, knowledge of Coxiella burnetii remains limited to this day. Its resistant (intracellular and environmental) and infectious properties have been poorly investigated. Further understanding of the interactions between the infected host and the bacteria is necessary. Domestic ruminants are considered as the main reservoir of bacteria. Infected animals shed highly infectious organisms in milk, feces, urine, vaginal mucus, and, very importantly, birth products. Inhalation is the main route of infection. Frequently asymptomatic in humans and animals, Q fever can cause acute or chronic infections. Financial consequences of infection can be dramatic at herd level. Vaccination with inactive whole-cell bacteria has been performed and proved effective in humans and animals. However, inactive whole-cell vaccines present several defects. Recombinant vaccines have been developed in experimental conditions and have great potential for the future. Q fever is a challenging disease for scientists as significant further investigations are necessary. Great research opportunities are available to reach a better understanding and thus a better prevention and control of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Rebecca Porter
- Research Unit in Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Sciences (UREAR), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B42, Boulevard de Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Guy Czaplicki
- Département de Sérologie, Association Régionale de Santé et d'Identification Animales, 4431 Loncin, Belgium
| | - Jacques Mainil
- Laboratory of Bacteriology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart-Tilman B43a, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Raphaël Guattéo
- UMR 1300 Bio-Agression, Epidémiologie et Analyse de Risque, INRA, 44307 Nantes, France
| | - Claude Saegerman
- Research Unit in Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Sciences (UREAR), Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B42, Boulevard de Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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Wang Y, Xiong X, Wu D, Wang X, Wen B. Efficient activation of T cells by human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (HMDCs) pulsed with Coxiella burnetii outer membrane protein Com1 but not by HspB-pulsed HMDCs. BMC Immunol 2011; 12:52. [PMID: 21888659 PMCID: PMC3179940 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-12-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular bacterium and the etiologic agent of Q fever; both coxiella outer membrane protein 1 (Com1) and heat shock protein B (HspB) are its major immunodominant antigens. It is not clear whether Com1 and HspB have the ability to mount immune responses against C. burnetii infection. RESULTS The recombinant proteins Com1 and HspB were applied to pulse human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (HMDCs), and the pulsed HMDCs were used to stimulate isogenic T cells. Com1-pulsed HMDCs expressed substantially higher levels of surface molecules (CD83, CD40, CD80, CD86, CD54, and CD58) and a higher level of interleukin-12 than HspB-pulsed HMDCs. Moreover, Com1-pulsed HMDCs induced high-level proliferation and activation of CD4(+) and CD8(+) cells, which expressed high levels of T-cell activation marker CD69 and inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α. In contrast, HspB-pulsed HMDCs were unable to induce efficient T-cell proliferation and activation. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that Com1-pulsed HMDCs are able to induce efficient T-cell proliferation and drive T cells toward Th1 and Tc1 polarization; however, HspB-pulsed HMDCs are unable to do so. Unlike HspB, Com1 is a protective antigen, which was demonstrated by the adoptive transfer of Com1-pulsed bone marrow dendritic cells into naive BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
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Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever, a disease with a spectrum of presentations from the mild to fatal, including chronic sequelae. Since its discovery in 1935, it has been shown to infect a wide range of hosts, including humans. A recent outbreak in Europe reminds us that this is still a significant pathogen of concern, very transmissible and with a very low infectious dose. For these reasons it has also featured regularly on various threat lists, as it may be considered by the unscrupulous for use as a bioweapon. As an intracellular pathogen, it has remained an enigmatic organism due to the inability to culture it on laboratory media. As a result, interactions with the host have been difficult to elucidate and we still have a very limited understanding of the molecular mechanisms of virulence. However, two recent developments will open up our understanding of C. burnetii: the first axenic growth medium capable of supporting cell-free growth, and the production of the first isogenic mutant. We are approaching an exciting time for expanding our knowledge of this organism in the next few years.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. C. F. Oyston
- Biomedical Sciences, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK
| | - C. Davies
- Biomedical Sciences, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JQ, UK
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Tamrakar SB, Haluska A, Haas CN, Bartrand TA. Dose-response model of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever). RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2011; 31:120-128. [PMID: 20723147 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01466.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the intracellular gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii), which only multiplies within the phagolysosomal vacuoles. Q fever may manifest as acute or chronic disease. The acute form is generally not fatal and manifestes as self-controlled febrile illness. Chronic Q fever is usually characterized by endocarditis. Many animal models, including humans, have been studied for Q fever infection through various exposure routes. The studies considered different endpoints including death for animal models and clinical signs for human infection. In this article, animal experimental data available in the open literature were fit to suitable dose-response models using maximum likelihood estimation. Research results for tests of severe combined immunodeficient mice inoculated intraperitoneally (i.p.) with C. burnetii were best estimated with the Beta-Poisson dose-response model. Similar inoculation (i.p.) trial outcomes conducted on C57BL/6J mice were best fit by an exponential model, whereas those tests run on C57BL/10ScN mice were optimally represented by a Beta-Poisson dose-response model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushil B Tamrakar
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Ramasamy S, Liu CQ, Tran H, Gubala A, Gauci P, McAllister J, Vo T. Principles of antidote pharmacology: an update on prophylaxis, post-exposure treatment recommendations and research initiatives for biological agents. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 161:721-48. [PMID: 20860656 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00939.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of biological agents has generally been confined to military-led conflicts. However, there has been an increase in non-state-based terrorism, including the use of asymmetric warfare, such as biological agents in the past few decades. Thus, it is becoming increasingly important to consider strategies for preventing and preparing for attacks by insurgents, such as the development of pre- and post-exposure medical countermeasures. There are a wide range of prophylactics and treatments being investigated to combat the effects of biological agents. These include antibiotics (for both conventional and unconventional use), antibodies, anti-virals, immunomodulators, nucleic acids (analogues, antisense, ribozymes and DNAzymes), bacteriophage therapy and micro-encapsulation. While vaccines are commercially available for the prevention of anthrax, cholera, plague, Q fever and smallpox, there are no licensed vaccines available for use in the case of botulinum toxins, viral encephalitis, melioidosis or ricin. Antibiotics are still recommended as the mainstay treatment following exposure to anthrax, plague, Q fever and melioidosis. Anti-toxin therapy and anti-virals may be used in the case of botulinum toxins or smallpox respectively. However, supportive care is the only, or mainstay, post-exposure treatment for cholera, viral encephalitis and ricin - a recommendation that has not changed in decades. Indeed, with the difficulty that antibiotic resistance poses, the development and further evaluation of techniques and atypical pharmaceuticals are fundamental to the development of prophylaxis and post-exposure treatment options. The aim of this review is to present an update on prophylaxis and post-exposure treatment recommendations and research initiatives for biological agents in the open literature from 2007 to 2009.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ramasamy
- Defence Science & Technology Organisation, Human Protection and Performance Division, Fishermans Bend, Vic., Australia.
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Park SH, Lee HW, Cao W. Screening of nitrosative stress resistance genes in Coxiella burnetii: Involvement of nucleotide excision repair. Microb Pathog 2010; 49:323-9. [PMID: 20705129 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Revised: 07/28/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium, is the etiological agent of Q fever. This work takes advantage of a hypersensitive Escherichia coli genetic system to identify genes involved in resistance to nitrosative stress imposed by reactive nitrogen intermediates. Among the ten candidate genes identified, the transposase, UvrB and DNA topoisomerase IV are involved in DNA transaction; the sigma-32 factor and the putative DNA-binding protein may be involved in transcriptional regulation; IF-2 is involved in protein translation; malate dehydrogenase and carbamoyl-phosphate synthase are metabolic enzymes; and the ABC transporter is a membrane-bound protein. In addition, a hypothetical protein was identified. The role of the DNA repair gene uvrB in resistance to RNI was further confirmed by investigating the sensitivity of uvrB deletion mutant and complementation by C. burnetii uvrB. Deletion of two other components of the UvrABC nuclease, uvrA and uvrC also renders the cell sensitive to RNI. The relationship between UvrABC and nitrosative stress is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hyun Park
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, South Carolina Experiment Station, Clemson University, Room 219 Biosystems Research Complex, 51 New Cherry Street, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Considering Q fever when working with laboratory sheep. Lab Anim (NY) 2010; 39:86-9. [PMID: 20164950 DOI: 10.1038/laban0310-86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The sheep (Ovis aries) is somewhat less common than smaller species in laboratory settings, but personnel who work with sheep or in a facility that houses sheep should be aware that certain zoonotic diseases are common in sheep. They should also know how to prevent transmission of zoonotic disease in facilities that house or work with small ruminants. Knowledge of diseases such as query fever (Q fever), which can cause severe human morbidity (and in some cases death), needs to be especially emphasized. In this paper, the author describes potential causes, transmission and manifestations of Q fever in humans and other animals and then discusses strategies for preventing the spread of Q fever.
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Siemsen DW, Kirpotina LN, Jutila MA, Quinn MT. Inhibition of the human neutrophil NADPH oxidase by Coxiella burnetii. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:671-9. [PMID: 19379824 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative pathogen. A notable feature of C. burnetii is its ability to replicate within acidic phagolysosomes; however, the mechanisms utilized in evading host defenses are not well defined. Here, we investigated human neutrophil phagocytosis of C. burnetii (Nine Mile, phase II; NMII) and the effect of phagocytosed organisms on neutrophil reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. We found that opsonization with immune serum substantially enhanced phagocytosis of NMII. Human neutrophils phagocytosing opsonized NMII generated very little ROS compared to cells phagocytosing opsonized Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, or zymosan. However, phagocytosis of NMII did not affect the subsequent ROS response to a soluble agonist, indicating inhibition was localized to the phagolysosome and was not a global effect. Indeed, analysis of NADPH oxidase assembly in neutrophils after phagocytosis showed that translocation of cytosolic NADPH oxidase proteins, p47(phox) and p67(phox), to the membrane was absent in cells phagocytosing NMII, as compared to cells phagocytosing S. aureus or activated by phorbol myristate acetate. Thus, phagocytosed NMII is able to disrupt assembly of the human neutrophil NADPH oxidase, which represents a novel virulence mechanism for this organism and appears to be a common mechanism of virulence for many intracellular pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Siemsen
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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