Pharmacists’ impact on older adults’ access to vaccines in the United States

Reliance on sources of immunization information and vaccine uptake among older adults in a rural state: The mediating role of trust

Older adults are more vulnerable to the negative impacts of infectious diseases than younger individuals. However, regardless of the importance and effectiveness of vaccines to reduce morbidity and mortality, issues remain with vaccine hesitancy among this population. Older adults' sources of immunization information and their level of trust in those sources may play a role in their vaccination behaviors. This research aimed to better understand the role of information sources and related issues of trust as related to vaccine uptake among older adults. A community-based, cross-sectional survey was conducted with 901 older adults in North Dakota in May-July 2022. Measures included extent of reliance on specific sources of immunization information, levels of trust, and uptake for influenza, pneumonia, shingles, and COVID-19 vaccinations. Immunization information sources were grouped into medical experts, informal, and public outlets. Results indicated older adults were more likely to rely on medical experts than informal sources or public outlets for immunization information. Greater reliance on medical experts was associated with a greater likelihood of vaccine uptake for all vaccines, while reliance on public outlets was associated with a greater likelihood of vaccine uptake only for COVID primary series and boosters. Reliance on informal sources for immunization information was associated with a reduced likelihood of vaccine uptake for all vaccines except shingles. Nearly half of respondents were uncertain who to trust for vaccine information. Uncertainty who to trust for immunization information significantly mediated the associations between reliance on medical experts and uptake for most vaccines indicating that trust in medical experts fosters vaccine uptake. Increasing reliance on medical experts as sources of immunization information is vital to increasing vaccine uptake among older adults. Additionally, this population must be assisted in increasing their ability to successfully assess the trustworthiness of immunization information sources.

The US Federal Retail Pharmacy Program: Optimizing COVID-19 Vaccine Delivery Through a Strategic Public-Private Partnership

To help achieve the initial goal of providing universal COVID-19 vaccine access to approximately 258 million adults in 62 US jurisdictions, the federal government launched the Federal Retail Pharmacy Program (FRPP) on February 11, 2021. We describe FRPP's collaboration among the federal government, US jurisdictions, federal entity partners, and 21 national chain and independent pharmacy networks to provide large-scale access to COVID-19 vaccines, particularly in communities disproportionately affected by COVID-19 (eg, people aged ≥65 years, people from racial and ethnic minority groups). FRPP initially provided 10 000 vaccination sites for people to access COVID-19 vaccines, which was increased to >35 000 vaccination sites by May 2021 and sustained through January 31, 2022. From February 11, 2021, through January 31, 2022, FRPP vaccination sites received 293 million doses and administered 219 million doses, representing 45% of all COVID-19 immunizations provided nationwide (38% of all first doses, 72% of all booster doses). This unprecedented public-private partnership allowed the federal government to rapidly adapt and scale up an equitable vaccination program to reach adults, later expanding access to vaccine-eligible children, during the COVID-19 pandemic. As the largest federal COVID-19 vaccination program, FRPP exemplifies how public-private partnerships can expand access to immunizations during a public health emergency. Pharmacies can help meet critical national public health goals by serving as convenient access points for sustained health services. Lessons learned from this effort-including the importance of strong coordination and communication, efficient reporting systems and data quality, and increasing access to and demand for vaccine, among others-may help improve future immunization programs and support health system resiliency, emphasizing community-level access and health equity during public health emergencies.

Community Pharmacists and Influenza Vaccination: Opportunities and Challenges From a Public Health Perspective

Context: In Quebec, Bill 31, adopted on March 18, 2020, extended vaccination to pharmacists. Despite many advantages, this new practice comes with public health issues reinforced in the context of COVID-19. Therefore, it is essential to understand the opportunities and challenges of the participation of community pharmacists in influenza vaccination, from a public health perspective by (i) describing the year of 2020-2021 influenza vaccination offer, (ii) its opportunities and challenges, and (iii) its impact on the accessibility of this service newly offered by pharmacists to the most vulnerable people. Methods: This research is a case study from one of the most affected areas by COVID-19 in Canada: Laval. Our method combines documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews with health professionals and public health actors (n = 23). Researchers used a thematic analysis to analyze these results. Results: Most partners (pharmacists, public health administrators) underlined multiple opportunities of this new practice, ie, pharmacists who can vaccinate, particularly for chronically ill patients. However, structural and strategical challenges remain. More specifically, vaccination seemed to only rely on a "first come, first served" basis, which questions public health objectives of vaccination, such as equitable access. Conclusion: The introduction of new actors, such as pharmacists, represents a major opportunity to improve vaccination coverage and reduce the burden of COVID-19 on the health system. However, this delegation of a public health activity to the private sector undoubtedly requires closer coordination with public health institutions.

Vaccine promotion strategies in community pharmacy addressing vulnerable populations: a scoping review

CONTEXT

Social determinants of health are drivers of vaccine inequity and lead to higher risks of complications from infectious diseases in under vaccinated communities. In many countries, pharmacists have gained the rights to prescribe and administer vaccines, which contributes to improving vaccination rates. However, little is known on how they define and target vulnerable communities.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to describe how vulnerable communities are targeted in community pharmacies.

METHODS

We performed a systematic search of the Embase and MEDLINE database in August 2021 inspired by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocols (PRISMA ScR). Articles in English, French or Spanish addressing any vaccine in a community pharmacy context and that target a population defined as vulnerable were screened for inclusion.

RESULTS

A total of 1039 articles were identified through the initial search, and 63 articles met the inclusion criteria. Most of the literature originated from North America (n = 54, 86%) and addressed influenza (n = 29, 46%), pneumococcal (n = 14, 22%), herpes zoster (n = 14, 22%) or human papilloma virus vaccination (n = 14, 22%). Lifecycle vulnerabilities (n = 48, 76%) such as age and pregnancy were most often used to target vulnerable patients followed by clinical factors (n = 18, 29%), socio-economical determinants (n = 16, 25%) and geographical vulnerabilities (n = 7, 11%). The most frequently listed strategy was providing a strong recommendation for vaccination, promotional posters in pharmacy, distributing leaflet/bag stuffers and providing staff training. A total of 24 barriers and 25 facilitators were identified. The main barriers associated to each vulnerable category were associated to effective promotional strategies to overcome them.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacists prioritize lifecycle and clinical vulnerability at the expense of narrowing down the definition of vulnerability. Some vulnerable groups are also under targeted in pharmacies. A wide variety of promotional strategies are available to pharmacies to overcome the specific barriers experienced by various groups.

Addressing racial inequality and its effects on vaccination rate: A trial comparing a pharmacist and peer educational program (MOTIVATE) in diverse older adults

BACKGROUND: The mortality, morbidity, health care utilization, and cost attributable to vaccine-preventable diseases are substantial for those aged 50 years and older. Although vaccination is the most cost-effective strategy to prevent common infectious diseases in older adults, vaccination rates remain below US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention benchmarks, especially among racial minorities. Historical mistrust, structural racism within the US medical system, and misinformation contributed to lower immunization rates among minorities, especially Black Americans. To address the critical need to increase knowledge and trust in vaccination, 2 community-based educational interventions were tested: a pharmacist-led didactic session (PHARM) and a peer-led educational workshop (PEER). OBJECTIVE: To determine and compare the effectiveness and costs of PEER and PHARM community-based education models in improving knowledge and trust in vaccinations. METHODS: The Motivating Older adults to Trust Information about Vaccines And Their Effects (MOTIVATE) study was a cluster-randomized trial conducted in the greater Delaware Valley Region sites from 2017 to 2020. The included sites (7 senior centers, 3 housing units, 1 church, and 1 neighborhood family center) predominantly served Black communities. Participants were randomized to either PHARM or PEER sessions covering influenza, pneumococcal disease, herpes zoster, and beliefs related to vaccines. Peer leaders facilitated smaller workshops (5-10 participants), whereas pharmacists conducted larger didactic lectures with 15-43 participants. Outcomes were captured through a self-administered survey at baseline, postprogram, and 1 month after the program. Intervention costs were measured in 2017 US dollars. RESULTS: 287 participants were included. Their mean age was 74.5 years (SD = 8.94), 80.5% were women, 64.2% were Black, and 48.1% completed some college. Knowledge scores within groups for all 3 diseases significantly increased postprogram for both PEER and PHARM and were sustained at 1 month. Between-group knowledge differences were significant only for influenza (PEER participants had significantly larger improvement vs PHARM). Vaccination trust significantly increased in both groups. Total program costs were $11,411 for PEER and $5,104 for PHARM. CONCLUSIONS: Both interventions significantly improved knowledge and trust toward vaccination and retained their effect 1 month after the program. The 2 effective community-based education models should be expanded to ensure timely and trusted information is available to educate older adults about vaccine-preventable diseases. Further research is encouraged to assess the long-term cost-effectiveness of these models' utilization on a larger scale. DISCLOSURES: Dr Schafer is an employee of Merck; however, at the time of the project, he was a professor at Thomas Jefferson University. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. This study was supported in part by a research grant from the Investigator-Initiated Studies Program of Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. The opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. The sponsor played no role in the design and conduct of the study; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the preparation, review, or approval of the article. Study Registration Number: NCT03239665.

Knowledge of Community Pharmacists in Saudi Arabia Regarding Human Monkeypox, Its Management, Prevention, and Vaccination: Findings and Implications

Many cases of monkeypox have recently been reported in countries where this disease is not endemic, raising a global health concern. Consequently, healthcare professionals (HCPs), including pharmacists, need to be aware of the disease, its prevention, including the role of vaccines, and its management to reduce transmission. A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted among conveniently sampled community pharmacists in the Qassim region of Saudi Arabia. A total of 189 community pharmacists participated in the study, giving a response rate of 72.97%. From these, 86.77% were male, 51.32% were ≤30 years old, 36.51% were aged between 31-40 years, and 43.39% had 1-5 years of experience as community pharmacists. Their overall knowledge was 17.72 ± 5.56 out of a maximum of 28. The overall rate of correct answers for the knowledge statements was 63.29%, with 52.4% answering ≥50-<75% of the knowledge questions correctly and 31.2% answering ≥75% of the questions correctly. The knowledge subdomain related to diagnosis and clinical characteristics recorded the highest score, with the subdomain relating to causative pathogens and epidemiology recording a lower score. Overall, community pharmacists had moderate knowledge of monkeypox and its clinical management, prevention, and the role of vaccines, which is a concern for the future. Consequently, tailored, flexible, and timely educational interventions are needed to ensure that HCPs, including community pharmacists, are fully equipped with the latest evidence-based knowledge regarding this viral disease to reduce transmission and improve care.

A survey of Alberta pharmacists' actions and opinions in regard to administering vaccines and medications by injection

BACKGROUND

Pharmacists in Alberta have been authorized to administer vaccines and other medications by injection for more than 10 years; however, little is known about the provision of this service and their opinions regarding this service. Understanding pharmacists' experiences regarding injection services would inform development of strategies to improve provision of injection services.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the actions related to administering an injection, including identification of commonly administered medications, and to identify perceived barriers and facilitators pharmacists face when providing injection services.

METHODS

An online survey was developed and loaded into REDCap, and e-mail invitations were sent to 5714 pharmacists registered with the Alberta College of Pharmacy in October 2020. Responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Pharmacists who administered at least one injection in the previous year were considered active providers, and their opinions regarding injection services were compared with nonactive providers.

RESULTS

A total of 397 pharmacists responded to our survey, mean age was 42 years, 66% were female, 82% were community pharmacists, and 90% were active providers. The most common injection, administered by 98% of active providers, was influenza vaccine, followed by vitamin B12 (95%), herpes zoster vaccine (88%), hepatitis vaccines (86%), and pneumococcal vaccines (82%). Nonactive providers were more likely than active providers to report that comfort with administering injections (P < 0.001) and managing adverse reactions (P = 0.013) were moderate or major barriers to providing injections. More than 60% of pharmacists indicated that access and automated reporting to the provincial immunization registry would be essential to increasing the frequency of providing injection services.

CONCLUSION

We identified that Alberta pharmacists administer a wide variety of vaccines and other medications by injection. Respondents identified several barriers and facilitators to providing these services. Addressing these barriers may help improve provision of injection services by pharmacists.

Pharmacy Students’ Attitudes and Perceptions toward Financial Management Education

(1) Background: Pharmacy-related financial management training and education are an integral part of the pharmacy curriculum. This study aims to evaluate pharmacy students’ perceptions toward financial management education, their attitudes on its clinical relevance, and their ability to use financial management knowledge in introductory and advanced pharmacy practice experiences. (2) Methods: An online survey was sent to third- and fourth-year pharmacy students. The survey assessed the following three themes: perceptions toward financial management education; attitudes toward the clinical relevance of financial management education; and the student’s ability to use knowledge of financial management in practice. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. (3) Results: The overall response rate for the survey was 60% (139/233). Overall, the study showed a positive perception and attitude toward financial management education. Results indicate that pharmacy students were confident in their ability to use financial management knowledge in pharmacy practice. (4) Conclusions: This survey found an overall optimism in financial management education’s role in pharmacy practice and the ability to obtain financial management competencies in professional pharmacy training. With the evolving practice requirements, pharmacy schools should adapt their financial management curricula with relevant skills to prepare students to become effective entrepreneurs, innovators, and practice leaders.

Assessment of Satisfaction with Pharmacist-Administered COVID-19 Vaccinations in France: PharmaCoVax

Background: COVID-19 vaccines are among the most effective measures to reduce serious illness and death from infection with the highly contagious SARS-CoV-2 virus. To improve vaccine accessibility, pharmacists in France have been authorized to administer COVID-19 vaccinations since March 2021. This study aims to assess satisfaction among French people receiving their COVID-19 vaccination from a community pharmacist. Methodology: The PharmaCoVax study was conducted in French community pharmacies from 16 March to 30 June 2021. Interested pharmacists completed an online participation form, giving them access to the self-administered questionnaire. People receiving a pharmacist-administered COVID-19 vaccination completed this questionnaire in the pharmacy. Results: Among the 442 pharmacists involved, 123 actively participated in the study. Overall, 5733 completed questionnaires were analyzed. A proportion of 59% (n = 3388) of those who received a pharmacist-administered COVID-19 vaccination had previously received their influenza vaccination, most often in the same pharmacy (n = 1744). Only 24% (n = 1370) of people visiting a pharmacy had tried to obtain their COVID-19 vaccination elsewhere. Satisfaction was excellent with a rating of 4.92 out of 5.00, and the net promoter score was 93. Conclusions: The pharmacist-administered COVID-19 vaccination service was overwhelmingly appreciated by users. The trust placed in pharmacists may explain the desire to have them perform additional vaccinations.

COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among adults in four major US metropolitan areas and nationwide

This study assesses attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination and the predictive value of COVID-VAC, a novel scale, among adults in the four largest US metropolitan areas and nationally. A 36-item survey of 6037 Americans was conducted in mid-April 2021. The study reports factors for COVID-19 vaccine acceptance among: (1) already vaccinated; (2) unvaccinated but willing to accept a vaccine; and (3) unvaccinated and unwilling to vaccinate. More than 20% were unwilling to vaccinate, expressing concerns about vaccine efficacy and safety and questioning the disease's severity. Poverty, working outside of the home and conservative political views are predictors of unwillingness. Conversely, those who either personally tested positive for COVID-19, or had a family member who did so, were more likely to accept vaccination. Majorities of all respondents supported vaccination mandates for employees and university students. Respondents preferred to receive vaccines in their doctor´s office. Lower income and conservative ideology, but not race, were strongly associated with vaccine unwillingness. The predictive value of COVID-VAC was demonstrated. While vaccination mandates are likely to be accepted, additional effective, targeted interventions to increase vaccine uptake are needed urgently.

Impact of a peer comparison intervention on seasonal influenza vaccine uptake in community pharmacy: A national cluster randomized study

BACKGROUND

Seasonal influenza vaccine (SIV) uptake in the United States remains suboptimal, requiring new and innovative strategies.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of a behavioral peer comparison (PC) intervention on SIV uptake in community pharmacies across the United States.

METHODS

A cluster randomized study was conducted across a national network of Walmart community pharmacies (> 4500 sites) during the 2019-2020 influenza season. The clusters consisted of 416 markets, each containing an average of 11 pharmacies. All pharmacies in a market were randomly assigned to either no intervention or the PC intervention, a software-delivered communication informing on-site staff, including pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, of their pharmacy's weekly performance, measured as SIV doses administered, compared with that of peer pharmacies within their market. The outcome was the pharmacy-level cumulative SIV doses administered during the intervention period (September 1, 2019,-February 29, 2020). Linear regression models were used to estimate the PC impact, with multiway cluster-robust SEs estimated by market and state.

RESULTS

A total of 4589 pharmacies were enrolled in the study, with 2297 (50.1%) randomized to the control group and 2292 (49.9%) randomized to the PC intervention group. Overall, compared with the control pharmacies, the PC pharmacies administered 3.7% (95% CI -0.3% to 7.9%) additional SIV doses. Among large-format pharmacies, the PC pharmacies administered 4.1% (95% CI 0.1%-8.3%) additional SIV doses compared with the controls. Historically low-performing large-format PC pharmacies administered 6.1% (95% CI 0.5%-11.9%) additional SIV doses compared with the controls. No statistically significant treatment effects were observed among small-format pharmacies.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that PCs can improve SIV uptake among large-format community pharmacies, with historically low-performing pharmacies potentially exhibiting the greatest relative impact. Wide-scale implementation of PCs in community pharmacies may help to further improve SIV uptake in these settings.

Who receives influenza vaccinations at the Pharmacy? An analysis of the Texas Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System

INTRODUCTION

Vaccination helps to prevent influenza infection and reduce associated costs but the influenza vaccination rate in Texas for adults between the ages of 18 to 64 years old is the lowest in the US. Pharmacies and alternative locations have been shown to help increase vaccination rates but many adults still go unvaccinated.

OBJECTIVE

This research aims to determine the factors associated with obtaining influenza vaccination at the pharmacy compared to non-pharmacy locations in Texas.

METHOD

This study used pooled Texas Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System datasets (2014 to 2018) for this assessment. The main outcome variable was categorized into pharmacy and non-pharmacy vaccination locations and analyzed using a logistic regression analysis. Further statistical analysis was done using a multinomial logistic regression after re-categorizing the outcome variable into pharmacy, doctor office, and other locations.

RESULT

Blacks were 63% (AOR 0.37, C.I. 0.26, 0.50) and Hispanics were 38% (AOR 0.62, C.I. 0.48, 0.80) less likely to receive influenza vaccinations at the pharmacy respectively when compared to Whites. Furthermore, those who did not live in a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) were 33% (AOR 0.67, C.I 0.53, 0.84) less likely to receive influenza vaccinations at the pharmacy compared to those who lived in an MSA. While there was no observed difference in the likelihood of receiving influenza vaccination, the unemployed population were 40% (AOR 1.40, C.I 1.15, 1.71) more likely to be vaccinated in the pharmacy compared to the employed population.

CONCLUSION

There is potential for increased utilization of pharmacies as a source of influenza vaccination in Texas. Racial differences exist both for receiving influenza vaccinations and being vaccinated in the pharmacy. Influenza vaccination advocacy and education efforts may be necessary to improve pharmacy-based vaccination in Texas, especially for minorities and rural-dwelling Texans.

Pneumococcal vaccination coverage among adults aged 19 to 64 years with immuno-compromising conditions, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks, or cochlear implants in the US

Background: Adults with immuno-compromising conditions, CSF leaks, or cochlear implants are at increased risk for pneumococcal disease (high-risk patients), yet pneumococcal vaccination rates in the US for this group are low.Methods: A retrospective cohort analysis was conducted from 2010 to 2018 using the Truven Health MarketScan database to estimate pneumococcal vaccination coverage among adults aged 19 to 64 years newly diagnosed with high-risk conditions, and to assess factors associated with receiving the recommended pneumococcal vaccines.Results: The study sample included 2,497,799 adults aged 19 to 64 years old with newly diagnosed high-risk conditions. Most of the study cohort had seven or more annual physician office (52%) and pharmacy (56%) visits. The proportion of high-risk adults who received at least one pneumococcal vaccination increased from 5.4% after 1 year of follow-up to 14.2% after 6 years of follow-up. Compared to those who received no pneumococcal vaccination, high-risk adults who received any pneumococcal vaccination were more likely to be older, female, enrolled in an HMO, had more healthcare encounters, and were treated by a primary care provider.Conclusion: Despite numerous healthcare encounters annually, very few high-risk adults received pneumococcal vaccines, highlighting the need for implementing targeted interventions to increase vaccine uptake in this vulnerable population.

Achieving Influenza Vaccine Uptake Target in Canada via a Pharmacy-Led Telephone Discussion during the 2019-2020 Season

Older adults (≥65 years) are at elevated risk of influenza-related morbidity and mortality. Many developed countries do not achieve the World Health Organization influenza immunization target of 75% in people ≥65 years. We aimed to determine whether a brief pharmacy phone call could increase vaccine uptake of standard and enhanced influenza. Twenty-eight community pharmacists across Canada performed a telephone consultation with 643 older adults whose primary care records indicated that they had not received their influenza vaccination from their usual practitioner. Of these 643 adults, 169 (26.3%) had been vaccinated in another setting. Of the remaining 474, 313 (66%) agreed to receive the vaccine. Of those who refused vaccination, 69 provided a rationale for not wanting it, including that the flu shot "causes the flu" (n = 25), "doesn't work" (n = 25), "is too painful" (n = 10), and other (n = 10). Overall, of the 643 individuals who had not received their vaccination from their usual health care provider in the first wave of vaccinations, 75.4% (n = 485) ultimately received their vaccination in the 2019-2020 season. This highlights the important role of the community pharmacist in achieving the World Health Organization (WHO) targets for vaccination.

Readiness and Willingness to Provide Immunization Services after Pilot Vaccination Training: A Survey among Community Pharmacists Trained and Not Trained in Immunization during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland

Background: Immunization rates among the adult population in Poland are below desired targets, urging the need to expand this service in the community. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the ultimate goals for limiting the spread of the infection are vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Pharmaceutical companies are in a race for the fastest possible way to deliver vaccines. Community pharmacists in Poland are recognised as an accessible yet underutilised group of medical professionals. Therefore, involving pharmacists in vaccinations may have beneficial results for the healthcare system. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to assess the readiness and willingness of community pharmacists following the Pharmacist Without Borders project who had either been trained or not in providing immunization services, and to identify the factors that may support the implementation of such services in Poland. Methods: This study was conducted among pharmacists between February and August 2020 in Poland. A survey was developed to determine their readiness to provide vaccination services in their pharmacies, to recognise any barriers to vaccinations, as well as the factors necessary to implement vaccination services in Polish pharmacies. Results: A total of 1777 pharmacists participated in the study, comprising 127 (7.1%) pharmacists trained in vaccinations during the Pharmacists Without Borders project and 1650 (92.9%) pharmacists not participating in the workshops. Pharmacists participating in the workshops more often indicated that providing vaccinations in community pharmacies would improve the overall vaccination rate (p = 0.0001), and that pharmacists could play an important role in advertising and promoting vaccinations (p = 0.0001). For the pharmacists not participating in the workshops, they indicated to a much greater extent possible barriers affecting the readiness to provide vaccinations in pharmacies. They most often pointed out that vaccination services would result in a significant workload increase (p = 0.0001), that pharmacies were not adapted to immunization, and that there were not enough training courses for pharmacists (p = 0.0001). Conclusion: The pharmacists working in community pharmacies indicated many advantages of vaccinations in pharmacies. This study identified barriers to the introduction of vaccinations and factors necessary to implement these services in pharmacies. The pharmacists trained during the immunization programme of the Pharmacists Without Borders project showed a greater readiness to provide immunization services.

Social Determinants of Pharmacy Deserts in Los Angeles County

As medications are commonly used to prevent and mitigate chronic diseases and their associated complications and outcomes, limited geographic access to medications in communities that are already plagued with health inequity is a growing concern. This is especially important because low-income urban minority communities often have high prevalence and incidence of cardiometabolic and respiratory chronic conditions. Community pharmacy deserts have been established in Chicago, New York, and other locales. In part because the definition was originally adapted from the concept of food deserts, existing studies have either utilized the distance of 1 mile or greater to the nearest community pharmacy solely, or used distance along with the same predefined social indicator thresholds that define food deserts (i.e., income and vehicle ownership), to define and identify areas as pharmacy deserts. No full analysis has been conducted of the social determinants that define and characterize medication shortage areas within a given locale, even though medication and food are usually accessed independently. Therefore, to address this gap in the literature, this study was designed to identify all potential “pharmacy deserts” in Los Angeles County based on distance alone and then characterize them by their social determinants of health (SDOH) indicators. Geographic pharmacy deserts were identified as census tracts where the nearest community pharmacy was 1 mile or more away from a tract centroid. K-means clustering was applied to group pharmacy deserts based on their composition of social determinants of health indicators. Twenty-five percent (571/2323) of LA County census tracts were pharmacy deserts and 75% (1752/2323) were pharmacy non-deserts. Within the desert areas, two statistically distinct groups of pharmacy deserts (type one and type two) emerged from the analysis. In comparison to type two pharmacy deserts, type one pharmacy deserts were characterized by a denser population, had more renters, more residents that speak English as a second language, less vehicle ownership, more residents living under the federal poverty level, more Black and Hispanic residents, more areas with higher crime against property and people, and less health professionals to serve the area. Residing in type one desert areas, potentially compounds the geographic shortage of pharmacies and pharmacy services. As such, residents in Los Angeles County pharmacy deserts might benefit greatly from equitable, innovative, community-based interventions that increase access to medications, pharmacy services, and pharmacists.

Protecting the Herd: Why Pharmacists Matter in Mass Vaccination

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic is ongoing. The unprecedented challenges worldwide implore the urgent development of a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine. Globally, pharmacists have been delivering important public health services as part of the COVID-19 response. It remains to be seen what role they will play once a vaccine is available. This review examines herd immunity and the potential role of the pharmacy profession in mass vaccination against COVID-19, particularly within the Australian context.

AIM

A literature review was conducted to review the global development of COVID-19 vaccines, and the Australian healthcare workforce capability and existing policy for mass vaccination and the potential role of the pharmacist.

METHOD

ScienceDirect, Scopus, The National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), Wiley Online Library, PubMed, and Google Scholar were used to search for relevant literature using keywords COVID-19, vaccines, immunisation, herd immunity, pandemic, pharmacist and Australian healthcare.

RESULTS

A large portion of the literature was journal articles, and information from governmental and international bodies such as the World Health Organisation were often referenced. Over 20 million Australians need to be immunised through vaccination or acquire immunity through natural infection for the country to achieve herd immunity for COVID-19. When examining state and territory pandemic plans, pharmacists are underutilised. Modifying legislation to allow pharmacists to administer approved COVID-19 vaccines will enable a trained and skilled workforce to be deployed to increase the rate of mass vaccination.

CONCLUSION

In preparation for a successful COVID-19 vaccine, the Australian Government must consider various elements in their vaccination policy. This includes the estimated herd immunity threshold, methods of vaccine delivery, vaccine clinic locations, staffing arrangements and training, and strategies for vaccine prioritisation. Pharmacists can and should play a key role in the roll out of mass COVID-19 vaccination.