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De Meyer A, Meuleman P. Preclinical animal models to evaluate therapeutic antiviral antibodies. Antiviral Res 2024; 225:105843. [PMID: 38548022 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2024.105843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Despite the availability of effective preventative vaccines and potent small-molecule antiviral drugs, effective non-toxic prophylactic and therapeutic measures are still lacking for many viruses. The use of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies in an antiviral context could fill this gap and provide effective virus-specific medical interventions. In order to develop these therapeutic antibodies, preclinical animal models are of utmost importance. Due to the variability in viral pathogenesis, immunity and overall characteristics, the most representative animal model for human viral infection differs between virus species. Therefore, throughout the years researchers sought to find the ideal preclinical animal model for each virus. The most used animal models in preclinical research include rodents (mice, ferrets, …) and non-human primates (macaques, chimpanzee, ….). Currently, antibodies are tested for antiviral efficacy against a variety of viruses including different hepatitis viruses, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and rabies virus. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge about the preclinical animal models that are used for the evaluation of therapeutic antibodies for the abovementioned viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amse De Meyer
- Laboratory of Liver Infectious Diseases, Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Philip Meuleman
- Laboratory of Liver Infectious Diseases, Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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2
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Rupprecht CE, Buchanan T, Cliquet F, King R, Müller T, Yakobson B, Yang DK. A Global Perspective on Oral Vaccination of Wildlife against Rabies. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:241-284. [PMID: 38381612 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The long-term mitigation of human-domestic animal-wildlife conflicts is complex and difficult. Over the last 50 yr, the primary biomedical concepts and actualized collaborative global field applications of oral rabies vaccination to wildlife serve as one dramatic example that revolutionized the field of infectious disease management of free-ranging animals. Oral vaccination of wildlife occurred in diverse locales within Africa, Eurasia, the Middle East, and North America. Although rabies is not a candidate for eradication, over a billion doses of vaccine-laden baits distributed strategically by hand, at baiting stations, or via aircraft, resulted in widespread disease prevention, control, or local disease elimination among mesocarnivores. Pure, potent, safe, and efficacious vaccines consisted of either modified-live, highly attenuated, or recombinant viruses contained within attractive, edible baits. Since the late 1970s, major free-ranging target species have included coyotes (Canis latrans), foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus; Vulpes vulpes), jackals (Canis aureus; Lupulella mesomelas), raccoons (Procyon lotor), raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), and skunks (Mephitis mephitis). Operational progress has occurred in all but the latter species. Programmatic evaluations of oral rabies vaccination success have included: demonstration of biomarkers incorporated within vaccine-laden baits in target species as representative of bait contact; serological measurement of the induction of specific rabies virus neutralizing antibodies, indicative of an immune response to vaccine; and most importantly, the decreasing detection of rabies virus antigens in the brains of collected animals via enhanced laboratory-based surveillance, as evidence of management impact. Although often conceived mistakenly as a panacea, such cost-effective technology applied to free-ranging wildlife represents a real-world, One Health application benefiting agriculture, conservation biology, and public health. Based upon lessons learned with oral rabies vaccination of mesocarnivores, opportunities for future extension to other taxa and additional diseases will have far-reaching, transdisciplinary benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Rupprecht
- College of Forestry, Wildlife and Environment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, 602 Duncan Drive, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA
| | - Tore Buchanan
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L1Z8, Canada
| | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Technopôle Agricole et Vétérinaire, Domaine de Pixérécourt, CS 40009 Malzeville, France
| | - Roni King
- Israel Nature and Parks Authority, Am V'Olamo 3, Jerusalem 95463, Israel
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Boris Yakobson
- WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Derech HaMaccabim 62, Rishon Lezion, 50250, Israel
| | - Dong-Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 39660, Republic of Korea
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3
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Mastraccio KE, Huaman C, Coggins SA, Clouse C, Rader M, Yan L, Mandal P, Hussain I, Ahmed AE, Ho T, Feasley A, Vu BK, Smith IL, Markotter W, Weir DL, Laing ED, Broder CC, Schaefer BC. mAb therapy controls CNS-resident lyssavirus infection via a CD4 T cell-dependent mechanism. EMBO Mol Med 2023; 15:e16394. [PMID: 37767784 PMCID: PMC10565638 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202216394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Infections with rabies virus (RABV) and related lyssaviruses are uniformly fatal once virus accesses the central nervous system (CNS) and causes disease signs. Current immunotherapies are thus focused on the early, pre-symptomatic stage of disease, with the goal of peripheral neutralization of virus to prevent CNS infection. Here, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of F11, an anti-lyssavirus human monoclonal antibody (mAb), on established lyssavirus infections. We show that a single dose of F11 limits viral load in the brain and reverses disease signs following infection with a lethal dose of lyssavirus, even when administered after initiation of robust virus replication in the CNS. Importantly, we found that F11-dependent neutralization is not sufficient to protect animals from mortality, and a CD4 T cell-dependent adaptive immune response is required for successful control of infection. F11 significantly changes the spectrum of leukocyte populations in the brain, and the FcRγ-binding function of F11 contributes to therapeutic efficacy. Thus, mAb therapy can drive potent neutralization-independent T cell-mediated effects, even against an established CNS infection by a lethal neurotropic virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate E Mastraccio
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
- Present address:
Wadsworth CenterNew York State Department of HealthAlbanyNYUSA
| | - Celeste Huaman
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Si'Ana A Coggins
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Caitlyn Clouse
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Madeline Rader
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Lianying Yan
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Pratyusha Mandal
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Imran Hussain
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Anwar E Ahmed
- Department of Preventive Medicine and BiostatisticsUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Trung Ho
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Austin Feasley
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc.MDBethesdaUSA
| | - Bang K Vu
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Present address:
Lentigen Technology, Inc.GaithersburgMDUSA
| | - Ina L Smith
- Risk Evaluation and Preparedness Program, Health and BiosecurityCSIROBlack MountainACTAustralia
| | - Wanda Markotter
- Centre for Viral Zoonoses, Department of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health SciencesUniversity of PretoriaPretoriaSouth Africa
- Centre for Emerging Zoonotic and Parasitic DiseasesNational Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory ServicePretoriaSouth Africa
| | - Dawn L Weir
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
- Present address:
The Center for Bio/Molecular Science and EngineeringU.S. Naval Research LaboratoryWashingtonDCUSA
| | - Eric D Laing
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Christopher C Broder
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Brian C Schaefer
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniformed Services UniversityBethesdaMDUSA
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Luo J, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Liu Q, Li J, He H, Luo Y, Huang S, Guo X. Artesunate and Dihydroartemisinin Inhibit Rabies Virus Replication. Virol Sin 2021; 36:721-729. [PMID: 33661488 PMCID: PMC7930525 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-021-00349-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is caused by infection of rabies virus (RABV) and remains a serious threat to the global public health. Except for the requirement for cold chain and high cost of human rabies immune globulin, no small molecule drugs are currently available for clinical treatment of rabies. So, it is of great importance to identify novel compounds that can effectively inhibit RABV infection. Artesunate (ART) and dihydroartemisinin (DHA), two derivatives of artemisinin, are widely used for treatment of malaria in adults and children, showing high safety. In this study, we found that both ART and DHA were able to inhibit RABV replication in host cells at a low concentration (0.1 μmol/L). The antiviral effects of ART and DHA were independent of viral strains and cell lines. Pre-treatment with ART or DHA for 2 h in vitro did not affect the viral replication in host cells, implying that ART and DHA neither reduced the viability of RABV directly nor inhibited the binding and entrance of the virus to host cells. Further studies revealed that ART and DHA inhibited RABV genomic RNA synthesis and viral gene transcription. Treatment with ART or DHA (5 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection improved, to some extent, the survival rate of RABV-challenged mice. Combination treatment with derivatives of artemisinin and mannitol significantly improved the survival rate of RABV-challenged mice. The results suggest that ART and DHA have a great potential to be explored as new anti-rabies agents for treatment of rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Qing Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Jiesen Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Hongling He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yongwen Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Shile Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA, 71130-3932, USA. .,Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71130-3932, USA.
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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Wani RT, Chowdri IN, Dar H. Factors influencing delay in initiating post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies prevention among animal bite victims: A cross sectional study. J Family Med Prim Care 2020; 9:4751-4755. [PMID: 33209795 PMCID: PMC7652120 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_890_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims The aim of this study was to identify the delay and the factors associated with delay in initiating post exposure prophylaxis. Methods A consecutive sampling method was proceeded, and 199 patients attending the anti-rabies clinic with a history of animal bite reported at SMHS Hospital were the subjects of the study. Results Majority of the patients (72.36%) reported a delay within 6 h after exposure, 18.59% within (6-48) h and 9.04% after 48 h of exposure. Conclusion Increasing the number of accessible anti-rabies clinics as well as increasing the awareness among general public about timely post exposure prophylaxis in the community are some of the factors that need to be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabbanie Tariq Wani
- Department of Community Medicine, Government Medical College, Srinagar, Kashmir, India
| | - Iqra Nisar Chowdri
- Department of Community Medicine, Government Medical College, Srinagar, Kashmir, India
| | - Hibba Dar
- Department of Pharmacology, Government Medical College, Srinagar, Kashmir, India
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Luo J, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Liu Q, Chen L, Zhang B, Luo Y, Huang S, Guo X. Rhabdovirus Infection Is Dependent on Serine/Threonine Kinase AP2-Associated Kinase 1. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E170. [PMID: 32872567 PMCID: PMC7554979 DOI: 10.3390/life10090170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) causes a fatal neurological disease in both humans and animals. Understanding the mechanism of RABV infection is vital for prevention and therapy of virulent rabies infection. Our previous proteomics analysis based on isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation to identify factors revealed that RABV infection enhanced AP-2-associated protein kinase 1 (AAK1) in N2a cells. In this study, to further confirm the role of AAK1, we showed that RABV infection increased the transcription and expression of AAK1 in N2a cells. AAK1 knockdown significantly decreased RABV infection in both N2a and BHK-21 cells. AAK1 knockout inhibited RABV infection in N2a cells. Furthermore, inhibition of AAK1 kinase activity using sunitinib decreased RABV infection. However, AAK1 overexpression did not change RABV infection in vitro. Therapeutic administration of sunitinib did not significantly improve the survival rate of mice following lethal RABV challenge. In addition, AAK1 knockdown decreased infection in N2a cells by vesicular stomatitis virus, which is another rhabdovirus. These results indicate that rhabdovirus infection is dependent on AAK1 and inhibition of AAK1 is a potential strategy for the prevention and therapy of rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yue Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Qing Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Luman Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Boyue Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yongwen Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Shile Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA 71130-3932, USA;
- Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA 71130-3932, USA
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (J.L.); (Y.Z.); (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (L.C.); (B.Z.); (Y.L.)
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Gilbert AT, Wu X, Jackson FR, Franka R, McCracken GF, Rupprecht CE. SAFETY, IMMUNOGENICITY, AND EFFICACY OF INTRAMUSCULAR AND ORAL DELIVERY OF ERA-G333 RECOMBINANT RABIES VIRUS VACCINE TO BIG BROWN BATS ( EPTESICUS FUSCUS). J Wildl Dis 2020; 56:620-630. [PMID: 31895645 PMCID: PMC11307205 DOI: 10.7589/2019-04-108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Attenuated strains of rabies virus (RABV) have been used for oral vaccination of wild carnivores in Europe and North America. However, some RABV vaccines caused clinical rabies in target animals. To improve the safety of attenuated RABV as an oral vaccine for field use, strategies using selection of escape mutants under monoclonal antibody neutralization pressure and reverse genetics-defined mutations have been used. We tested the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of one RABV construct, ERA-g333, developed with reverse genetics by intramuscular (IM) or oral (PO) routes in big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Twenty-five bats received 5×106 mouse intracerebral median lethal doses (MICLD50) of ERA-g333 by IM route, 10 received 5×106 MICLD50 of ERA-g333 by PO route, and 22 bats served as unvaccinated controls. Twenty-one days after vaccination, 44 bats were infected by IM route with 102.9 MICLD50 of E. fuscus RABV. We report both the immunogenicity and efficacy of ERA-g333 delivered by the IM route; no induction of humoral immunity was detected in bats vaccinated by the PO route. Two subsets of bats vaccinated IM (n=5) and PO (n=3) were not challenged, and none developed clinical rabies from ERA-g333. Scarce reports exist on the evaluation of oral rabies vaccines in insectivorous bats, although the strategy evaluated here may be feasible for future application to these important RABV reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy T. Gilbert
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Atlanta, GA USA 30333
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN USA 37996
| | - Xianfu Wu
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Atlanta, GA USA 30333
| | - Felix R. Jackson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Atlanta, GA USA 30333
| | - Richard Franka
- Center for Global Health, Global Immunization Division, Atlanta, GA USA 30333
| | - Gary F. McCracken
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN USA 37996
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Smith TG, Jackson FR, Morgan CN, Carson WC, Martin BE, Gallardo-Romero N, Ellison JA, Greenberg L, Hodge T, Squiquera L, Sulley J, Olson VA, Hutson CL. Antiviral Ranpirnase TMR-001 Inhibits Rabies Virus Release and Cell-to-Cell Infection In Vitro. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020177. [PMID: 32033253 PMCID: PMC7077210 DOI: 10.3390/v12020177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, no rabies virus-specific antiviral drugs are available. Ranpirnase has strong antitumor and antiviral properties associated with its ribonuclease activity. TMR-001, a proprietary bulk drug substance solution of ranpirnase, was evaluated against rabies virus in three cell types: mouse neuroblastoma, BSR (baby hamster kidney cells), and bat primary fibroblast cells. When TMR-001 was added to cell monolayers 24 h preinfection, rabies virus release was inhibited for all cell types at three time points postinfection. TMR-001 treatment simultaneous with infection and 24 h postinfection effectively inhibited rabies virus release in the supernatant and cell-to-cell spread with 50% inhibitory concentrations of 0.2–2 nM and 20–600 nM, respectively. TMR-001 was administered at 0.1 mg/kg via intraperitoneal, intramuscular, or intravenous routes to Syrian hamsters beginning 24 h before a lethal rabies virus challenge and continuing once per day for up to 10 days. TMR-001 at this dose, formulation, and route of delivery did not prevent rabies virus transit from the periphery to the central nervous system in this model (n = 32). Further aspects of local controlled delivery of other active formulations or dose concentrations of TMR-001 or ribonuclease analogues should be investigated for this class of drugs as a rabies antiviral therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd G. Smith
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-404-639-2282
| | - Felix R. Jackson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Clint N. Morgan
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - William C. Carson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Brock E. Martin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - James A. Ellison
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Lauren Greenberg
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Thomas Hodge
- Tamir Biotechnology, Inc. 12625 High Bluff Drive Suite 113, San Diego, CA 92130, USA; (T.H.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
| | - Luis Squiquera
- Tamir Biotechnology, Inc. 12625 High Bluff Drive Suite 113, San Diego, CA 92130, USA; (T.H.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
| | - Jamie Sulley
- Tamir Biotechnology, Inc. 12625 High Bluff Drive Suite 113, San Diego, CA 92130, USA; (T.H.); (L.S.); (J.S.)
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
| | - Christina L. Hutson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (F.R.J.); (C.N.M.); (W.C.C.); (B.E.M.); (N.G.-R.); (J.A.E.); (L.G.); (V.A.O.); (C.L.H.)
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9
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Smith SP, Wu G, Fooks AR, Ma J, Banyard AC. Trying to treat the untreatable: experimental approaches to clear rabies virus infection from the CNS. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:1171-1186. [PMID: 31237530 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus causes an invariably fatal encephalitis following the onset of clinical disease. Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines, the clinical stages of rabies encephalitis remain untreatable, with few survivors being documented. A principal obstacle to the treatment of rabies is the neurotropic nature of the virus, with the blood-brain barrier size exclusion limit rendering the delivery of antiviral drugs and molecules to the central nervous system inherently problematic. This review focuses on efforts to try and overcome barriers to molecule delivery to treat clinical rabies and overviews current progress in the development of experimental live rabies virus vaccines that may have future applications in the treatment of clinical rabies, including the attenuation of rabies virus vectors through either the duplication or mutation of existing genes or the incorporation of non-viral elements within the genome. Rabies post-infection treatment (PIT) remains the holy grail of rabies research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P Smith
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Julian Ma
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of West Sussex, Falmer, West Sussex, UK.,Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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10
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Yan S, Chen Y, Ye W, Chen F, Li L. Characteristics and factors associated with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatment of dog and cat bites among left-behind children: a cross-sectional study in two cities of China. BMJ Open 2019; 9:e024764. [PMID: 31061023 PMCID: PMC6502015 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Animal injury is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Dog bites account for tens of millions of injuries annually and the highest risk is among children. However, children may not receive postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) treatment timely and appropriately after rabies exposure. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics and factors associated with PEP treatment of dog and cat bites among left-behind children. DESIGN A cross-sectional study using questionnaire was conducted in primary and high schools. SETTING Shenzhen and Shantou cities, Guangdong Province, China. PARTICIPANTS A total of 9380 participants were included and 2236 of them were with a history of dog and cat bites. RESULTS 1188 (53.1%) boys and 1048 (46.9%) girls suffered from animal bites. Bitten in holidays was less likely to receive PEP treatment (OR 0.512, 95% CI 0.377 to 0.695) than those bitten in school days. Bitten while being with family (OR 1.418, 95% CI 1.040 to 1.934) and bitten at roadside (OR 1.842, 95% CI 1.297 to 2.171), bitten by unvaccinated animals (OR 1.745, 95% CI 1.246 to 2.443) tended to receive PEP treatment. Compared with unbroken skin, bleeding (OR 1.789, 95% CI 1.165 to 2.745) and laceration (OR 3.834, 95% CI 2.310 to 6.366) were showed as treatment prompting factors. CONCLUSIONS Bitten in holidays was found as a risk factor of receiving PEP treatment of animal bites. Certain measures should be taken to raise left-behind children's awareness of receiving PEP treatment timely and appropriately after dog and cat bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuzhen Yan
- Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
- School of Public Heath, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wanbao Ye
- Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Fuxiang Chen
- Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Liping Li
- Injury Prevention Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
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11
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Esmaeilzadeh F, Rajabi A, Vahedi S, Shamsadiny M, Ghelichi Ghojogh M, Hatam N. Epidemiology of Animal Bites and Factors Associated With Delays in Initiating Post-exposure Prophylaxis for Rabies Prevention Among Animal Bite Cases: A Population-based Study. J Prev Med Public Health 2018; 50:210-216. [PMID: 28605885 PMCID: PMC5495689 DOI: 10.3961/jpmph.17.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives One way to prevent deaths due to rabies is the timely utilization of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Therefore, in addition to an understanding of the epidemiological distribution of animal bites, it is necessary to explore the factors leading to delays in PEP initiation. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted in Iran in 2011, and included 7097 cases of animal bites recorded at the Rabies Treatment Center of the Shiraz University of Medical Sciences using the census method. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with delays in PEP. Results Among the patients studied, 5387 (75.9%) were males. The prevalence of animal bites in Fars province was 154.4 per 100 000 people. Dogs were the most frequent source of exposure (67.1%), and the most common bitten part of the body was the hands (45.5%). A delay in the initiation of PEP was found among 6.8% of the studied subjects. This delay was more likely in housewives (odds ratio [OR], 4.66; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.12 to 10.23) and less likely in people with deep wounds (OR, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.43 to 0.97). Conclusions Although all animal bite victims received complete PEP, in some cases, there were delays. Further, the type of animal involved, the depth of the bite, and the patient’s occupation were the major factors associated with a delay in the initiation of PEP for rabies prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firooz Esmaeilzadeh
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Abdolhalim Rajabi
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Sajad Vahedi
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Mohammad Shamsadiny
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Mousa Ghelichi Ghojogh
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Nahid Hatam
- Department of Health Economic, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
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12
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Franka R, Carson WC, Ellison JA, Taylor ST, Smith TG, Kuzmina NA, Kuzmin IV, Marissen WE, Rupprecht CE. In Vivo Efficacy of a Cocktail of Human Monoclonal Antibodies (CL184) Against Diverse North American Bat Rabies Virus Variants. Trop Med Infect Dis 2017; 2:E48. [PMID: 30270905 PMCID: PMC6082099 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed2030048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Following rabies virus (RABV) exposure, a combination of thorough wound washing, multiple-dose vaccine administration and the local infiltration of rabies immune globulin (RIG) are essential components of modern post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Although modern cell-culture-based rabies vaccines are increasingly used in many countries, RIG is much less available. The prohibitive cost of polyclonal serum RIG products has prompted a search for alternatives and design of anti-RABV monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that can be manufactured on a large scale with a consistent potency and lower production costs. Robust in vitro neutralization activity has been demonstrated for the CL184 MAb cocktail, a 1:1 protein mixture of two human anti-RABV MAbs (CR57/CR4098), against a large panel of RABV isolates. In this study, we used a hamster model to evaluate the efficacy of experimental PEP against a lethal challenge. Various doses of CL184 and commercial rabies vaccine were assessed for the ability to protect against lethal infection with representatives of four distinct bat RABV lineages of public health relevance: silver-haired bat (Ln RABV); western canyon bat (Ph RABV); big brown bat (Ef-w1 RABV) and Mexican free-tailed bat RABV (Tb RABV). 42⁻100% of animals survived bat RABV infection when CL184 (in combination with the vaccine) was administered. A dose-response relationship was observed with decreasing doses of CL184 resulting in increasing mortality. Importantly, CL184 was highly effective in neutralizing and clearing Ph RABV in vivo, even though CR4098 does not neutralize this virus in vitro. By comparison, 19⁻95% survivorship was observed if human RIG (20 IU/kg) and vaccine were used following challenge with different bat viruses. Based on our results, CL184 represents an efficacious alternative for RIG. Both large-scale and lower cost production could ensure better availability and affordability of this critical life-saving biologic in rabies enzootic countries and as such, significantly contribute to the reduction of human rabies deaths globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Franka
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - William C Carson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - James A Ellison
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Steven T Taylor
- East Tennessee State University, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA.
| | - Todd G Smith
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Natalia A Kuzmina
- University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd, Galveston, TX 50555, USA.
| | - Ivan V Kuzmin
- University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd, Galveston, TX 50555, USA.
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13
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Smith TG, Wu X, Ellison JA, Wadhwa A, Franka R, Langham GL, Skinner BL, Hanlon CA, Bronshtein VL. Assessment of the immunogenicity of rabies vaccine preserved by vaporization and delivered to the duodenal mucosa of gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Am J Vet Res 2017; 78:752-756. [PMID: 28541146 PMCID: PMC5520579 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.78.6.752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the immunogenicity of thermostable live-attenuated rabies virus (RABV) preserved by vaporization (PBV) and delivered to the duodenal mucosa of a wildlife species targeted for an oral vaccination program. ANIMALS 8 gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). PROCEDURES Endoscopy was used to place RABV PBV (n = 3 foxes), alginate-encapsulated RABV PBV (3 foxes), or nonpreserved RABV (2 foxes) vaccine into the duodenum of foxes. Blood samples were collected weekly to monitor the immune response. Saliva samples were collected weekly and tested for virus shedding by use of a conventional reverse-transcriptase PCR assay. Foxes were euthanized 28 days after vaccine administration, and relevant tissues were collected and tested for presence of RABV. RESULTS 2 of 3 foxes that received RABV PBV and 1 of 2 foxes that received nonpreserved RABV seroconverted by day 28. None of the 3 foxes receiving alginate-encapsulated RABV PBV seroconverted. No RABV RNA was detected in saliva at any of the time points, and RABV antigen or RNA was not detected in any of the tissues obtained on day 28. None of the foxes displayed any clinical signs of rabies. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results for this study indicated that a live-attenuated RABV vaccine delivered to the duodenal mucosa can induce an immune response in gray foxes. A safe, potent, thermostable RABV vaccine that could be delivered orally to wildlife or domestic animals would enhance current rabies control and prevention efforts.
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14
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Nie J, Wu X, Ma J, Cao S, Huang W, Liu Q, Li X, Li Y, Wang Y. Development of in vitro and in vivo rabies virus neutralization assays based on a high-titer pseudovirus system. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42769. [PMID: 28218278 PMCID: PMC5316940 DOI: 10.1038/srep42769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudoviruses are useful virological tools because of their safety and versatility; however the low titer of these viruses substantially limits their wider applications. We developed a highly efficient pseudovirus production system capable of yielding 100 times more rabies pseudovirus than the traditional method. Employing the high-titer pseudoviruses, we have developed robust in vitro and in vivo neutralization assays for the evaluation of rabies vaccine, which traditionally relies on live-virus based assays. Compared with current rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT), our in vitro pseudovirus-based neutralization assay (PBNA) is much less labor-intensive while demonstrating better reproducibility. Moreover, the in vivo PBNA assay was also found to be superior to the live virus based assay. Following intravenous administration, the pseudovirus effectively infected the mice, with dynamic viral distributions being sequentially observed in spleen, liver and brain. Furthermore, data from in vivo PBNA showed great agreement with those generated from the live virus model but with the experimental time significantly reduced from 2 weeks to 3 days. Taken together, the effective pseudovirus production system facilitated the development of novel PBNA assays which could replace live virus-based traditional assays due to its safety, rapidity, reproducibility and high throughput capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhui Nie
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Xiaohong Wu
- Division of Arboviral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Jian Ma
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Shouchun Cao
- Division of Arboviral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Weijin Huang
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Xuguang Li
- Centre for Biologics Evaluation, Biologics and Genetic Therapies Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, On K1A 0K9, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, On, Canada
| | - Yuhua Li
- Division of Arboviral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Youchun Wang
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), No. 2 Tiantanxili, Beijing 100050, China
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15
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Yang DK, Kim HH, Choi SS, Kim JT, Lee KB, Lee SH, Cho IS. Safety and immunogenicity of recombinant rabies virus (ERAGS) in mice and raccoon dogs. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2016; 5:159-68. [PMID: 27489806 PMCID: PMC4969280 DOI: 10.7774/cevr.2016.5.2.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The development of a genetically modified live rabies vaccine applicable to wild raccoon dogs is necessary for the eradication of rabies in Korea. Thus, we constructed a recombinant rabies virus (RABV) called the ERAGS strain, using a reverse genetic system and evaluated its safety and efficacy in mice and its safety and immunogenicity in raccoon dogs. Materials and Methods ERAGS, which has Asn194Ser and Arg333Glu substitutions in the glycoprotein, was constructed using site-directed mutagenesis. Mice were inoculated with the ERAGS strain (either 105.0 or 107.0 FAID50/mL) via intramuscular (IM) or intracranial injections and then challenged with a virulent RABV. Raccoon dogs were administered the ERAGS strain (108.0 FAID50/mL) either orally or via the IM route and the immunogenicity of the strain was evaluated using fluorescent antibody virus neutralization tests. Results The ERAGS strain inoculated into murine neuroblastoma cells reached 107.8 FAID50/mL at 96-hour post-inoculation. The virus was not pathogenic and induced complete protection from virulent RABV in immunized 4- and 6-week-old mice. Korean raccoon dogs immunized with the ERAGS strain via IM or oral route were also safe from the virus and developed high titer levels (26.4-32.8 IU/mL) of virus-neutralizing antibody (VNA) at 4 weeks post-inoculation. Conclusion The ERAGS RABV strain was effectively protective against rabies in mice and produced a high VNA titer in raccoon dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Gimcheon, Korea
| | - Ha-Hyun Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Gimcheon, Korea
| | - Sung-Suk Choi
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Gimcheon, Korea
| | - Jong-Tack Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Kang-Bok Lee
- Jeonnam Wildlife Management Center, Suncheon, Korea
| | - Seong Heon Lee
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Gimcheon, Korea
| | - In-Soo Cho
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Gimcheon, Korea
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16
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Rupprecht CE, Kuzmin IV. Why we can prevent, control and possibly treat – but will not eradicate – rabies. Future Virol 2015. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.15.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Rabies is an acute, progressive viral encephalitis. Despite historical recognition, millions still remain exposed annually. Most fatalities are of children, although this zoonosis is a vaccine-preventable disease. All developed countries interrupted canine transmission and increasingly, Asian and African communities recognize what Latin Americans demonstrated – dog rabies can be eliminated – by mass application of veterinary vaccines. Realistically, rabies is not a candidate for eradication. Management is lacking for major reservoirs, such as bats. Increasing pre-exposure immunization of individuals at risk, simplification of postexposure schedules, enhancing vaccine delivery by alternative routes, development of less expensive biologics and antiviral drugs, may lessen its impact if applied strategically in a One Health context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ivan V Kuzmin
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
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17
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Abstract
Rabies is a highly lethal disease caused by the neurotropic rabies virus (RABV), and it remains an important public health problem globally. Effective vaccines have been developed for pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). PEP is only effective if it is initiated promptly after recognizing exposure. Once neurological symptoms develop, however, it is widely accepted that there is no effective treatment available. Recent studies indicate that the presence of RABV-specific immunity (i.e. Virus neutralizing antibodies, VNA) and the transient enhancement of the BBB permeability are absolutely required for effective virus clearance from the CNS. In principle, it has been shown in mice using various live-attenuated RABVs or recombinant RABVs expressing three copies of the G or expressing chemokine/cytokines, which can induce high levels of VNA in the serum and also capable of transiently enhancing the BBB permeability that it is possible to clear the virus from CNS. Also, it has been demonstrated that, intravenous administration of VNA together with MCP-1 (shown to transiently open up BBB) can clear RABV from the CNS in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice, as late as 5 days after lethal challenge. Novel therapeutic approaches aimed at allowing the peripheral VNA to cross the BBB by administration of the VNA in combination with biological or chemical agents that can transiently open up the BBB would be useful to establish an effective therapy for rabies in humans. In this review, we focus on the some of the approaches that can be used to meet the challenges in the field of rabies treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C W Gnanadurai
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, USA
| | - C T Huang
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, USA
| | - D Kumar
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, USA
| | - Zhen F Fu
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia Athens, USA; State-key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, China
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18
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Yang DK, Kim HH, Choi SS, Kim JT, Jeong WH, Song JY. Oral immunization of mice with recombinant rabies vaccine strain (ERAG3G) induces complete protection. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2015; 4:107-13. [PMID: 25648184 PMCID: PMC4313102 DOI: 10.7774/cevr.2015.4.1.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Revised: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE New rabies vaccine bait for both pets and raccoon dogs residing in Korea is needed to eradicate rabies infection among animals. In this study, we constructed a recombinant rabies virus (RABV), the ERAG3G strain, using a reverse genetics system. Then we investigated the efficacy of this strain in mice after oral administration and the safety of this strain in cats after intramuscular administration. MATERIALS AND METHODS The ERAG3G strain was rescued in BHK/T7-9 cells using the full-length genome mutated at the amino acid position 333 of the glycoprotein gene of RABV and helper plasmids. Four-week-old mice underwent one or two oral administrations of the ERAG3G strain and were challenged with the highly virulent RABV strain CVSN2c 14 days after the second administration. Clinical symptoms were observed and body weights were measured every day after the challenge. RESULTS All mice showed complete protection against virulent RABV. In addition, cats intramuscularly inoculated with the ERAG3G strain showed high antibody titers ranging from 2.62 to 23.9 IU/mL at 28-day postinoculation. CONCLUSION The oral immunization of the ERAG3G strain plays an important role in conferring complete protection in mice, and intramuscular inoculation of the ERAG3G strain induces the formation of anti-rabies neutralizing antibody in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Ha-Hyun Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Sung-Suk Choi
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Jong-Taek Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Woong-Ho Jeong
- Gangwon-do Veterinary Service Laboratory, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Jae-Young Song
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
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Barkhouse DA, Faber M, Hooper DC. Pre- and post-exposure safety and efficacy of attenuated rabies virus vaccines are enhanced by their expression of IFNγ. Virology 2015; 474:174-80. [PMID: 25463615 PMCID: PMC4258908 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Consistent with evidence of a strong correlation between interferon gamma (IFNγ) production and rabies virus (RABV) clearance from the CNS, we recently demonstrated that engineering a pathogenic RABV to express IFNγ highly attenuates the virus. Reasoning that IFNγ expression by RABV vaccines would enhance their safety and efficacy, we reverse-engineered two proven vaccine vectors, GAS and GASGAS, to express murine IFNγ. Mortality and morbidity were monitored during suckling mice infection, immunize/challenge experiments and mixed intracranial infections. We demonstrate that GASγ and GASγGAS are significantly attenuated in suckling mice compared to the GASGAS vaccine. GASγ better protects mice from lethal DRV4 RABV infection in both pre- and post-exposure experiments compared to GASGAS. Finally, GASγGAS reduces post-infection neurological sequelae, compared to control, during mixed intracranial infection with DRV4. These data show IFNγ expression by a vaccine vector can enhance its safety while increasing its efficacy as pre- and post-exposure treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryll A Barkhouse
- Department of Cancer Biology, 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; Center for Neurovirology 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Milosz Faber
- Center for Neurovirology 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 465, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - D Craig Hooper
- Department of Cancer Biology, 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA; Center for Neurovirology 1020 Locust St., Jefferson Alumni Hall, Room 454, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Salve H, Kumar S, Sa R, Rai SK, Kant S, Pandav CS. Feasibility of sustainable provision of intradermal post exposure prophylaxis against rabies at primary care level--evidence from rural Haryana. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14:278. [PMID: 24965875 PMCID: PMC4076435 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6963-14-278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is the most severe and neglected public health problem in India. Management of animal bite with post exposure prophylaxis is the only existent strategy to prevent rabies related deaths. Cost-effective and sustainable programme for provision of post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is needed in India. METHODS In this study, we have documented the experience of implementation of intra-dermal anti rabies vaccination in Animal Bite Management (ABM) clinic at Primary Health Centre (PHC). This study facility belonged to Comprehensive Rural Health Services Project, Ballabgarh in Faridabad district of Haryana. Hospital service record of ABM clinic was analyzed and various feasibility issues such as costing of services, vaccine wastage and other operational issues in providing PEP services at PHC level were documented. RESULTS A total of 619 patients were treated in the ABM clinic. Service utilization of ABM clinic was increased by 38% in the second year of implementation. Mean age of the patients was 23.9 years (SD: 18.8) and majority (70.4%) were males. Majority (86%) of the patients received the first dose of anti-rabies vaccine within the recommended 48 hours. A total 446 vaccine vials (1 ml) were consumed of which 20.8% was contributed in vaccine wastage. User-fee (350 Indian Rupees) collected from the patients. User-fee was re-used to purchase vaccines, intradermal (ID) syringes and other consumables required to ensure regular availability of ARV services at the PHC. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the cost-effective and sustainable model of provision of PEP against rabies at primary care level. ID PEP provision at primary care level not only address the unmet need of animal bite management in the community also reduces the out of pocket expenditure of the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshal Salve
- Centre for Community Medicine, Old OT Block, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi 110029, India.
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21
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Yang DK, Nakagawa K, Ito N, Kim HH, Hyun BH, Nah JJ, Sugiyama M, Song JY. A single immunization with recombinant rabies virus (ERAG3G) confers complete protection against rabies in mice. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2014; 3:176-84. [PMID: 25003091 PMCID: PMC4083070 DOI: 10.7774/cevr.2014.3.2.176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose New alternative bait rabies vaccines applicable to pet dogs and wild animals are needed to eradicate rabies in Korea. In this study, recombinant rabies virus, ERAG3G strain was constructed using reverse genetic system and the safety, efficacy and immunogenicity of the ERAG3G strain was evaluated in mice and dogs. Materials and Methods Using the full-length genome mutated amino acid at position 333 of glycoprotein of rabies virus (RABV) and helper plasmids, the ERAG3G strain was rescued in BHK/T7-9 cells successfully. Mice were inoculated with the ERAG3G strain for safety and efficacy. Safety and immunogenicity of the dog inoculated with the ERAG3G strain (1 mL, 108.0 FAID50/mL) via intramuscular route was evaluated for 28 days after inoculation. Results The ERAG3G strain rescued by reverse genetic system was propagated well in the mouse neuroblastoma cells revealing titer of 108.5 FAID50/mL and was not pathogenic to 4- or 6-week-old mice that received by intramuscular or intracranical route. Immunization with the ERAG3G strain conferred complete protection from lethal RABV in mice. Dogs inoculated with the vaccine candidate via intramuscular route showed high neutralizing antibody titer ranging from 2.62 to 23.9 IU/mL at 28 days postinoculation. Conclusion Our findings suggest that the ERAG3G strain plays an important role in inducing protective efficacy in mice and causes to arise anti-rabies neutralizing antibody in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Keisuke Nakagawa
- The United Graduated School of Veterinary Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Naoto Ito
- The United Graduated School of Veterinary Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Ha-Hyun Kim
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Bang-Hun Hyun
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Jin-Ju Nah
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
| | - Makoto Sugiyama
- The United Graduated School of Veterinary Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Jae-Young Song
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, MAFRA, Anyang, Korea
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22
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Xiang ZQ, Greenberg L, Ertl HC, Rupprecht CE. Protection of non-human primates against rabies with an adenovirus recombinant vaccine. Virology 2014; 450-451:243-9. [PMID: 24503087 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rabies remains a major neglected global zoonosis. New vaccine strategies are needed for human rabies prophylaxis. A single intramuscular immunization with a moderate dose of an experimental chimpanzee adenovirus (Ad) vector serotype SAd-V24, also termed AdC68, expressing the rabies virus glycoprotein, resulted in sustained titers of rabies virus neutralizing antibodies and protection against a lethal rabies virus challenge infection in a non-human primate model. Taken together, these data demonstrate the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the recombinant Ad-rabies vector for further consideration in human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Q Xiang
- The Wistar Institute of Anatomy & Biology, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - L Greenberg
- Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - H C Ertl
- The Wistar Institute of Anatomy & Biology, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| | - C E Rupprecht
- The Global Alliance for Rabies Control, Manhattan, KS, United States; Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
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23
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Determinants of delay in initiating post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies prevention among animal bite cases: Hospital based study. Vaccine 2013; 32:74-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.10.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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24
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Liang HR, Liu Q, Zheng XX, Gai WW, Xue XH, Hu GQ, Wu HX, Wang HL, Yang ST, Xia XZ. Aptamers targeting rabies virus-infected cells inhibit viral replication both in vitro and in vivo. Virus Res 2013; 173:398-403. [PMID: 23333291 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 12/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is an acute fatal encephalitis disease that affects many warm-blooded mammals. The causative agent of the disease is Rabies virus (RABV). Currently, no approved therapy is available once the clinical signs have appeared. Aptamers, oligonucleotide ligands capable of binding a variety of molecular targets with high affinity and specificity, have recently emerged as promising therapeutic agents. In this study, sixteen high-affinity single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) aptamers were generated by cell-SELEX. Viral titer assays revealed aptamers could specifically inhibit the replication of RABV in cells but did not inhibit the replication of canine distemper virus or canine parvovirus. In addition, the FO21 and FO24 aptamers, with and without PEGylation, were found to effectively protect mice against lethal RABV challenge. When mice were inoculated with aptamers for 24h prior to inoculation with CVS-11, approximately 87.5% of the mice survived. Here, we report aptamers that could significantly protect the mice from a lethal dose of RABV in vitro and in vivo, as demonstrated by the results for survival rate, weight loss and viral titers. These results indicate that FO21 and FO24 aptamers are a promising agent for specific antiviral against RABV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Ru Liang
- Institute of Military Veterinary Medicine, Academy of Military Medical Science, Changchun 130062, China
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25
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Allendorf SD, Cortez A, Heinemann MB, Harary CMA, Antunes JMAP, Peres MG, Vicente AF, Sodré MM, da Rosa AR, Megid J. Rabies virus distribution in tissues and molecular characterization of strains from naturally infected non-hematophagous bats. Virus Res 2012; 165:119-25. [PMID: 22349147 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bats are main reservoirs for Lyssavirus worldwide, which is an important public health issue because it constitutes one of the big challenges in rabies control. Yet, little is known about how the virus is maintained among bats, and the epidemiological relationships remain poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate the distribution of the rabies virus (RABV) in bat tissues and organs and to genetically characterize virus isolates from naturally infected non-hematophagous bats. The heminested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (hnRT-PCR) and sequencing using primers to the nucleoprotein coding gene were performed. The results showed a dissemination of the RABV in different tissues and organs, particularly in the salivary glands, tongue, lungs, kidneys, bladder, intestine and feces, suggesting other possible forms of RABV elimination and the possibility of transmission among these animals. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed that different variants of RABV are maintained by non-hematophagous bats in nature and have similar tissue distribution irrespective of bat species and phylogenetic characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Dora Allendorf
- UNESP, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Higiene Veterinária e Saúde Pública, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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26
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Franka R, Rupprecht CE. Treatment of rabies in the 21st century: curing the incurable? Future Microbiol 2012; 6:1135-40. [PMID: 22004032 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the extreme case fatality attributable to rabies, reports of survivors provide a faint glimpse of a possibility of overcoming this deadly disease, even after clinical symptoms manifest. At present, no existing approach fulfills modern medical criteria for the optimal therapy of rabies. Until new efficacious antiviral compounds and optimized treatment protocols are developed, animal population management and vaccination of major reservoirs and vectors, minimization of the risk of viral exposures, and appropriate and early postexposure prophylaxis, remain the hallmarks of modern public health intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Franka
- Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, 1600 Clifton Road, MS G33, GA 30333, USA
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27
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28
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Live attenuated rabies virus co-infected with street rabies virus protects animals against rabies. Vaccine 2011; 29:4195-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.03.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Revised: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hampson K, Cleaveland S, Briggs D. Evaluation of cost-effective strategies for rabies post-exposure vaccination in low-income countries. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e982. [PMID: 21408121 PMCID: PMC3050908 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 02/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is essential in preventing the fatal onset of disease in persons exposed to rabies. Unfortunately, life-saving rabies vaccines and biologicals are often neither accessible nor affordable, particularly to the poorest sectors of society who are most at risk and upon whom the largest burden of rabies falls. Increasing accessibility, reducing costs and preventing delays in delivery of PEP should therefore be prioritized. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We analyzed different PEP vaccination regimens and evaluated their relative costs and benefits to bite victims and healthcare providers. We found PEP vaccination to be an extremely cost-effective intervention (from $200 to less than $60/death averted). Switching from intramuscular (IM) administration of PEP to equally efficacious intradermal (ID) regimens was shown to result in significant savings in the volume of vaccine required to treat the same number of patients, which could mitigate vaccine shortages, and would dramatically reduce the costs of implementing PEP. We present financing mechanisms that would make PEP more affordable and accessible, could help subsidize the cost for those most in need, and could even support new and existing rabies control and prevention programs. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We conclude that a universal switch to ID delivery would improve the affordability and accessibility of PEP for bite victims, leading to a likely reduction in human rabies deaths, as well as being economical for healthcare providers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Hampson
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute for Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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30
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Use of a reduced (4-dose) vaccine schedule for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent human rabies-recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practice. Ann Emerg Med 2010; 56:64-7. [PMID: 20648715 DOI: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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31
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Evidence for a 4-dose vaccine schedule for human rabies post-exposure prophylaxis in previously non-vaccinated individuals. Vaccine 2009; 27:7141-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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