Neospora caninum antibodies in wild carnivores from Spain

Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Role of Felids as Intermediate Hosts in the Life Cycle of Neospora caninum Based on Serological Data

PURPOSE

Neosporosis is an important widespread parasitic infection caused by N. caninum. It infects a wide range of warm-blooded animals as intermediate hosts and dogs as the definitive host. Nevertheless, there are a number of questions regarding the life cycle and epidemiological aspects of N. caninum. Also, the role of felids (domestic and non-domestic) in the life cycle of N. caninum has been little described. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the global prevalence of N. caninum in domestic and wild felids.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect databases were searched for articles published on the prevalence of N. caninum in felids until Aprill 2, 2022 and the reference lists of retrieved articles were screened. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval. Heterogeneity among studies was evaluated using Cochran's Q and the I² statistic.

RESULTS

After exclusion of irrelevant articles and duplication removal, 30 studies were eligible for quantitative analysis including 20 studies on domestic cats and 10 studies on wild felids. The overall prevalence of neosporosis infection in cats was 15% (95% CI 10-21%) that was significantly higher in wild felids (26%, 95% CI 13-38%) than in domestic cats (11%, 95% CI 6-16%) (P = 0.03). There was no significant difference in pooled prevalence between male and female domestic cats (P = 0.75). Regarding continent, the lowest prevalence of neosporosis infection was in Asia (9%, 95% CI 1-20%) and the highest was in North America (43.6%, 95% CI 33.9-53.2%) and Africa (18%, 95% CI 9-46%). Higher prevalence was obtained when using the NAT with 22% (95% CI 7-37%), compared to the IFAT (17%, 95% CI 9-24%) and ELISA (6%, 95% CI 2-9%) (P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The findings highlighted the importance of felids as potential intermediate hosts of neosporosis despite the fact that the source of the parasite for these animals was unknown. Further studies should be performed to investigate the role of this top predator (felids) in maintaining both domestic and sylvatic cycles of Neospora caninum.

Patterns of Exposure and Infection with Microparasites in Iberian Wild Carnivores: A Review and Meta-Analysis

We use a suite of meta-analytic and comparative methods to derive fundamental insights into how sampling effort, pathogen richness, infection prevalence, and seroprevalence vary across Carnivora taxa and Iberian geography. The red fox was the most studied species, the wolf and Iberian lynx were disproportionally studied, and the Arctoidea were understudied. Sampling effort was higher in Mediterranean areas, but central Spain showed the higher pathogen richness. Excluding studies analyzing fecal samples, 53 different pathogens have been detected in Iberian carnivores, including 16 viruses, 27 bacteria, and 10 protozoa but no fungi. Sampling effort and pathogen diversity were generally more similar among closely related carnivore species. Seropositivity to viruses was lower and higher in the Mustelinae and the Canidae, respectively, and seropositivity to protozoa was higher in both taxa. Canine distemper virus exposure was greatest in canids and mustelids. Carnivore protoparvovirus-1 exposure was greatest in the Atlantic regions, and the Felidae and the Musteloidea had lower infection prevalence. A subclade of the Mustelidae had a greater prevalence of Leishmania infection. We observed no relationships between host phylogenetic distance and pathogen sharing among species. Lastly, we identify important research pitfalls and future directions to improve the study of infectious disease in Iberian wild carnivore communities.

Species-specific differences in Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Besnoitia besnoiti seroprevalence in Namibian wildlife

Background

Knowledge about parasitic infections is crucial information for animal health, particularly of free-ranging species that might come into contact with livestock and humans.

Methods

We investigated the seroprevalence of three tissue-cyst-forming apicomplexan parasites (Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Besnoitia besnoiti) in 506 individuals of 12 wildlife species in Namibia using in-house enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (indirect ELISAs applying purified antigens) for screening and immunoblots as confirmatory tests. We included six species of the suborder Feliformia, four species of the suborder Caniformia and two species of the suborder Ruminantia. For the two species for which we had most samples and life-history information, i.e. cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus, n = 250) and leopards (Panthera pardus, n = 58), we investigated T. gondii seroprevalence in relation to age class, sex, sociality (solitary, mother-offspring group, independent sibling group, coalition group) and site (natural habitat vs farmland).

Results

All but one carnivore species (bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis, n = 4) were seropositive to T. gondii, with a seroprevalence ranging from 52.4% (131/250) in cheetahs to 93.2% (55/59) in African lions (Panthera leo). We also detected antibodies to T. gondii in 10.0% (2/20) of blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Adult cheetahs and leopards were more likely to be seropositive to T. gondii than subadult conspecifics, whereas seroprevalence did not vary with sex, sociality and site. Furthermore, we measured antibodies to N. caninum in 15.4% (2/13) of brown hyenas (Hyaena brunnea) and 2.6% (1/39) of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas). Antibodies to B. besnoiti were detected in 3.4% (2/59) of African lions and 20.0% (4/20) of blue wildebeest.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that Namibian wildlife species were exposed to apicomplexan parasites at different prevalences, depending on parasite and host species. In addition to serological work, molecular work is also needed to better understand the sylvatic cycle and the clear role of wildlife in the epidemiology of these parasites in southern Africa.

Risk of environmental exposure to small coccidia from wild canid feces in rural Ohio

OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of environmental exposure to heteroxenous coccidia from wild canid feces in southeastern Ohio. SAMPLE 285 presumed wild canid fecal samples collected across an ecological system in southeastern Ohio. PROCEDURES Morphological classification and molecular analysis were used to determine the canid genus for collected fecal samples. Microscopic and molecular analysis were used to detect coccidian oocysts and DNA. Several variables were analyzed for associations with coccidian DNA detection or prevalence. RESULTS Coccidian DNA was detected in 51 of 285 (17.9%) fecal samples. Of those positive samples, 1% (95% confidence interval, 0.4% to 3%) had positive results for Hammondia heydorni and none had positive results for Neospora caninum, for an estimated environmental N caninum prevalence of 0% (95% confidence interval, 0% to 7%)/1-km² hexagonal area evaluated. Morphological classification revealed that 78.9% (225/285) of fecal samples were from coyotes and 17.2% (49/285) were from foxes. No difference in proportions of coccidian DNA-positive fecal samples was identified among canid species. Environmental temperature and fecal freshness were associated with coccidian DNA detection. Land use type, relative canid density, and cattle density were not associated with the prevalence of coccidian DNA-positive samples. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The low prevalence of coccidia shed in wild canid feces in this study, including the estimated 0% environmental prevalence of N caninum, suggested that the role of the oocyst environmental phase in coccidia transmission to ruminants is likely minor in rural southeastern Ohio.

A comprehensive review on past, present and future aspects of canine theileriosis

Canine theileriosis is a notorious tick borne piroplasmid infection of wild and domestic canines. The causative agent has not yet been accurately classified. PCR studies revealed that causative agent resembles to Theileria genus and thus provisionally named as Theileria annae. The other Theileria species reported in canines is Theileria annulata, Theileria equi and unnamed Theileria specie. This emergent canine infection is considered to be endemic in most of the European countries. However in Asia this disease has not been reported till date. The vectors responsible for transmission of this disease have not been determined. It has been suggested that DNA of Theileria annae has been detected in hard tick Ixodes hexagonus in Northwestern Spain and several other tick species. Clinically canine theileriosis is characterized by severe weakness, fever, hemoglobinuria and anemia. Recently atovaquone or buparvaquone plus azithromycin therapy showed better clinical efficacy. This comprehensive review is intended to summarize the current knowledge on prevalence and epidemiology of canine theileriosis in different countries of the world and associated tick vectors.

High diversity of hemotropic mycoplasmas in Iberian wild carnivores

Two-hundred and thirty-one wild carnivores belonging to 10 species of in Spain were analyzed for the presence of DNA of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) by means of a universal real-time PCR targeting a 16S rRNA gene fragment. Positive reactions were found for wolf (Canis lupus: 6/37), fox (Vulpes vulpes: 1/41), Eurasian badger (Meles meles: 49/85), pine marten (Martes martes: 11/23), stone marten (Martes foina: 6/9), least weasel (Mustela nivalis: 4/4), European wildcat (Felis s. silvestris: 1/2) and common genet (Genetta genetta: 7/27). Sixty-four readable sequences were obtained, resulting in 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST). The highest diversity was detected in badger (6 ntST) and pine marten (5 ntST). The sequencing of a fragment of the RNase P gene showed that all positive reactions in wolves corresponded to Mycoplasma haemocanis. Three ntST showed an identity between 98-100% with Candidatus M. haemominutum, C. M. turicensis and C. M. haematoparvum, respectively. Four ntST were closely related to C. M. haemomeles and/or diverse genotypes reported from raccoons (Procyon lotor) in the USA. One ntST from a badger showed only 88% similarity to the closest published sequence and was phylogenetically unrelated to any other hemoplasma sequence reported. Three ntST were 99-100% similar to two different sequences reported in Spanish bats. This study confirms the widespread nature and the high genetic diversity of hemoplasma infection in carnivores. Wild carnivores might be natural hosts of some hemoplasmas infecting dogs and cats.

Carnivore carcasses are avoided by carnivores

Ecologists have traditionally focused on herbivore carcasses as study models in scavenging research. However, some observations of scavengers avoiding feeding on carnivore carrion suggest that different types of carrion may lead to differential pressures. Untested assumptions about carrion produced at different trophic levels could therefore lead ecologists to overlook important evolutionary processes and their ecological consequences. Our general goal was to investigate the use of mammalian carnivore carrion by vertebrate scavengers. In particular, we aimed to test the hypothesis that carnivore carcasses are avoided by other carnivores, especially at the intraspecific level, most likely to reduce exposure to parasitism. We take a three-pronged approach to study this principle by: (i) providing data from field experiments, (ii) carrying out evolutionary simulations of carnivore scavenging strategies under risks of parasitic infection, and (iii) conducting a literature-review to test two predictions regarding parasite life-history strategies. First, our field experiments showed that the mean number of species observed feeding at carcasses and the percentage of consumed carrion biomass were substantially higher at herbivore carcasses than at carnivore carcasses. This occurred even though the number of scavenger species visiting carcasses and the time needed by scavengers to detect carcasses were similar between both types of carcasses. In addition, we did not observe cannibalism. Second, our evolutionary simulations demonstrated that a risk of parasite transmission leads to the evolution of scavengers with generally low cannibalistic tendencies, and that the emergence of cannibalism-avoidance behaviour depends strongly on assumptions about parasite-based mortality rates. Third, our literature review indicated that parasite species potentially able to follow a carnivore-carnivore indirect cycle, as well as those transmitted via meat consumption, are rare in our study system. Our findings support the existence of a novel coevolutionary relation between carnivores and their parasites, and suggest that carnivore and herbivore carcasses play very different roles in food webs and ecosystems.

Serological study of Neospora caninum in dogs and wildlife in a nature conservation area in southern Portugal

A serological survey was performed to evaluate the presence of specific antibodies againstNeospora caninumin dogs and native animals in a wildlife conservation area in southern Portugal. The study involved 463 animals, including dogs (n = 286), European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus;n = 32), Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon;n = 34), wild boars (Sus scrofa;n = 26), foxes (Vulpes vulpes,n = 25), common genets (Genetta genetta;n = 17), red deer (Cervus elaphus;n = 14), wildcats (Felis silvestris;n = 6), four mustelid species (n = 17) and rodents (n = 6). Samples from dogs were analysed by Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT). Samples from wild animals were screened by the modified agglutination test and positive and doubtful results were confirmed by IFAT. The seroprevalence ofN. caninumin dogs was 32·5% [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 27·3–38·1]. Among wild animals, exposure toN. caninumwas confirmed only in foxes (12%, 95% CI 4·2–30) and rabbits (25%, 95% CI 13·3–42·1). This is the first evidence of natural exposure toN. caninumin foxes and rabbits in Portugal, and our results suggest that rabbits may play a role as reservoirs of infection to dogs, foxes and other wildlife carnivores. The relevance of this finding in the sylvatic cycle ofN. caninumneeds further studies, since infection may affect wildlife species and cattle grazing in the same areas.

A review of neosporosis and pathologic findings of Neospora caninum infection in wildlife

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan parasite that is the etiologic agent of neosporosis, a devastating infectious disease regarded as a major cause of reproductive loss in cattle and neuromuscular disease in dogs worldwide. This protozoan pathogen is maintained in the environment by a heteroxenous life cycle that involves a definitive canid host and a wide range of intermediate hosts. In recent years, a number of wildlife species have been investigated for their possible involvement in the N. caninum life cycle and many have been implicated as intermediate hosts. However, in many instances these studies have utilized serological and molecular techniques to detect infection in clinically normal animals, and investigation of possible associated morbidity, mortality, and pathology has been neglected. As such, the occurrence and importance of Neospora-associated disease in wildlife species are unknown. In order to improve our understanding of the significance of N. caninum infection in nondomestic species, the present review provides an up-to-date summary of clinical neosporosis and N. caninum-associated pathologic lesions in naturally and experimentally infected wildlife species. We provide a list of all free-ranging and captive wildlife species identified with N. caninum infection to date using currently available diagnostic tools. The advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic methods in wildlife are addressed in order to recommend optimal diagnosis of confirming N. caninum infection and neosporosis in nondomestic species. Although current data would suggest that N. caninum infection does not adversely impact wildlife populations, there is a need for greater international uniformity in the diagnosis of N. caninum infection and neosporosis in nondomestic species in order to assess the true consequences of parasite infection.

Isolation and phylogenetic characterization of Streptococcus halichoeri from a European badger (Meles meles) with pyogranulomatous pleuropneumonia

Clinical and pathological studies in European badgers (Meles meles) are limited. Badgers play a significant role in the epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis (TB) in some countries and an accurate diagnosis is needed for this infection. However, the lesions of bovine TB are similar to those associated with other pathogens, making pathological diagnosis difficult. In the present study, Streptococcus halichoeri was isolated from a European badger with pyogranulomatous pleuropneumonia and suspected of having tuberculosis. TB and other pathogens able to induce similar lesions were ruled out. Comparative 16S rRNA and rpoB gene sequencing studies showed an identity of 99.51% and 98.28%, respectively, with S. halichoeri. This report represents the third description of this bacterium and the first in an animal species other than the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus). It also shows that S. halichoeri can be associated with a pathological process characterized by granulomatous inflammation and resembling tuberculosis.

A molecular survey of vector-borne pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Bosnia and Herzegovina

BACKGROUND

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have recently been recognized as potential reservoirs of several vector-borne pathogens and a source of infection for domestic dogs and humans, mostly due to their close vicinity to urban areas and frequent exposure to different arthropod vectors. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and distribution of Babesia spp., Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., 'Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis', Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia spp. and blood filaroid nematodes in free-ranging red foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

METHODS

Spleen samples from a total of 119 red foxes, shot during the hunting season between October 2013 and April 2014 throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, were examined for the presence of blood vector-borne pathogens by conventional PCRs and sequencing.

RESULTS

In the present study, three species of apicomplexan parasites were molecularly identified in 73 red foxes from the entire sample area, with an overall prevalence of 60.8%. The DNA of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis was found in 1 (0.8%), 38 (31.9%) and 46 (38.6%) spleen samples, respectively. In 11 samples (9.2%) co-infections with B. cf. microti and H. canis were detected and one fox harboured all three parasites (0.8%). There were no statistically significant differences between geographical region, sex or age of the host in the infection prevalence of B. cf. microti, although females (52.9%; 18/34) were significantly more infected with H. canis than males (32.9%; 28/85). The presence of vector-borne bacteria and filaroid nematodes was not detected in our study.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis parasites in foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the data presented here provide a first insight into the distribution of these pathogens among the red fox population. Moreover, the relatively high prevalence of B. cf. microti and H. canis reinforces the assumption that this wild canid species might be a possible reservoir and source of infection for domestic dogs.

Isolation and RFLP genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii from the mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in Grenada, West Indies

Little is known of the genetic diversity and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in wildlife in Caribbean Islands. The prevalence and genetic diversity of T. gondii in mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) was investigated. During 2011 and 2012, 91 mongooses were trapped in different parts of Grenada, bled, euthanized, and examined at necropsy. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 27 mongooses tested by the modified agglutination test (cut-off titer 25). Muscles (heart, tongue, neck) of 25 of the seropositive mongooses were bioassayed for T. gondii infection in mice. Viable T. gondii was isolated by bioassay in mice from four mongooses with MAT titers of 1:50 in two, 1:200 for one, and 1:400 for one mongoose. The four T. gondii isolates were further propagated in cell culture. Strain typing of T. gondii DNA extracted from cell-cultured tachyzoites using the 10 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico revealed one isolate belongs to the Type III (ToxoDB #2) lineage, two to ToxoDB#7 lineage, and one to the ToxoDB #216 lineage. This is the first report of T. gondii isolation and genotyping in H. auropunctatus worldwide.

Molecular typing of Leishmania infantum isolates from a leishmaniasis outbreak in Madrid, Spain, 2009 to 2012

Leishmaniasis is endemic in south-west Europe. Recent data point to the spread and (re-)emergence of this disease in previously endemic and non-endemic European countries. A recent example is the urban community outbreak of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis in the south-west of Madrid autonomous community, Spain, which began on 1 July 2009. A total of 446 cases associated to this outbreak were reported up to 31 December 2012. We show molecular typing data for 73 Leishmania infantum isolates obtained from January 2008 to July 2012 from different areas of Madrid, including those affected by the outbreak. Seven different genotypes were identified by combining data from two targets: the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS)-1 and -2 and the haspb (k26) gene. The results contribute to a better understanding of the parasite population circulating in the region, and indicate that most of the outbreak-associated isolates (22/31) were infected by parasites with the same combined genotype. Additional data from 82 L. infantum isolates typed as either MON-1 or MON-24 by isoenzyme analysis indicate that far from concluding that the outbreak was caused by a 'new' emerging genotype, further molecular typing-based surveillance studies are required to better understand the epidemiology of leishmaniasis in the region.

Neospora caninum and Wildlife

Bovine neosporosis caused by Neospora caninum is among the main causes of abortion in cattle nowadays. At present there is no effective treatment or vaccine. Serological evidence in domestic, wild, and zoo animals indicates that many species have been exposed to this parasite. However, many aspects of the life cycle of N. caninum are unknown and the role of wildlife in the life cycle of N. caninum is still not completely elucidated. In North America, there are data consistent with a sylvatic cycle involving white tailed-deer and canids and in Australia a plausible sylvatic cycle could be occurring between wild dogs and their macropod preys. In Europe, a similar sylvatic cycle has not been established but is very likely. The present review is a comprehensive and up to date summary of the current knowledge on the sylvatic cycle of N. caninum, species affected and their geographical distribution. These findings could have important implications in both sylvatic and domestic cycles since infected wildlife may influence the prevalence of infection in cattle farms in the same areas. Wildlife will need to be taken into account in the control measures to reduce the economical losses associated with this important disease in cattle farms.

First serosurvey of Besnoitia spp. infection in wild European ruminants in Spain

Besnoitia besnoiti has been reported to affect cattle, wildebeest, kudu and impala, and B. tarandi other wild ruminants (caribou, reindeer, mule deer and musk ox), causing similar characteristic clinical signs and lesions. However, both Besnoitia species have been reported in different geographical areas and the link between the sylvatic and domestic life cycles of Besnoita spp. in wild ruminants and cattle remains unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of specific antibodies against Besnoitia spp. in wild ruminants in Spain. A wide panel of sera from red deer (Cervus elaphus) (n=734), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (n=124), chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) (n=170) and mouflon (Ovis musimon) (n=20) collected from different locations of Spain was analyzed. Beef cattle were present in all sampled areas and, interestingly, bovine besnoitiosis has been widely reported in some of them (e.g., Pyrenees and Central Spain). Sera samples were first examined with an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). For red deer and roe deer, the ELISA was standardized with positive and negative control sera from several Cervidae species (100% Se and 98% Sp). Chamois and mouflon sera samples were tested with a previously reported ELISA validated for bovine sera (97% Se and 95% Sp) using protein G as a conjugate. Positive results by ELISA were confirmed a posteriori with a tachyzoite-based Western blot. Sixty-one sera samples from red deer and 17 sera samples from roe-deer were seropositive or doubtful by ELISA. All samples from mouflon were seronegative and 15 sera samples from chamois were considered doubtful. B. besnoiti exposure was only confirmed clearly by Western blot in one red deer and one roe deer from the Spanish Pyrenees where the disease is traditionally endemic. This is the first serological report of Besnoitia spp. infection carried out in European wild ruminants and the results show that specific antibodies are present at least in red deer and roe-deer. Thus, wild ruminants from endemic regions of bovine besnoitiosis should be further studied because they may be putative reservoirs of the parasite.

Bovine neosporosis: clinical and practical aspects

Neospora caninum is a protozoan parasite with a wide host range but with a preference for cattle and dogs. Since the description of N. caninum as a new genus and species in 1988, bovine neosporosis has become a disease of international concern as it is among the main causes of abortion in cattle. At present there is no effective treatment or vaccine. This review focuses on the epidemiology of the disease and on prospects for its control in cattle. Finally, based on the implications of clinical findings reported to date, a set of recommendations is provided for veterinarians and cattle farmers.

Prevalence of Babesia microti-like infection in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Portugal

The prevalence of piroplasm (order Piroplasmida) infection was assessed in blood and bone marrow samples from 91 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from northern, central and southern Portugal by means of molecular methods. PCR for the 18S rRNA gene of Babesia spp. followed by sequencing revealed 63 foxes positive for the Babesia microti-like piroplasm (syn. Theileria annae) (69.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 58.7-78.5%) and one fox positive for Babesia canis (1.1%; 95% CI: 0.0-6.0%). Positivity to the B. microti-like piroplasm or B. canis in 43 blood samples (83.7%) was significantly higher (p<0.001) than in 43 paired bone marrow samples (20.9%). There were no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of infection between genders (p=0.219) or age groups (<2 years vs. ≥ 2 years) (p=1.0). This is the first report of the B. microti-like piroplasm in foxes from Portugal as well as the first report on detection by PCR and genotyping of B. canis in a red fox worldwide. A natural cycle of the B. microti-like piroplasm is suggested in red fox populations based on the high prevalence of the protozoan. Red foxes might be a reservoir of the B. microti-like piroplasm and a source of infection to dogs.

Investigating the role of wild carnivores in the epidemiology of bovine neosporosis

Neospora caninum is a protozoan parasite, primarily associated with bovine abortion. The only definitive hosts discovered to date are carnivores. This study aimed to identify the role of mammalian carnivores in the epidemiology of bovine neosporosis. A sample bank of serum, fecal and brain samples was established: American mink (Mustela vison), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), pine martens (Martes martes), badgers (Meles meles), stoats (Mustela erminea), otters (Lutra lutra) and feral ferrets (Mustela putorius). Approximately 1% of mink and 1% of fox samples were positive by IFAT. According to PCR analysis of DNA extracted from brain tissue, 3% of the mink, 4% of the otters and 6% of the foxes examined were infected with N. caninum. All fecal samples tested negative for N. caninum DNA (n = 311), suggesting that the species that tested positive were intermediate not definitive hosts. This is the first time that tissues from mustelids have tested positive for N. caninum. The need to test 2 relatively large (~200 mg) targeted parts of the brain to avoid false negatives was also identified. The relatively low prevalence of N. caninum in Irish carnivores suggests that the local ecology of a species has an important influence on its epidemiological role.

Detection of Neospora caninum in wild carnivorans in Great Britain

Samples of brain and other tissues were collected from 99 ferrets (Mustela furo), 83 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 70 European polecats (Mustela putorius), 65 American mink (Neovison vison), 64 Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) and 9 stoats (Mustela erminea), from around Great Britain. DNA was extracted from approximately 1g of tissue and tested by specific nested ITS1 PCR for Neospora caninum. The results from the PCR demonstrated that Neospora specific DNA was detected in all species of wild carnivorans with the exception of the stoats (0/9). Neospora DNA positive samples were detected in: polecats 18.6% (13/70), badgers 10.9% (7/64), ferrets 10.1% (10/99), foxes 4.8% (4/83) and mink 4.6% (3/65). In the badgers N. caninum DNA positive samples were found in brain (n=2), liver (n=2) and neck muscle (n=3). Selected positive ITS1 DNA sequences were submitted to Genbank. Sequence UKwildlife1 (accession number JX857862) was found in two badgers, whilst UKwildlife2 and UKwildlife3 (accession numbers JX857863 and JX857864 respectively) were found in ferrets, all three sequences demonstrated point mutations at a single base, while sequence UKwildlife4 (accession number JX857865) was found in all the species that tested positive and showed complete identity when compared against published reference sequences for: N. caninum (Nc Liverpool isolate, EU564166). Our data shows that almost all the wild carnivoran mammal species tested are intermediate hosts for N. caninum and are therefore capable of acting as reservoirs of infection for other species. These species could also act as useful sentinel species, demonstrating the presence of the parasite in particular geographical and environmental locations.

Toxoplasmosis in Sand cats (Felis margarita) and other animals in the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in the United Arab Emirates and Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation, the State of Qatar

The Sand cat (Felis margarita) is a small-sized felid found in sand and stone deserts ranging from the north of Africa to Asia, with the Arabian Peninsula as its centre of distribution. The Sand cat captive breeding program at the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW), Sharjah, UAE, has experienced high newborn mortality rates, and congenital toxoplasmosis was recently recognized as one of the causes of this mortality. In the present study, one 18-month-old Sand cat (FM019) died of acute toxoplasmosis-associated hepatitis and pneumonitis acquired after birth; Toxoplasma gondii was demonstrated in histological sections which reacted with T. gondii polyclonal antibodies by immunohistochemistry (IHC). T. gondii DNA was found by PCR of extracted DNA from liver and lung tissues of this cat. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in serum examined in 1:1600 dilution in the modified agglutination test (MAT); its 2-year-old cage mate seroconverted (MAT titer 1:3200) at the same time. Another Sand cat (FM017) was euthanized because of ill health when 3 years old; its MAT titer was >1:3200, and T. gondii tissue cysts were found in brain, heart, ocular muscles and skeletal muscle, confirmed by IHC. Viable T. gondii was isolated by bioassays in mice inoculated with tissues of another chronically infected Sand cat (FM002); T. gondii was not found in histological sections of this cat. T. gondii antibodies were found in several species of animals tested, notably in 49 of 57 wild felids at BCEAW. A 7-year-old Sand cat (3657) from Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP), Doha, State of Qatar died of acute visceral toxoplasmosis with demonstrable T. gondii tachyzoites by IHC, and T. gondii DNA by PCR, and a MAT titer of >3200. T. gondii antibodies were found in 21 of 27 of wild felids at AWWP. PCR-RFLP genotyping at 10 genetic loci revealed that these T. gondii isolates from Sand cat (FM002 and FM019) at BCEAW have an atypical genotype, which was previously reported in T. gondii isolates of dogs from Sri Lanka. The genotype from the cat from AWWP (3657) is a genetic Type II strain with a Type I allele at locus Apico. This is the first report of genetic characterization of T. gondii isolates from Middle East.

Bacterial and parasitic diseases of ferrets

The domestic ferret, Mustela putorius furo, is a popular companion animal and is used in biomedical research. When compared with other companion mammals, primary bacterial and parasitic infections are less common in domestic ferrets. In countries such as the United States, pet ferrets are generally kept indoors, and the risk for exposure to primary bacterial and parasitic infectious agents is low. Companion, breeding, and working ferrets are commonly kept outdoors in other parts of the world, placing them at comparatively greater risk for exposure to infectious diseases. This article discusses clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment of bacterial and parasitic diseases of ferrets.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in feral cats (Felis silvestris catus) in Majorca, Balearic Islands, Spain

Felids are important in the epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection because they are the only hosts that can excrete environmentally resistant oocysts. Antibodies to T. gondii and Neospora caninum were determined in serum samples from 59 feral cats (Felis silvestris catus) captured in baited traps during authorized predator control campaigns in Majorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. Antibodies to T. gondii assayed by the modified agglutination test (MAT) were found in 50 (84.7%) of 59 cats with MAT titers of 1:25 in one cat, 1:200 in four cats, 1:500 in seven cats, 1:1000 in nine cats, and >or=1:2000 in 29 cats. Seroprevalence (MAT, 1:25 or more) was significantly higher in adults (94.6%) than in juveniles (<6 months old; 40.0%). Seroprevalence to N. caninum, assayed by cELISA (VMRD) and confirmed by an indirect fluorescent antibody test, was low (6.8%, 4 of 59). The prevalence of T. gondii observed in wild cats in Majorca is one of the highest reported worldwide in this species and the highest observed in Europe to date. The results suggest that feral cats in Majorca have a high rate of T. gondii infection with important implications for public health on the island since the seropositive cats are likely to have already shed T. gondii oocysts in the environment.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in wild and domestic ruminants sharing pastures in Galicia (Northwest Spain)

The prevalence of antibodies to the protozoan parasites Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum were investigated by the direct agglutination test (DAT) and cELISA, respectively, in 160 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 177 sheep and 178 cattle sharing pastures in Galicia (Northwest Spain). The seroprevalence for T. gondii was 13.7% in roe deer, 57% in sheep and 7.3% in cattle. The seroprevalence for N. canimum was 6.8%, 10.1% and 24.1% in roe deer, sheep and cattle, respectively. Statistically significant differences were observed between sheep and the other species for T. gondii and between cattle and the other ruminants for N. caninum. Only 19/515 animals were positive for both, T. gondii and N. caninum. Statistically significant differences were observed among different geographical areas for T. gondii but not for Neospora, seroprevalence being higher in the coastal area lower than in other areas. This study reveals a widespread exposure to T. gondii in Galician ruminants, and therefore, those species, particularly sheep, should be regarded as a potential source of infection for humans.