Metal based nanoparticles as cancer antigen delivery vehicles for macrophage based antitumor vaccine

Current Advances in Viral Nanoparticles for Biomedicine

Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) have emerged as crucial tools in the field of biomedicine. Leveraging their biological and physicochemical properties, VNPs exhibit significant advantages in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases. Through techniques such as chemical bioconjugation, infusion, genetic engineering, and encapsulation, these VNPs have been endowed with multifunctional capabilities, including the display of functional peptides or proteins, encapsulation of therapeutic drugs or inorganic particles, integration with imaging agents, and conjugation with bioactive molecules. This review provides an in-depth analysis of VNPs in biomedicine, elucidating their diverse types, distinctive features, production methods, and complex design principles behind multifunctional VNPs. It highlights recent innovative research and various applications, covering their roles in imaging, drug delivery, therapeutics, gene delivery, vaccines, immunotherapy, and tissue regeneration. Additionally, the review provides an assessment of their safety and biocompatibility and discusses challenges and future opportunities in the field, underscoring the vast potential and evolving nature of VNP research.

A Multi-Functional Nanoadjuvant Coupling Manganese with Toll-Like 9 Agonist Stimulates Potent Innate and Adaptive Anti-Tumor Immunity

The effectiveness of Toll-like 9 agonists (CpG) as an adjuvant for tumor immunotherapy is restricted due to their insufficient ability to activate anti-tumor immunity. To address that, the common nutrient metal ions are explored (Mn2+, Cu2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe3+, and Al3+), identifying Mn2+ as a key enhancer of CpG to mediate immune activation by augmenting the STING-NF-κB pathway. Mn2+ and CpG are then self-assembled with epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) into a nanoadjuvant MPN/CpG. Local delivery of MPN/CpG effectively inhibits tumor growth in a B16 melanoma-bearing mouse model, reshaping the tumor microenvironment (TME) by repolarizing M2-type tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to an M1-type and boosting intra-tumoral infiltration of CD8+/CD4+ T lymphocytes and DCs. Furthermore, compared to free CpG, MPN/CpG exhibits heightened accumulation in lymph nodes, enhancing CpG uptake and DC activation, consequently inducing significant antigen-specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cell immune response and humoral immunity. In a prophylactic tumor-bearing mouse model, MPN/CpG vaccination with OVA antigen significantly delays B16-OVA melanoma growth and extends mouse survival. These findings underscore the potential of MPN/CpG as a multifunctional adjuvant platform to drive powerful innate and adaptive immunity and regulate TME against tumors.

Metal-based nanoparticle in cancer treatment: lessons learned and challenges

Cancer, being one of the deadliest diseases, poses significant challenges despite the existence of traditional treatment approaches. This has led to a growing demand for innovative pharmaceutical agents that specifically target cancer cells for effective treatment. In recent years, the use of metal nanoparticles (NPs) as a promising alternative to conventional therapies has gained prominence in cancer research. Metal NPs exhibit unique properties that hold tremendous potential for various applications in cancer treatment. Studies have demonstrated that certain metals possess inherent or acquired anticancer capabilities through their surfaces. These properties make metal NPs an attractive focus for therapeutic development. In this review, we will investigate the applicability of several distinct classes of metal NPs for tumor targeting in cancer treatment. These classes may include gold, silver, iron oxide, and other metals with unique properties that can be exploited for therapeutic purposes. Additionally, we will provide a comprehensive summary of the risk factors associated with the therapeutic application of metal NPs. Understanding and addressing these factors will be crucial for successful clinical translation and to mitigate any potential challenges or failures in the translation of metal NP-based therapies. By exploring the therapeutic potential of metal NPs and identifying the associated risk factors, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of cancer treatment strategies. The anticipated outcome of this review is to provide valuable insights and pave the way for the advancement of effective and targeted therapies utilizing metal NPs specifically for cancer patients.

Extracellular vesicles-powered immunotherapy: Unleashing the potential for safer and more effective cancer treatment

Cancer treatment has seen significant advancements with the introduction of Onco-immunotherapies (OIMTs). Although some of these therapies have received approval for use, others are either undergoing testing or are still in the early stages of development. Challenges persist in making immunotherapy widely applicable to cancer treatment. To maximize the benefits of immunotherapy and minimize potential side effects, it's essential to improve response rates across different immunotherapy methods. A promising development in this area is the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as novel delivery systems. These small vesicles can effectively deliver immunotherapies, enhancing their effectiveness and reducing harmful side effects. This article discusses the importance of integrating nanomedicines into OIMTs, highlighting the challenges with current anti-OIMT methods. It also explores key considerations for designing nanomedicines tailored for OIMTs, aiming to improve upon existing immunotherapy techniques. Additionally, the article looks into innovative approaches like biomimicry and the use of natural biomaterial-based nanocarriers (NCs). These advancements have the potential to transform the delivery of immunotherapy. Lastly, the article addresses the challenges of moving OIMTs from theory to clinical practice, providing insights into the future of using advanced nanotechnology in cancer treatment.

Exploring nanocarriers as innovative materials for advanced drug delivery strategies in onco-immunotherapies

In recent years, Onco-immunotherapies (OIMTs) have been shown to be a potential therapy option for cancer. Several immunotherapies have received regulatory approval, while many others are now undergoing clinical testing or are in the early stages of development. Despite this progress, a large number of challenges to the broad use of immunotherapies to treat cancer persists. To make immunotherapy more useful as a treatment while reducing its potentially harmful side effects, we need to know more about how to improve response rates to different types of immunotherapies. Nanocarriers (NCs) have the potential to harness immunotherapies efficiently, enhance the efficiency of these treatments, and reduce the severe adverse reactions that are associated with them. This article discusses the necessity to incorporate nanomedicines in OIMTs and the challenges we confront with current anti-OIMT approaches. In addition, it examines the most important considerations for building nanomedicines for OIMT, which may improve upon current immunotherapy methods. Finally, it highlights the applications and future scenarios of using nanotechnology.

Nanomaterial Delivery Vehicles for the Development of Neoantigen Tumor Vaccines for Personalized Treatment

Tumor vaccines have been considered a promising therapeutic approach for treating cancer in recent years. With the development of sequencing technologies, tumor vaccines based on neoantigens or genomes specifically expressed in tumor cells, mainly in the form of peptides, nucleic acids, and dendritic cells, are beginning to receive widespread attention. Therefore, in this review, we have introduced different forms of neoantigen vaccines and discussed the development of these vaccines in treating cancer. Furthermore, neoantigen vaccines are influenced by factors such as antigen stability, weak immunogenicity, and biosafety in addition to sequencing technology. Hence, the biological nanomaterials, polymeric nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, etc., used as vaccine carriers are principally summarized here, which may contribute to the design of neoantigen vaccines for improved stability and better efficacy.

Enhancing Skin Cancer Immunotheranostics and Precision Medicine through Functionalized Nanomodulators and Nanosensors: Recent Development and Prospects

Skin cancers, especially melanomas, present a formidable diagnostic and therapeutic challenge to the scientific community. Currently, the incidence of melanomas shows a high increase worldwide. Traditional therapeutics are limited to stalling or reversing malignant proliferation, increased metastasis, or rapid recurrence. Nonetheless, the advent of immunotherapy has led to a paradigm shift in treating skin cancers. Many state-of-art immunotherapeutic techniques, namely, active vaccination, chimeric antigen receptors, adoptive T-cell transfer, and immune checkpoint blockers, have achieved a considerable increase in survival rates. Despite its promising outcomes, current immunotherapy is still limited in its efficacy. Newer modalities are now being explored, and significant progress is made by integrating cancer immunotherapy with modular nanotechnology platforms to enhance its therapeutic efficacy and diagnostics. Research on targeting skin cancers with nanomaterial-based techniques has been much more recent than other cancers. Current investigations using nanomaterial-mediated targeting of nonmelanoma and melanoma cancers are directed at augmenting drug delivery and immunomodulation of skin cancers to induce a robust anticancer response and minimize toxic effects. Many novel nanomaterial formulations are being discovered, and clinical trials are underway to explore their efficacy in targeting skin cancers through functionalization or drug encapsulation. The focus of this review rivets on theranostic nanomaterials that can modulate immune mechanisms toward protective, therapeutic, or diagnostic approaches for skin cancers. The recent breakthroughs in nanomaterial-based immunotherapeutic modulation of skin cancer types and diagnostic potentials in personalized immunotherapies are discussed.

Light-activated nanomaterials for tumor immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy mainly relies on activating the immune system to achieve antitumor treatment. However, the present tumor immunotherapy used in the clinic showed low treatment efficacy with high systematic toxicity. To overcome the shortcomings of traditional drugs for immunotherapy, a series of antitumor immunotherapies based on nanomaterials have been developed to enhance the body’s antitumor immune response and reduce systematic toxicity. Due to the noninvasiveness, remote controllability, and high temporal and spatial resolution of light, photocontrolled nanomaterials irradiated by excitation light have been widely used in drug delivery and photocontrolled switching. This review aims to highlight recent advances in antitumor immunotherapy based on photocontrolled nanomaterials. We emphasized the advantages of nanocomposites for antitumor immunotherapy and highlighted the latest progress of antitumor immunotherapy based on photoactivated nanomaterials. Finally, the challenges and future prospects of light-activated nanomaterials in antitumor immunity are discussed.

Self-adjuvanting cancer nanovaccines

Nanovaccines, a new generation of vaccines that use nanoparticles as carriers and/or adjuvants, have been widely used in the prevention and treatment of various diseases, including cancer. Nanovaccines have sparked considerable interest in cancer therapy due to a variety of advantages, including improved access to lymph nodes (LN), optimal packing and presentation of antigens, and induction of a persistent anti-tumor immune response. As a delivery system for cancer vaccines, various types of nanoparticles have been designed to facilitate the delivery of antigens and adjuvants to lymphoid organs and antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Particularly, some types of nanoparticles are able to confer an immune-enhancing capability and can themselves be utilized for adjuvant-like effect for vaccines, suggesting a direction for a better use of nanomaterials and the optimization of cancer vaccines. However, this role of nanoparticles in vaccines has not been well studied. To further elucidate the role of self-adjuvanting nanovaccines in cancer therapy, we review the mechanisms of antitumor vaccine adjuvants with respect to nanovaccines with self-adjuvanting properties, including enhancing cross-presentation, targeting signaling pathways, biomimicking of the natural invasion process of pathogens, and further unknown mechanisms. We surveyed self-adjuvanting cancer nanovaccines in clinical research and discussed their advantages and challenges. In this review, we classified self-adjuvanting cancer nanovaccines according to the underlying immunomodulatory mechanism, which may provide mechanistic insights into the design of nanovaccines in the future.

Recent Development in Metallic Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis

Metal-based nanoparticles are very promising for their applications in cancer diagnosis, drug delivery and therapy. Breast cancer is the major reason of death in woman especially in developed countries including EU and USA. Due to the heterogeneity of cancer cells, nanoparticles are effective as therapeutics and diagnostics. Anti-cancer therapy of breast tumors is challenging because of highly metastatic progression of the disease to brain, bone, lung, and liver. Magnetic nanoparticles are crucial for metastatic breast cancer detection and protection. This review comprehensively discusses the application of nanomaterials as breast cancer therapy, therapeutics, and diagnostics.

Photodynamic Therapy-Mediated Immune Responses in Three-Dimensional Tumor Models

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising non-invasive phototherapeutic approach for cancer therapy that can eliminate local tumor cells and produce systemic antitumor immune responses. In recent years, significant efforts have been made in developing strategies to further investigate the immune mechanisms triggered by PDT. The majority of in vitro experimental models still rely on the two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures that do not mimic a three-dimensional (3D) cellular environment in the human body, such as cellular heterogeneity, nutrient gradient, growth mechanisms, and the interaction between cells as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM) and therapeutic resistance to anticancer treatments. In addition, in vivo animal studies are highly expensive and time consuming, which may also show physiological discrepancies between animals and humans. In this sense, there is growing interest in the utilization of 3D tumor models, since they precisely mimic different features of solid tumors. This review summarizes the characteristics and techniques for 3D tumor model generation. Furthermore, we provide an overview of innate and adaptive immune responses induced by PDT in several in vitro and in vivo tumor models. Future perspectives are highlighted for further enhancing PDT immune responses as well as ideal experimental models for antitumor immune response studies.

Inspirations of Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticle Based Anticancer Therapeutics

Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals due to its key role in cobalamin, also known as vitamin B12, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultra-trace element. Current cancer treatment strategies, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, have been seriously restricted by their side effects and low efficiency for a long time, which urges us to develop new technologies for more effective and much safer anticancer therapies. Novel nanotechnologies, based on different kinds of functional nanomaterials, have been proved to act as effective and promising strategies for anticancer treatment. Based on the important biological roles of cobalt, cobalt oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely developed for their attractive biomedical applications, especially their potential for anticancer treatments due to their selective inhibition of cancer cells. Thus, more and more attention has been attracted to the preparation, characterization and anticancer investigation of cobalt oxide nanoparticles in recent years, which is expected to introduce novel anticancer treatment strategies. In this review, we summarize the synthesis methods of cobalt oxide nanoparticles to discuss the advantages and restrictions for their preparation. Moreover, we emphatically discuss the anticancer functions of cobalt oxide nanoparticles as well as their underlying mechanisms to promote the development of cobalt oxide nanoparticles for anticancer treatments, which might finally benefit the current anticancer therapeutics based on functional cobalt oxide nanoparticles.

Iron nanoparticles as novel vaccine adjuvants

The poor immunogenicity of peptide vaccines compared to conventional ones re usually improved by applying different adjuvants. As chemical or biological substances, adjuvants are added to vaccines to enhance and prolong the immune response. According to considerable investigations over the recent years in the context of finding new adjuvants, a handful of vaccine adjuvants have been licensed for human use. Recently, engineered nanoparticles (NPs) have been introduced as novel alternatives to traditional vaccine adjuvant. Metallic nanoparticles (MeNPs) are among the most promising NPs used for vaccine adjuvant as well as the delivery system that can improve immune responses against pathogens. Iron NPs, as an important class of MeNPs, have gained increasing attention as novel vaccine adjuvants. These particles have shown acceptable results in preclinical studies. Hence, understanding the physicochemical properties of iron NPs, including size, surface properties, charge and route of administration, is of substantial importance. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the immunomodulatory effects of iron NPs as novel adjuvants. Furthermore, physicochemical properties of these NPs were also discussed.

Polyelectrolyte stiffness on gold nanorods mediates cell membrane damage

Charge and surface chemistry of gold nanorods (AuNRs) are often considered the predictive factors for cell membrane damage. Unfortunately, extensive research on AuNR passivated with polyelectrolyte (PE) ligand shell (AuNR-PE) has hitherto left a vital knowledge gap between the mechanical stability of the ligand shell and the cytotoxicity of AuNR-PEs. Here, the agreement between unbiased coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMD) simulation and empirical outcomes on hemolysis of red blood cells by AuNR-PEs demonstrates for the first time, a direct impact of the mechanical stability of the PE shell passivating the AuNRs on the lipid membrane rupture. Such mechanical stability is ultimately modulated by the rigidity of the PE components. The CGMD simulation results also reveal the mechanism where the PE chain adsorbs near the surface of the lipid bilayer without penetrating the hydrophobic core of the bilayer, which allows the hydrophobic AuNR core to be in direct contact with the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer, thereby perforating the lipid membrane to induce membrane damage.

Effect of the hyaluronic acid-poloxamer hydrogel on skin-wound healing: in vitro and in vivo studies

BACKGROUND

Recent research into skin injury and wound healing has focused mainly on post-trauma hemostasis, infection prevention, dermal regeneration and angiogenesis. However, less attention has been paid to air permeability and moisture loss prevention which also play important roles in injury healing.

METHODS

In the present work, we prepared a hyaluronic acid-poloxamer (HA-POL) hydrogel and tested the therapeutic effect of the hydrogel on skin-wound healing.

RESULTS

The HA-POL hydrogel transformed from sol to gel at 30°C, close to body temperature, and had stable moisturizing properties. HA-POL hydrogel promoted skin-wound healing and increased protein accumulation in the wound area. HA-POL hydrogel allowed greater air permeability than Band-aid, a typical wound covering. Results from transwell assays showed that the HA-POL hydrogel effectively isolated skin-wounds from bacterial invasion.

CONCLUSION

This work demonstrates the advantages of using HA-POL gel materials in the treatment of cutaneous wounds.

Turning cold tumors into hot tumors: harnessing the potential of tumor immunity using nanoparticles

INTRODUCTION

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have considerably changed the landscape of oncology. However apart from world-acclaimed success stories limited to melanoma and lung cancer, many solid tumors failed to respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors due to limited immunogenicity, unfavorable tumor micro-environments (TME), lack of infiltrating T lymphocytes or increases in Tregs. Areas covered: Combinatorial strategies are foreseen as the future of immunotherapy and using cytotoxics or modulating agents is expected to boost the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors. In this respect, nanoparticles displaying unique pharmacokinetic features such as tumor targeting properties, optimal payload delivery and long-lasting interferences with TME, are promising candidates for such combinations. This review covers the basis, expectancies, limits and pitfalls of future combination between nanoparticles and immune check point inhibitors. Expert opinion: Nanoparticles allow optimal delivery of variety of payloads in tumors while sparing healthy tissue, thus triggering immunogenic cell death. Depleting tumor stroma could further help immune cells and monoclonal antibodies to better circulate in the TME, plus immune-modulating properties of the charged cytotoxics. Finally, nanoparticles themselves present immunogenicity and antigenicity likely to boost immune response at the tumor level.

Potential applications of engineered nanoparticles in medicine and biology: an update

Nanotechnology advancements have led to the development of its allied fields, such as nanoparticle synthesis and their applications in the field of biomedicine. Nanotechnology driven innovations have given a hope to the patients as well as physicians in solving the complex medical problems. Nanoparticles with a size ranging from 0.2 to 100 nm are associated with an increased surface to volume ratio. Moreover, the physico-chemical and biological properties of nanoparticles can be modified depending on the applications. Different nanoparticles have been documented with a wide range of applications in various fields of medicine and biology including cancer therapy, drug delivery, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, biomolecules detection, and also as antimicrobial agents. However, the development of stable and effective nanoparticles requires a profound knowledge on both physico-chemical features of nanomaterials and their intended applications. Further, the health risks associated with the use of engineered nanoparticles needs a serious attention.

Antigen conjugated nanoparticles reprogrammed the tumor-conditioned macrophages toward pro-immunogenic type through regulation of NADPH oxidase and p38MAPK

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) are pertinent to cancer cell growth in the tumor microenvironment. Indeed, TAMs differentiate from monocytes (MΦ) due to specific growth factors present in the tumor microenvironment. TAMs show mostly an M2-like phenotype is due to the absence of pro-inflammatory signals and supply fuel to tumor growth. Several attempts have been taken to switch TAMs into a pro-immunogenic type. To address context, we used a tumor microenvironment by in vitro coculturing human blood MΦ with cancer cell conditioned media (TC-MΦ). We showed that the antigen cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) can reprogram TC-MΦ to pro-immunogenic type to build up an antitumor immune response. Our results demonstrate that NPs-Ag induced a marked activation of NADPH oxidase in TC-MΦ, likely through stimulation of ROS linked to activation of p38 MAPK. These activated p38 MAPK up-regulated the IFN-γ, TNF-α and initial IL-12 production, in turn, the activation of IFN-γ prolonged IL-12 production.

Nanoparticle Design Strategies for Effective Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is a rapidly evolving and paradigm shifting treatment modality that adds a strong tool to the collective cancer treatment arsenal. It can be effective even for late stage diagnoses and has already received clinical approval. Tumors are known to not only avoid immune surveillance but also exploit the immune system to continue local tumor growth and metastasis. Because of this, most immunotherapies, particularly those directed against solid cancers, have thus far only benefited a small minority of patients. Early clinical substantiation lends weight to the claim that cancer immunotherapies, which are adaptive and enduring treatment methods, generate much more sustained and robust anticancer effects when they are effectively formulated in nanoparticles or scaffolds than when they are administered as free drugs. Engineering cancer immunotherapies using nanomaterials is, therefore, a very promising area worthy of further consideration and investigation. This review focuses on the recent advances in cancer immunoengineering using nanoparticles for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of a diverse range of immunotherapies. The delivery of immunostimulatory agents to antitumor immune cells, such as dendritic or antigen presenting cells, may be a far more efficient tactic to eradicate tumors than delivery of conventional chemotherapeutic and cytotoxic drugs to cancer cells. In addition to its immense therapeutic potential, immunoengineering using nanoparticles also provides a valuable tool for unearthing and understanding the basics of tumor biology. Recent research using nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy has demonstrated the advantage of physicochemical manipulation in improving the delivery of immunostimulatory agents. In vivo studies have tested a range of particle sizes, mostly less than 300 nm, and particles with both positive and negative zeta potentials for various applications. Material composition and surface modifications have been shown to contribute significantly in selective targeting, efficient delivery and active stimulation of immune system targets. Thus, these investigations, including a wide array of nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy, substantiate the employment of nanocarriers for efficacious cancer immunotherapies.

Targeting Antitumor Immune Response for Enhancing the Efficacy of Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment, which can destroy local tumor cells and induce systemic antitumor immune response, whereas, focusing on improving direct cytotoxicity to tumor cells treated by PDT, there is growing interest in developing approaches to further explore the immune stimulatory properties of PDT. In this review we summarize the current knowledge of the innate and adaptive immune responses induced by PDT against tumors, providing evidence showing PDT facilitated-antitumor immunity. Various immunotherapeutic approaches on different cells are reviewed for their effectiveness in improving the treatment efficiency in concert with PDT. Future perspectives are discussed for further enhancing PDT efficiency via intracellular targetable drug delivery as well as optimized experimental model development associated with the study of antitumor immune response.