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Whitlock F, Grewar J, Newton R. An epidemiological overview of the equine influenza epidemic in Great Britain during 2019. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:153-164. [PMID: 36054725 PMCID: PMC10087154 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During 2019, an epidemic of equine influenza (EI) occurred in Europe. OBJECTIVES To describe the epidemiology of the 2019 EI epidemic within Great Britain (GB). STUDY DESIGN Retrospective descriptive study of laboratory confirmed EI cases. METHODS Epidemiological data were obtained from veterinary surgeons referring samples for EI virus testing. Where available, data on confirmed cases and their wider resident population on EI-infected premises were collated and described. On a national level, spatial and temporal representations, consisting of choropleth maps and epidemic curves, described the spread of EI. EI-infected premises-level factors associated with the first of two epidemic phases were investigated using ordinary logistic regression analysis. RESULTS There were 412 confirmed cases and 234 EI-infected premises, with the first of two epidemic phases occurring between January and April, followed by a second phase through to August. The median age of confirmed cases was 5 years and Sports horses (24%) and Cobs (16%) made up the highest proportions by general horse type and breed. Among confirmed cases 72% were unvaccinated and 18% were vaccinated against EI. New horses arriving within 2 weeks of a confirmed case were reported by 42% of EI-infected premises. Investigation of EI-infected premises biosecurity measures indicated that 23% quarantined new arrivals, 37% had isolation facilities and 57% of resident horses were vaccinated. EI-infected premises were more likely in the first than second epidemic phase to be classified as professional, have a vaccinated confirmed case and EI confirmed in a newly arrived animal. MAIN LIMITATIONS Data were collected at a single time point for each EI-infected premises with no follow ups performed. CONCLUSIONS During 2019, EI-infected premises generally had low levels of population vaccine coverage and implemented limited preventive biosecurity measures, particularly linked to horse movements. Without substantial improvements in infectious disease prevention and control, the GB equine population remains at risk of future EI epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Department of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - Richard Newton
- Department of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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Colgate VA, Newton JR. Equine influenza bi-annual boosters: What does the evidence tell us? Equine Vet J 2023; 55:147-152. [PMID: 36382414 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A Colgate
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - J Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Newton JR, Rendle DI, Mountford DR, Marr CM. Equine influenza vaccination catches an autumn cold! But must get over it as soon as it can. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:142-146. [PMID: 36226994 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Celia M Marr
- Equine Veterinary Journal, Ely, Cambridgeshire, UK
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Whitlock FM, Newton JR. A practitioner's guide to understanding infectious disease diagnostics in the United Kingdom. Part 2: Serological diagnostic testing methods and diagnostic test result interpretation. EQUINE VET EDUC 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061312. [PMID: 35746783 PMCID: PMC9229935 DOI: 10.3390/v14061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have a main natural reservoir in wild birds. IAVs are highly contagious, continually evolve, and have a wide host range that includes various mammalian species including horses, pigs, and humans. Furthering our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and cross-species transmissions is therefore essential. This review focuses on what is known regarding equine influenza virus (EIV) virology, pathogenesis, immune responses, clinical aspects, epidemiology (including factors contributing to local, national, and international transmission), surveillance, and preventive measures such as vaccines. We compare EIV and human influenza viruses and discuss parallels that can be drawn between them. We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. Finally, as vaccination in both species remains the cornerstone of disease mitigation, vaccine technologies and vaccination strategies against influenza in horses and humans are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
- Correspondence:
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Khan A, Mushtaq MH, Muhammad J, Ahmed B, Khan EA, Khan A, Zakki SA, Altaf E, Haq I, Saleem A, Warraich MA, Ahmed N, Rabaan AA. Global epidemiology of Equine Influenza viruses; "A possible emerging zoonotic threat in future" an extensive systematic review with evidence. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 83:e246591. [PMID: 34468519 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.246591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are different opinions around the World regarding the zoonotic capability of H3N8 equine influenza viruses. In this report, we have tried to summarize the findings of different research and review articles from Chinese, English, and Mongolian Scientific Literature reporting the evidence for equine influenza virus infections in human beings. Different search engines i.e. CNKI, PubMed, ProQuest, Chongqing Database, Mongol Med, and Web of Knowledge yielded 926 articles, of which 32 articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. Analyzing the epidemiological and Phylogenetic data from these articles, we found a considerable experimental and observational evidence of H3N8 equine influenza viruses infecting human being in different parts of the World in the past. Recently published articles from Pakistan and China have highlighted the emerging threat and capability of equine influenza viruses for an epidemic in human beings in future. In this review article we have summarized the salient scientific reports published on the epidemiology of equine influenza viruses and their zoonotic aspect. Additionally, several recent developments in the start of 21st century, including the transmission and establishment of equine influenza viruses in different animal species i.e. camels and dogs, and presumed encephalopathy associated to influenza viruses in horses, have documented the unpredictable nature of equine influenza viruses. In sum up, several reports has highlighted the unpredictable nature of H3N8 EIVs highlighting the need of continuous surveillance for H3N8 in equines and humans in contact with them for novel and threatening mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Khan
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - M H Mushtaq
- The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - J Muhammad
- The University of Haripur, Department of Microbiology, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - B Ahmed
- Nanjing Medical University, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - E A Khan
- Lady Reading Hospital Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - A Khan
- Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - S A Zakki
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - E Altaf
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - I Haq
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - A Saleem
- The University of Haripur, Department of Microbiology, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - M A Warraich
- Marketing Rennes School of Business, Rennes, France
| | - N Ahmed
- Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - A A Rabaan
- Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
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Wilson A, Pinchbeck G, Dean R, McGowan C. Equine influenza vaccination in the UK: Current practices may leave horses with suboptimal immunity. Equine Vet J 2020; 53:1004-1014. [PMID: 33124070 PMCID: PMC8451788 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vaccination is integral to preventive healthcare. Despite numerous guidelines on equine vaccination, evidence of current vaccination practices is lacking. OBJECTIVES To describe current vaccination practices advised by vets treating horses in the United Kingdom (UK) and compare practices with manufacturer datasheets and current guidelines. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional survey. METHODS An online questionnaire was distributed using email addresses acquired through professional registration listings and social media, targeting vets who treat horses in the UK. The questionnaire collected demographic data and information regarding vaccination practices and vaccine hesitancy. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS Questionnaires were completed by 304 UK vets working with horses used for leisure (97.4%, n = 296/304), competition (86.2%, n = 262/304), stud-work (47.7%, n = 145/304) and racing (40.5%, n = 123/304). Variation was identified in vaccine protocols for competition and noncompetition horses. Fifty-seven per cent (n = 170/298) of respondents reported variation in advised 'booster' frequency; most commonly (n = 118) advising a 6-monthly vaccination in competition horses and annual vaccination in noncompetition horses. Most common vaccination guidelines volunteered were British Horseracing Authority (68.8%, n = 172/250) and Federation Equestre Internationale (66.4%, n = 166/250). Most vaccination practices were not consistent with datasheet guidance. Only 7.7% (n = 23/300) of respondents complied with datasheet timeframes between the second and third vaccination. Adverse events following vaccination in the previous year were encountered by 66% (n = 199/304) of respondents, representing 2760 adverse events; but only 526 (19.1%) cases were reported to the Veterinary Medicines Directorate. Most common reactions were transient, including stiffness (931), localised swelling (835), lethargy (559) and pyrexia (355). 86.4% respondents reported vaccine hesitancy from horse owners, most commonly due to perception of over-vaccination, cost and concern regarding adverse events. MAIN LIMITATIONS Potential selection, respondent and recall bias. The recent Equine Influenza (EI) and Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) outbreaks in the UK may have altered responses. CONCLUSIONS Current equine vaccination practices, although complying with competition rules, are mostly noncompliant with datasheet guidelines, potentially risking suboptimal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amie Wilson
- Department of Equine Clinical Science, Institute of Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, Cheshire, UK
| | - Gina Pinchbeck
- Department of Equine Clinical Science, Institute of Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, Cheshire, UK
| | | | - Catherine McGowan
- Department of Equine Clinical Science, Institute of Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, Cheshire, UK
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Bambra W, Daly JM, Kendall NR, Gardner DS, Brennan M, Kydd JH. Equine influenza vaccination as reported by horse owners and factors influencing their decision to vaccinate or not. Prev Vet Med 2020; 180:105011. [PMID: 32438206 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza virus is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen that causes pyrexia, anorexia, lethargy and coughing in immunologically naïve horses. Vaccines against equine influenza are available and vaccination is mandatory for horses that participate in affiliated competitions, but this group forms a small proportion of the total horse population. The aims of this study were to: i) identify the equine influenza vaccination rate as reported in 2016 by horse owners in the United Kingdom (UK); ii) examine the demographics of owners and horses which were associated with significantly lower influenza vaccination rates and iii) explore factors that influence horse owners' decisions around influenza vaccine uptake. RESULTS Responses from 4837 UK horse owners who were responsible for 10,501 horses were analysed. An overall equine influenza vaccination rate of 80% (8385/10501) was reported. Several owner demographic characteristics were associated with significantly lower (p<0.05) reported equine influenza vaccination rates including: some geographical locations, increasing horse owner age, annual household income of less that £15,000 and owning more than one horse. Horse-related features which were associated with significantly lower reported equine influenza vaccination rates included age ranges of <4 years and > 20 years, use as a companion or breeding animal or leaving their home premises either never or at most once a year. The most common reasons cited for failing to vaccinate horses was no competition activity, lack of exposure to influenza and expense of vaccines. In contrast, the most common underlying reasons given by horse owners who vaccinated their horse were protection of the individual horse against disease, veterinary advice and to protect the national herd. Owners of vaccinated horses had less previous experience of an influenza outbreak or adverse reaction to vaccination compared with owners of unvaccinated horses. CONCLUSIONS This study documented a high rate of equine influenza vaccination as reported by owners in a substantial number of horses in the UK, but this does not reflect the level of protection. Sub-populations of horses which were less likely to be vaccinated and the factors that influence each owner's decision around vaccination of their horses against equine influenza were identified, but may alter following the 2019 European influenza outbreak. This information may nevertheless help veterinary surgeons identify "at-risk" patients and communicate more personalised advice to their horse-owning clients. It may also influence educational campaigns about equine influenza directed to horse owners, which aim to improve uptake of vaccination against this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Bambra
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - N R Kendall
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - D S Gardner
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - M Brennan
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
| | - J H Kydd
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a common, highly contagious equid respiratory disease. Historically, EIV outbreaks have caused high levels of equine illness and economic damage. Outbreaks have occurred worldwide in the past decade. The risk for EIV infection is not limited to equids; dogs, cats, and humans are susceptible. In addition, equids are at risk from infection with avian influenza viruses, which can increase mortality rates. EIV is spread by direct and indirect contact, and recent epizootics also suggest wind-aided aerosol transmission. Increased international transport and commerce in horses, along with difficulties in controlling EIV with vaccination, could lead to emergent EIV strains and potential global spread. We review the history and epidemiology of EIV infections, describe neglected aspects of EIV surveillance, and discuss the potential for novel EIV strains to cause substantial disease burden and subsequent economic distress.
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Rossi TM, Moore A, O'Sullivan TL, Greer AL. Equine Rhinitis A Virus Infection at a Standardbred Training Facility: Incidence, Clinical Signs, and Risk Factors for Clinical Disease. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:71. [PMID: 30918893 PMCID: PMC6424864 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory disease is a common morbidity of young racehorses. Infections can lead to compromised welfare, and economic loss. Identification of risk factors for infection through clinical signs monitoring and collection of demographic, serologic, and contact network data can aid in the development of prevention and control strategies. The study objectives were to: (1) describe the transmission and clinical course of infectious respiratory disease in standardbred racehorses in a multi-barn training facility and, (2) identify demographic, serological, and contact network risk factors associated with Equine Rhinitis A virus (ERAV) respiratory disease. The study population included standardbred racehorses (age 1-5 years: n = 96) housed at a multi-barn training facility in southern Ontario. Clinical signs were monitored daily over a 41-day period in fall 2017. Descriptive statistics, including incidence rate, prevalence and incidence risk were calculated for the observed period. Associations between demographic, serologic, and contact pattern variables, and clinical disease status were investigated using multivariable logistic regression. Respiratory disease cases were characterized by mucopurulent discharge (100%), intermittent cough (37.7%), and ocular discharge (62.3%). Fever (>38.5°C) and inappetence were rarely reported (15.2 and 3.8%). Seroconversion to ERAV among cases was 75%. Total, and yearling-specific incidence risks were 52.5 and 87.9%. The cumulative incidence was 0.027 new cases/horse day. A negative association (OR = 0.011) between increasing age and respiratory disease was significant (p = < 0.001) in the final regression model. Yearling horses were at increased risk of infectious respiratory disease as demonstrated by the high yearling-specific incidence risk, and the negative association between age and infection. Disease control strategies, such as vaccination programs and isolation of new horses arriving from auction, should be targeted at young animals entering training facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya M Rossi
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Alison Moore
- Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Terri L O'Sullivan
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Amy L Greer
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Impact of Mixed Equine Influenza Vaccination on Correlate of Protection in Horses. Vaccines (Basel) 2018; 6:vaccines6040071. [PMID: 30287762 PMCID: PMC6313876 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines6040071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the humoral immune response to mixed Equine Influenza vaccination, a common practice in the field, an experimental study was carried out on 42 unvaccinated thoroughbred weanling foals divided into six groups of seven. Three groups were vaccinated using a non-mixed protocol (Equilis® Prequenza-Te, Proteqflu-Te® or Calvenza-03®) and three other groups were vaccinated using a mix of the three vaccines mentioned previously. Each weanling underwent a primary EI vaccination schedule composed of two primary immunisations (V1 and V2) four weeks apart followed by a third boost immunisation (V3) six months later. Antibody responses were monitored until one-year post-V3 by single radial haemolysis (SRH). The results showed similar antibody responses for all groups using mixed EI vaccination and the group exclusively vaccinated with Equilis® Prequenza-TE, which were significantly higher than the other two groups vaccinated with Proteqflu-TE® and Calvenza-03®. All weanlings (100%) failed to seroconvert after V1 and 21% (9/42) still had low or no SRH antibody titres two weeks post-V2. All weanlings had seroconverted and exceeded the clinical protection threshold one month after V3. The poor response to vaccination was primarily observed in groups exclusively vaccinated with Proteqflu-Te® and Calvenza-03®. A large window of susceptibility (3–4.5-month duration) usually called immunity gap was observed after V2 and prior to V3 for all groups. The SRH antibody level was maintained above the clinical protection threshold for three months post-V3 for the groups exclusively vaccinated with Proteqflu-Te® and Calvenza-03®, and six months to one year for groups using mixed EI vaccination or exclusively vaccinated with Equilis® Prequenza-Te. This study demonstrates for the first time that the mix of EI vaccines during the primary vaccination schedule has no detrimental impact on the correlate of protection against EIV infection.
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RETRACTED: An epidemiological investigation of associated risk factors with equine influenza (H3N8) epidemic 2015-16 in Pakistan. Acta Trop 2018; 186:63-68. [PMID: 30003906 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal).
This article has been retracted at the request of the Editors-in-Chief.
The article duplicates significant parts of a paper that had already appeared in Preventative Veterinary Medicine, 149, 132-139; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.12.005.
One of the conditions of submission of a paper for publication is that authors declare explicitly that the paper has not been previously published and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Re-use of any data should be appropriately cited. As such this article represents a misuse of the scientific publishing system. The scientific community takes a very strong view on this matter and apologies are offered to readers of the journal that this was not detected during the submission process.
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Jurado-Tarifa E, Daly JM, Pérez-Écija A, Barba-Recreo M, Mendoza FJ, Al-Shuwaikh AM, García-Bocanegra I. Epidemiological survey of equine influenza in Andalusia, Spain. Prev Vet Med 2018; 151:52-56. [PMID: 29496107 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease considered the most important respiratory disease in equids. Although influenza A virus (IAV) has caused outbreaks in equids worldwide, surveillance in these species in Spain has not been conducted. A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the individual and herd prevalence of antibodies against H3N8 and H7N7 IAV in equids in Andalusia (southern Spain). Antibodies againsts IAV were measured by the single radial haemolysis assay. A spatial scan statistical analysis was carried out using a Bernoulli model. Risk factors associated with IAV infection were assessed by multivariate analysis. Antibodies to H3N8 IAV were detected in 241 out of 464 unvaccinated equids (51.9%; 95% CI: 47.4-56.5). Seropositivity against the H7N7 subtype IAV was not found in any of the analysed animals. Significantly higher seropositivity was found in geriatric (OR = 6.1, P = 0.008, 95% CI = 1.6-23.1) and adult (OR = 4.8, P < 0.001, 95% CI = 2.5-9.0) equids compared to young animals. Specific antibodies against A/equine/Shropshire/2010 (H3N8) or A/equine/Newmarket/5/2003 (H3N8) only were confirmed in 11 and 45 of the animals, respectively. The spatial analysis showed a statistically significant cluster centred in the west part of Andalusia. The results confirmed widespread H3N8 subtype IAV exposure in equine species in Andalusia. Conversely, the absence of seropositivity against H7N7 IAV obtained in the present study suggests that this subtype has not circulated in southern Spain in recent years. Because of the animal health and economic consequences of IAV in equids, further surveillance and molecular studies are required to monitor and characterize the most prevalent IAV circulating in these species in Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Jurado-Tarifa
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
| | - A Pérez-Écija
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain.
| | - M Barba-Recreo
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK; Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - F J Mendoza
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - A M Al-Shuwaikh
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK; Microbiology Department, College of Medicine, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - I García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
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Khan A, Mushtaq MH, Ahmad MUD, Nazir J, Fatima Z, Khan A, Farooqi SH. Investigating the epidemiology of EI epidemic spread in the Province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan in 2015-16. Prev Vet Med 2018; 149:132-139. [PMID: 29290294 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
EI in non-vaccinated population causes disruption and economic losses. To identify the risk factors associated with the EI epidemics in equids in Pakistan, a 1:1 matched case control study was conducted during 2015-2016. Including a total of 197 laboratory confirmed cases and negative controls, matched on the basis of geography, time of sampling, specie and age. A piloted questionnaire was used to collect data regarding risk factors associated with the occurrence of EI in face to face interviews. Conditional logistic regression was performed to analyze the data. A total of 16 out of 23 variables were found associated as risk factors in Univariable conditional logistic regression analysis. Multivariable conditional logistic-regression analysis was also performed. Monthly removal of manure doubles the risk of EI (EI) compared to its daily removal. Due to lack of vaccination; the spread of disease was favored by high equine density. Investigating the index-case it was recorded that infected cases were imported from Afghanistan. Most of these risk factors related to biosecurity and management were due to low awareness level regarding EI amongst the respondents. These findings are in line with the results of many other studies identifying similar risk factors for EI infection in various countries. Adopting protective practices, vaccination and controlling the risk factors identified in the present study could reduce the spread and future outbreaks of EI in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amjad Khan
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, The Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Centre, OIE Reference Lab for EI, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40502, USA/Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Muhammad Hassan Mushtaq
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Mansur Ud Din Ahmad
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Jawad Nazir
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Zahida Fatima
- Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad, 33000, Pakistan
| | - Asghar Khan
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Shahid Hussain Farooqi
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
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Equine Vaccines: How, When and Why? Report of the Vaccinology Session, French Equine Veterinarians Association, 2016, Reims. Vaccines (Basel) 2017; 5:vaccines5040046. [PMID: 29207516 PMCID: PMC5748612 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines5040046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, vaccination is one of the most efficient methods of prevention against equine infectious diseases. The vaccinology session, which was organised during the annual meeting of the French Equine Veterinarians Association (AVEF) at Reims (France) in 2016, aimed to approach three subjects of importance for the equine industry. Vaccination against three major equine diseases were used as examples: equine influenza (equine influenza virus), rhinopneumonitis (equine herpes virus 1/4), and tetanus (Clostridium tetani neuro-toxin). (1) Emergency vaccination: while it has been very successful to reduce the impact of equine influenza epizooties and it is also recommended for tetanus in case of surgery and accident, the benefit of emergency vaccination against equine herpes virus 1/4 remains arguable; (2) Compatibility of equine vaccines from different brands: despite being a frequent concerns for equine veterinarians, little information is available about the compatibility of equine vaccines from different commercial origins. The consequence of mixing different equine vaccines targeting the same disease is believed to be limited but scientific evidences are sparse; and, (3) Laps vaccination and vaccine shortage: they could have serious consequences in terms of protection and their impact should be evaluated on a case by case basis, taking into account the risk of contact with the pathogen and the effect on herd immunity.
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Fougerolle S, Legrand L, Garrett D, Birand I, Foursin M, D'Ablon X, Bayssat P, Newton RJ, Pronost S, Paillot R. Influential factors inducing suboptimal humoral response to vector-based influenza immunisation in Thoroughbred foals. Vaccine 2016; 34:3787-95. [PMID: 27269055 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.05.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Numerous equine influenza (EI) epizooties are reported worldwide. EI vaccination is the most efficient methods of prevention. However, not all horses develop protective immunity after immunisation, increasing the risk of infection and transmission. OBJECTIVES This field study aimed to understand the poor response to primary EI vaccination. STUDY DESIGN The EI antibody response was measured in 174 Thoroughbred foals set in 3 stud farms (SF#1 to SF#3) over a 2years period. All foals were immunised with a commercial recombinant canarypox-based EI vaccine. Sera were tested by single radial haemolysis against the A/equine/Jouars/4/06 EIV strain (H3N8) at the time of the first vaccination (V1), 2weeks and 3months after the second immunisation (V2), 2days and 3months after the third immunisation (V3). RESULTS The frequency of poor-responders (no detectable antibody titres) was surprisingly elevated after V2 (56.8%), increased to 81.7% at V2+3months and reached 98.6% at V3. The frequency of poor-responder was still 19.2%, 3months after V3. Two independent influential factors were identified. The short (V2+2weeks) and mid-term (V2+3months, V3+3months) antibody levels were positively correlated to the age at V1 (p-value=0.003, 0.031 and 0.0038, respectively). Presence of maternally-derived antibodies (MDA) at V1 was negatively correlated with antibody levels after V3 only (p-value=0.0056). Given that SF#1 antibody response was below clinical protective levels at all-time points studied, the annual boost immunisation (V4) was brought forward by 7.0±1.1months. V1 was delayed by 7weeks the following year, which significantly increased short- and mid-term antibody titres (p-value=9.9e-07 and 2.31e-07, respectively). CONCLUSION The age and MDA at first immunisation with the canarypox-based IE vaccine play an independent role in the establishment of antibody levels. This study also highlights the benefit provided by serological surveillance to evaluate herd immunity and to implement corrective management/vaccination measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Fougerolle
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France.
| | - Loïc Legrand
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France
| | - Dion Garrett
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Ilhan Birand
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Foursin
- Clinique Equine de la Boisrie, La Boisrie, 61500 CHAILLOUÉ, France
| | - Xavier D'Ablon
- Clinique Vétérinaire de la Côte Fleurie, Route de Paris - Bonneville sur Touques, 14800 DEAUVILLE, France
| | - Pierre Bayssat
- Clinique Vétérinaire de Bayeux, Route de la Cambette, 14400 BAYEUX, France
| | - Richard J Newton
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France
| | - Romain Paillot
- University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France; Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
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Alves Beuttemmüller E, Woodward A, Rash A, Dos Santos Ferraz LE, Fernandes Alfieri A, Alfieri AA, Elton D. Characterisation of the epidemic strain of H3N8 equine influenza virus responsible for outbreaks in South America in 2012. Virol J 2016; 13:45. [PMID: 26993620 PMCID: PMC4799594 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0503-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background An extensive outbreak of equine influenza occurred across multiple countries in South America during 2012. The epidemic was first reported in Chile then spread to Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, where both vaccinated and unvaccinated animals were affected. In Brazil, infections were widespread within 3months of the first reported cases. Affected horses included animals vaccinated with outdated vaccine antigens, but also with the OIE-recommended Florida clade 1 strain South Africa/4/03. Methods Equine influenza virus strains from infected horses were isolated in eggs, then a representative strain was subjected to full genome sequencing using segment-specific primers with M13 tags. Phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide sequences were completed using PhyML. Amino acid sequences of haemagglutinin and neuraminidase were compared against those of vaccine strains and recent isolates from America and Uruguay, substitutions were mapped onto 3D protein structures using PyMol. Antigenic analyses were completed by haemagglutination-inhibition assay using post-infection ferret sera. Results Nucleotide sequences of the haemaglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of Brazilian isolate A/equine/Rio Grande do Sul/2012 were very similar to those of viruses belonging to Florida clade 1 and clustered with contemporary isolates from the USA. Comparison of their amino acid sequences against the OIE-recommended Florida clade 1 vaccine strain A/equine/South Africa/4/03 revealed five amino acid substitutions in HA and seven in NA. Changes in HA included one within antigenic site A and one within the 220-loop of the sialic acid receptor binding site. However, antigenic analysis by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay with ferret antisera raised against representatives of European, Kentucky and Florida sublineages failed to indicate any obvious differences in antigenicity. Conclusions An extensive outbreak of equine influenza in South America during 2012 was caused by a virus belonging to Florida clade 1, closely related to strains circulating in the USA in 2011. Despite reports of vaccine breakdown with products containing the recommended strain South Africa/03, no evidence was found of significant antigenic drift. Other factors may have contributed to the rapid spread of this virus, including poor control of horse movement. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-016-0503-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edsel Alves Beuttemmüller
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Pr 445 Km 380, Campus Universitário, Londrina, Paraná, CEP 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Alana Woodward
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Adam Rash
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | | | - Alice Fernandes Alfieri
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Pr 445 Km 380, Campus Universitário, Londrina, Paraná, CEP 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Amauri Alcindo Alfieri
- Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Pr 445 Km 380, Campus Universitário, Londrina, Paraná, CEP 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Debra Elton
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK.
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Ryan M, Gildea S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. The impact of different equine influenza vaccine products and other factors on equine influenza antibody levels in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet J 2014; 47:662-6. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Ryan
- Virology Unit; The Irish Equine Centre; Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare Ireland
| | - S. Gildea
- Virology Unit; The Irish Equine Centre; Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare Ireland
| | - C. Walsh
- Department of Statistics; Trinity College; Dublin Ireland
| | - A. Cullinane
- Virology Unit; The Irish Equine Centre; Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare Ireland
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A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2014; 2:797-831. [PMID: 26344892 PMCID: PMC4494246 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines2040797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is a major respiratory disease of horses, which is still causing substantial outbreaks worldwide despite several decades of surveillance and prevention. Alongside quarantine procedures, vaccination is widely used to prevent or limit spread of the disease. The panel of EI vaccines commercially available is probably one of the most varied, including whole inactivated virus vaccines, Immuno-Stimulating Complex adjuvanted vaccines (ISCOM and ISCOM-Matrix), a live attenuated equine influenza virus (EIV) vaccine and a recombinant poxvirus-vectored vaccine. Several other strategies of vaccination are also evaluated. This systematic review reports the advances of EI vaccines during the last few years as well as some of the mechanisms behind the inefficient or sub-optimal response of horses to vaccination.
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Slater J, Borchers K, Chambers T, Cullinane A, Duggan V, Elton D, Legrand L, Paillot R, Fortier G. Report of the International Equine Influenza Roundtable Expert Meeting at Le Touquet, Normandy, February 2013. Equine Vet J 2014; 46:645-50. [PMID: 25146166 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Slater
- Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
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Cullinane A, Gildea S, Weldon E. Comparison of primary vaccination regimes for equine influenza: Working towards an evidence‐based regime. Equine Vet J 2014; 46:669-73. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Cullinane
- Virology Unit The Irish Equine Centre Johnstown Ireland
| | - S. Gildea
- Virology Unit The Irish Equine Centre Johnstown Ireland
| | - E. Weldon
- Virology Unit The Irish Equine Centre Johnstown Ireland
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Daly JM, Newton JR, Wood JLN, Park AW. What can mathematical models bring to the control of equine influenza? Equine Vet J 2013; 45:784-8. [PMID: 23679041 PMCID: PMC3935405 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mathematical modelling of infectious disease is increasingly regarded as an important tool in the development of disease prevention and control measures. This article brings together key findings from various modelling studies conducted over the past 10 years that are of relevance to those on the front line of the battle against equine influenza. The Summary is available in Chinese – see Supporting information.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
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24
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Legrand LJ, Pitel PHY, Marcillaud-Pitel CJ, Cullinane AA, Couroucé AM, Fortier GD, Freymuth FL, Pronost SL. Surveillance of equine influenza viruses through the RESPE network in France from November 2005 to October 2010. Equine Vet J 2013; 45:776-83. [PMID: 23662725 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY The Réseau d'Epidémio-Surveillance en Pathologie Equine (RESPE, the French epidemiological network for equine diseases) is a network for epidemio-surveillance of major equine diseases based around sentry veterinarians in France. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate the contribution of RESPE to efficient surveillance of equine influenza virus (EIV) in France. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional study. METHODS From November 2005 to October 2010, epidemiological and phylogenetic studies were performed on 1426 nasopharyngeal swabs received at the Frank Duncombe Laboratory. Detection was performed by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction using original primers and probes designed in the matrix protein gene. Phylogenetic analysis was carried out on the HA1 part of haemagglutinin gene amplified from 47 positive-testing samples. Epidemiological information was provided with the majority of samples submitted through RESPE. RESULTS Of the 920 samples submitted by RESPE-associated veterinarians, 121 (13.1%) from 42 premises were positive for EIV, compared to 26 (5.1%) of the 607 samples received from non-RESPE associated veterinarians. The most extensive outbreak was observed between February and May 2009, affecting 70 horses on 23 premises, 15 of which were managed by RESPE-associated veterinarians. All strains belonged to the American lineage, Florida sublineage, Clade 1 and Clade 2. Clade 1 was identified only during the Grosbois episode. CONCLUSION RESPE improved detection of EIV in France, enabled characterisation of the virus strains, yielded valuable information relating to the epidemiology of the disease and identified vaccine breakdown. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Implementation of a similar surveillance network in other countries may reduce the economic losses associated with outbreaks of EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Legrand
- Frank Duncombe Laboratory, Caen, France; Normandie University, Caen, France; UNICAEN, EA 4655-U2RM: Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens, Caen, France
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Cullinane A, Newton JR. Equine influenza--a global perspective. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:205-14. [PMID: 23680107 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
To date, equine influenza outbreaks have been reported all over the world with the exception of a small number of island nations including New Zealand and Iceland. Influenza is endemic in Europe and North America and is considered to be of potentially major economic significance to the equine industry worldwide. The importation of subclinically infected vaccinated horses, and inadequate quarantine procedures have resulted in several major outbreaks in susceptible populations for example, in Australia (2007) when more than 76,000 horses on over 10,000 properties were reported as infected. This review summarises the current understanding of, and recent research on, equine influenza, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical characteristics, laboratory diagnosis, management and prevention. Recent advances in diagnostic techniques are discussed as are the merits of different vaccination regimes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cullinane
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
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26
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Hughes J, Allen RC, Baguelin M, Hampson K, Baillie GJ, Elton D, Newton JR, Kellam P, Wood JLN, Holmes EC, Murcia PR. Transmission of equine influenza virus during an outbreak is characterized by frequent mixed infections and loose transmission bottlenecks. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1003081. [PMID: 23308065 PMCID: PMC3534375 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of influenza A viruses (IAVs) to cross species barriers and evade host immunity is a major public health concern. Studies on the phylodynamics of IAVs across different scales – from the individual to the population – are essential for devising effective measures to predict, prevent or contain influenza emergence. Understanding how IAVs spread and evolve during outbreaks is critical for the management of epidemics. Reconstructing the transmission network during a single outbreak by sampling viral genetic data in time and space can generate insights about these processes. Here, we obtained intra-host viral sequence data from horses infected with equine influenza virus (EIV) to reconstruct the spread of EIV during a large outbreak. To this end, we analyzed within-host viral populations from sequences covering 90% of the infected yards. By combining gene sequence analyses with epidemiological data, we inferred a plausible transmission network, in turn enabling the comparison of transmission patterns during the course of the outbreak and revealing important epidemiological features that were not apparent using either approach alone. The EIV populations displayed high levels of genetic diversity, and in many cases we observed distinct viral populations containing a dominant variant and a number of related minor variants that were transmitted between infectious horses. In addition, we found evidence of frequent mixed infections and loose transmission bottlenecks in these naturally occurring populations. These frequent mixed infections likely influence the size of epidemics. Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are major pathogens of humans and animals. Understanding how IAVs spread and evolve at different scales (individual, regional, global) in natural conditions is critical for preventing or managing influenza epidemics. A vast body of knowledge has been generated on the evolution of IAVs at the global scale. Additionally, recent experimental transmission studies have examined the diversity and transmission of influenza viruses within and between hosts. However, most studies on the spread of IAVs during epidemics have been based on consensus viral sequences, an approach that does not have enough discriminatory power to reveal exact transmission pathways. Here, we analyzed multiple within-host viral populations from different horses infected with equine influenza virus (EIV) during the course of an outbreak in a population within a confined area. This provided an opportunity to examine the genetic diversity of the viruses within single animals, the transmission of the viruses between each closely confined population within a yard, and the transmission between horses in different yards. We show that individual horses can be infected by viruses from more than one other horse, which has important implications for facilitating segment reassortment and the evolution of EIV. Additionally, by combining viral sequencing data and epidemiological data we show that the high levels of mixed infections can reveal the underlying epidemiological dynamics of the outbreak, and that epidemic size could be underestimated if only epidemiological data is considered. As sequencing technologies become cheaper and faster, these analyses could be undertaken almost in real-time and help control future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Hughes
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Richard C. Allen
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Baguelin
- Immunisation, Hepatitis and Blood Safety Department, Health Protection Agency, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Hampson
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Gregory J. Baillie
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Debra Elton
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, United Kingdom
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Kellam
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - James L. N. Wood
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Edward C. Holmes
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Fogarty International Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Paillot R, Prowse L, Montesso F, Huang CM, Barnes H, Escala J. Whole inactivated equine influenza vaccine: Efficacy against a representative clade 2 equine influenza virus, IFNgamma synthesis and duration of humoral immunity. Vet Microbiol 2012; 162:396-407. [PMID: 23146168 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is a serious respiratory disease of horses induced by the equine influenza virus (EIV). Surveillance, quarantine procedures and vaccination are widely used to prevent or to contain the disease. This study aimed to further characterise the immune response induced by a non-updated inactivated EI and tetanus vaccine, including protection against a representative EIV isolate of the Florida clade 2 sublineage. Seven ponies were vaccinated twice with Duvaxyn IE-T Plus at an interval of four weeks. Five ponies remained unvaccinated. All ponies were experimentally infected with the EIV strain A/eq/Richmond/1/07 two weeks after the second vaccination. Clinical signs of disease were recorded and virus shedding was measured after experimental infection. Antibody response and EIV-specific IFNgamma synthesis, a marker of cell-mediated immunity, were measured at different time points of the study. Vaccination resulted in significant protection against clinical signs of disease induced by A/eq/Richmond/1/07 and reduced virus shedding when challenged at the peak of immunity. Antigenic drift has been shown to reduce protection against EIV infection. Inclusion of a more recent and representative EIV vaccine strain, as recommended by the OIE expert surveillance panel on equine influenza vaccine, may maximise field protection. In addition, significant levels of EIV-specific IFNgamma synthesis by peripheral blood lymphocytes were detected in immunised ponies, which provided a first evidence of CMI stimulation after vaccination with a whole inactivated EIV. Duration of humoral response was also retrospectively investigated in 14 horses vaccinated under field condition and following the appropriate immunisation schedule, up to 599 days after first immunisation. This study revealed that most immunised horses maintained significant levels of cross-reactive SRH antibody for a prolonged period of time, but individual monitoring may be beneficial to identify poor vaccine responders.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Paillot
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK.
| | - L Prowse
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - F Montesso
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK
| | - C M Huang
- Eli Lilly and Company, 1301 South White River Parkway East, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
| | - H Barnes
- Elanco Animal Health, European Biological R&D Eli Lilly and Company Limited, Lilly House, Priestley Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG24 9NL, UK
| | - J Escala
- Elanco Animal Health, European Biological R&D Eli Lilly and Company Limited, Lilly House, Priestley Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG24 9NL, UK
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Gildea S, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following primary vaccination of Thoroughbred weanlings—A randomised blind study. Vaccine 2011; 29:9214-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ryan D. Determining the endpoint of an outbreak of equine influenza in a large population of racing Thoroughbreds. Aust Vet J 2011; 89 Suppl 1:25-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00732.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Firestone SM, Schemann KA, Toribio JALML, Ward MP, Dhand NK. A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia. Prev Vet Med 2011; 100:53-63. [PMID: 21481961 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2010] [Revised: 01/19/2011] [Accepted: 03/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The 2007 epidemic of equine influenza in Australia provided an opportunity to investigate the effectiveness of on-farm biosecurity measures in preventing the spread of a novel pathogen in a largely naive population. We conducted a case-control study of 200 horse premises from highly affected regions of the state of New South Wales (NSW), to investigate risk factors for the spread of equine influenza onto horse premises, specifically, non-compliance with biosecurity measures recommended to horse owners by the relevant animal health authority, the NSW Department of Primary Industries. The study was restricted to cases occurring during the first seven weeks of the epidemic, a period prior to vaccination and the relaxation of some movement restrictions. Case and control premises were selected from a laboratory testing dataset and interviews were conducted with horse owners and managers on premises between July and November 2009. The proximity of premises to the nearest infected premises was the factor most strongly associated with case status. Case premises were more likely than control premises to be within 5 km and beyond 10 km of an infected premises. Having a footbath in place on the premises before any horses were infected was associated with a nearly four-fold reduction in odds of infection (odds ratio=0.27; 95% confidence interval: 0.09, 0.83). This protective association may have reflected overall premises biosecurity standards related to the fomite transmission of equine influenza. Compliance with certain on-farm biosecurity practices seemingly prevented horses on premises in high risk areas being infected with equine influenza during the 2007 outbreak in Australia. In future outbreaks, in addition to broader disease control measures, on-farm biosecurity practices should be adopted by horse owners and managers to prevent equine influenza spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M Firestone
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia.
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GILDEA S, ARKINS S, CULLINANE A. Management and environmental factors involved in equine influenza outbreaks in Ireland 2007-2010. Equine Vet J 2011; 43:608-17. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00333.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Daly JM, MacRae S, Newton JR, Wattrang E, Elton DM. Equine influenza: a review of an unpredictable virus. Vet J 2010; 189:7-14. [PMID: 20685140 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses some of the challenges still faced in the control of equine influenza virus H3N8 infection. A widespread outbreak of equine influenza in the United Kingdom during 2003 in vaccinated Thoroughbred racehorses challenged the current dogma on vaccine strain selection. Furthermore, several new developments in the first decade of the 21st century, including transmission to and establishment in dogs, a presumed influenza-associated encephalopathy in horses and an outbreak of equine influenza in Australia, serve as a reminder of the unpredictable nature of influenza viruses. The application of newly available techniques described in this review may further elucidate some of the viral factors that underlie recent events and provide the tools to better evaluate when vaccine strains should be updated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK.
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Efficacy of a whole inactivated EI vaccine against a recent EIV outbreak isolate and comparative detection of virus shedding. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 136:272-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bryant NA, Paillot R, Rash AS, Medcalf E, Montesso F, Ross J, Watson J, Jeggo M, Lewis NS, Newton JR, Elton DM. Comparison of two modern vaccines and previous influenza infection against challenge with an equine influenza virus from the Australian 2007 outbreak. Vet Res 2009; 41:19. [PMID: 19863903 PMCID: PMC2790087 DOI: 10.1051/vetres/2009067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 10/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
During 2007, large outbreaks of equine influenza (EI) caused by Florida sublineage Clade 1 viruses affected horse populations in Japan and Australia. The likely protection that would be provided by two modern vaccines commercially available in the European Union (an ISCOM-based and a canarypox-based vaccine) at the time of the outbreaks was determined. Vaccinated ponies were challenged with a representative outbreak isolate (A/eq/Sydney/2888-8/07) and levels of protection were compared.A group of ponies infected 18 months previously with a phylogenetically-related isolate from 2003 (A/eq/South Africa/4/03) was also challenged with the 2007 outbreak virus. After experimental infection with A/eq/Sydney/2888-8/07, unvaccinated control ponies all showed clinical signs of infection together with virus shedding. Protection achieved by both vaccination or long-term immunity induced by previous exposure to equine influenza virus (EIV) was characterised by minor signs of disease and reduced virus shedding when compared with unvaccinated control ponies. The three different methods of virus titration in embryonated hens' eggs, EIV NP-ELISA and quantitative RT-PCR were used to monitor EIV shedding and results were compared. Though the majority of previously infected ponies had low antibody levels at the time of challenge, they demonstrated good clinical protection and limited virus shedding. In summary, we demonstrate that vaccination with current EIV vaccines would partially protect against infection with A/eq/Sydney/2888-8/07-like strains and would help to limit the spread of disease in our vaccinated horse population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Bryant
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, CB8 7UU, United Kingdom
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Rozek W, Purzycka M, Polak MP, Gradzki Z, Zmudzinski JF. Genetic typing of equine influenza virus isolated in Poland in 2005 and 2006. Virus Res 2009; 145:121-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Revised: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 06/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Baguelin M, Newton JR, Demiris N, Daly J, Mumford JA, Wood JLN. Control of equine influenza: scenario testing using a realistic metapopulation model of spread. J R Soc Interface 2009; 7:67-79. [PMID: 19364721 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2009.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a metapopulation model of the spread of equine influenza among thoroughbred horses parametrized with data from a 2003 outbreak in Newmarket, UK. The number of horses initially susceptible is derived from a threshold theorem and a published statistical model. Two simulated likelihood-based methods are used to find the within- and between-yard transmissions using both exponential and empirical latent and infectious periods. We demonstrate that the 2003 outbreak was largely locally driven and use the parametrized model to address important questions of control. The chance of a large epidemic is shown to be largely dependent on the size of the index yard. The impact of poor responders to vaccination is estimated under different scenarios. A small proportion of poor responders strongly influences the efficiency of vaccine policies, which increases risk further when the vaccine and infecting strains differ following antigenic drift. Finally, the use of vaccinating in the face of an outbreak is evaluated at a global and individual management group level. The benefits for an individual horse trainer are found to be substantial, although this is influenced by the behaviour of other trainers.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Baguelin
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket CB8 7UU, UK.
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