Ecological preferences of exophilic and endophilic ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) parasitizing wild carnivores in the Iberian Peninsula

Short Communication: Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in ixodid ticks infesting red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Great Britain

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are found throughout the United Kingdom (UK), and can reach high population densities in urban areas. They are often infested with ticks which may carry tick-borne pathogens, leading to a risk of transmission to domestic animals and humans. This study investigated the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in ticks sourced from red fox carcasses across Great Britain between 2018 and 2022. Tick species were identified using morphological keys and molecular barcoding, followed by specific pathogen testing using PCR. In total, 227 ticks were collected from 93 foxes. Pooling (n = 2) was undertaken for unengorged nymphs from the same tick species and fox host, with 203 homogenates tested in total (24 pools and 179 individual ticks). Ixodes hexagonus was the most abundant tick species sampled (73 %), of which 59 % were nymphs and 41 % were females. Less common were Ixodes ricinus (12 %) and Ixodes canisuga (15 %), the majority of which were females (73 % and 91 %, respectively). One Ixodes sp. larva was identified. Babesia DNA was identified in seven individual ticks and once in pooled ticks (n = 2); seven detections were in I. hexagonus and one in I. canisuga, with an overall detection rate of 7 % (95 % CI: 6 - 8 %). Sequence analysis confirmed that all Babesia detections in I. hexagonus were Babesia vulpes, with detection of Babesia Badger Type A in I. canisuga. Screening for Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA through amplification of the msp2 gene yielded an overall detection rate of 4 % (detected in I. hexagonus only). Louping ill virus was not detected by qRT-PCR in any tick RNA tested. The majority of pathogen detections were in ticks from red foxes in rural areas of the UK, although a small number of Babesia detections were in ticks collected from semi-rural or urban red foxes. Additionally, B. vulpes was detected in GB red fox tissues, suggesting a potential role as a reservoir host. This study confirms the detection of tick-borne pathogens in ticks infesting UK red foxes and highlights the involvement of GB tick species in animal or human disease transmission.

Environmental and host factors underlying tick infestation in invasive raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Hokkaido, Japan

Revealing interactions between ticks and wild animals is vital for gaining insights into the dynamics of tick-borne pathogens in the natural environment. We aimed to elucidate the factors that determine tick infestation in wild animals by investigating ticks on invasive raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Hokkaido, Japan. We first examined the composition, intensity, and seasonal variation of ticks infesting raccoons in six study areas in Hokkaido from March 2022 to August 2023. In one study area, ticks infesting tanukis (raccoon dog, Nyctereutes procyonoides albus) were collected in May to July in both 2022 and 2023, and questing ticks were collected from the vegetation by flagging every other week in the same period. Next, we screened 17 environmental and host variables to determine factors that affect the number of ticks infesting raccoons using generalized linear (mixed) models. From 245 raccoons, we identified a total of 3,917 ticks belonging to eight species of two genera: the most prominent species were Ixodes ovatus (52.9 %), followed by Haemaphysalis megaspinosa (14.4 %), Ixodes tanuki (10.6 %), and Ixodes persulcatus (9.5 %). Ixodes ovatus was also predominant among questing ticks and ticks infesting tanukis. Although I. tanuki was frequently collected from raccoons and tanukis, it was rarely collected in the field. The variables that significantly affected the infestation on raccoons differed by genus, species and developmental stage of the tick. For instance, the infestation of adult I. ovatus was significantly affected by four variables: night-time temperature during nine days before capturing the raccoon, the size of forest area around the capture site, sex of the raccoon, and sampling season. The first two variables were also responsible for the infestation on raccoons of almost all species and stages of ticks. Our study revealed that the number and composition of ticks infesting raccoons can be affected not only by landscape of their habitats but also by weather conditions in several days before capturing.

Diversity of Rickettsia spp. in ticks from wild mammals of Morocco and Mauritania

Ticks are known as vectors and reservoirs of rickettsiae and, wildlife vertebrate hosts as suitable dispersers of ticks contributing to the life cycle of rickettsial agents in nature. In the herein study, the presence of rickettsiae was investigated in ticks from wild mammals (Gerbillus and Jaculus, Vulpes rueppellii, Canis anthus, Felis lybica and Felis margarita) in Mauritania and Morocco. Morphological and molecular analysis of ticks allowed their identification as Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato and Hyalomma impeltatum. A total of 126 partially engorged adult ticks, collected from 40 animals, were screened for the presence of rickettsial DNA by conventional PCR targeting the ompB gene, followed by ompA and gltA targets and bidirectional sequencing. As a result of the sequence analyses, that at least three different species of pathogenic spotted fever group rickettsiae were detected. Rickettsia parkeri-like was detected in a R. sanguineus s.l. (n=1) collected from an African wildcat from Morocco. Rickettsia aeschlimannii was detected in a H. impeltatum (n=1) collected from a gerbil rodent. Rickettsia massiliae was detected in R. sanguineus s.l. ticks (n=5) collected from two Ruppells' foxes. The herein study demonstrates that pathogenic Rickettsia species are circulating in Morocco and Mauritania wildlife.

Determinants of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus exposure dynamics in Mediterranean environments

Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is an emerging tick-borne human disease in Spain. Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics and exposure risk determinants of CCHF virus (CCHFV) in animal models is essential to predict the time and areas of highest transmission risk. With this goal, we designed a longitudinal survey of two wild ungulate species, the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa), in Doñana National Park, a protected Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot with high ungulate and CCHFV vector abundance, and which is also one of the main stopover sites for migratory birds between Africa and western Europe. Both ungulates are hosts to the principal CCHFV vector in Spain, Hyalomma lusitanicum. We sampled wild ungulates annually from 2005 to 2020 and analysed the frequency of exposure to CCHFV by a double-antigen ELISA. The annual exposure risk was modelled as a function of environmental traits in an approach to understanding exposure risk determinants that allow us to predict the most likely places and years for CCHFV transmission. The main findings show that H. lusitanicum abundance is a fundamental driver of the fine-scale spatial CCHFV transmission risk, while inter-annual risk variation is conditioned by virus/vector hosts, host community structure and weather variations. The most relevant conclusion of the study is that the emergence of CCHF in Spain might be associated with recent wild ungulate population changes promoting higher vector abundance. This work provides relevant insights into the transmission dynamics of CCHFV in enzootic scenarios that would allow deepening the understanding of the ecology of CCHFV and its major determinants.

Molecular identification of zoonotic Rickettsia species in Ixodidae parasitizing wild lagomorphs from Mediterranean ecosystems

A survey study was carried out to identify tick species parasitizing wild lagomorphs in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain and to determine the occurrence of Rickettsia species present in these ticks in this region. A total of 1304 European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and 58 Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) were individually examined for the presence of ticks. Ticks were found in 42.9% and 50% of the wild rabbits and hares sampled, respectively. A total of 1122 ticks were collected and five species, including Rhipicephalus pusillus, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Haemaphysalis hispanica, Ixodes ventalloi and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.), were microscopically and molecularly identified at the 16S rRNA gene. This is the first study on Ixodidae parasitizing Iberian hares. The presence of Rickettsia DNA was assessed in 254 tick pools (according to hunting states, lagomorph species, tick species and tick development stage) using PCR assays targeting the rOmpA, rOmpB and gltA. Twenty-seven pools (10.6%) were positive to Rickettsia DNA. Five zoonotic Rickettsia species were identified, being Rickettsia massiliae the most frequent (4.7%), followed by Rickettsia sibirica subsp. mongolitimonae (2.8%), Rickettsia slovaca (2.0%), Rickettsia aeschlimannii (0.8%) and Rickettsia africae (0.4%). The results suggest that wild rabbits and Iberian hares are parasitized by a wide range of tick species and that these lagomorphs may play an important role in the sylvatic cycle of some zoonotic Rickettsia species in Mediterranean ecosystems. Our data represent the first report of R. massiliae, R. aeschlimannii, R. slovaca and R africae in ticks collected in wild lagomorphs in Europe, and the first report of not imported R. africae in this continent. Since R. slovaca and R. africae DNA was detected in tick species different to their main vectors, further studies are warranted to unravel the role of wild lagomorphs in the epidemiology of these vector-borne pathogens.

Worldwide occurrence of haemoplasmas in wildlife: Insights into the patterns of infection, transmission, pathology and zoonotic potential

Haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) have increasingly attracted the attention of wildlife disease researchers due to a combination of wide host range, high prevalence and genetic diversity. A systematic review identified 75 articles that investigated haemoplasma infection in wildlife by molecular methods (chiefly targeting partial 16S rRNA gene sequences), which included 131 host genera across six orders. Studies were less common in the Eastern Hemisphere (especially Africa and Asia) and more frequent in the Artiodactyla and Carnivora. Meta-analysis showed that infection prevalence did not vary by geographic region nor host order, but wild hosts showed significantly higher prevalence than captive hosts. Using a taxonomically flexible machine learning algorithm, we also found vampire bats and cervids to have greater prevalence, whereas mink, a subclade of vesper bats, and true foxes all had lower prevalence compared to the remaining sampled mammal phylogeny. Haemoplasma genotype and nucleotide diversity varied little among wild mammals but were marginally lower in primates and bats. Coinfection with more than one haemoplasma species or genotype was always confirmed when assessed. Risk factors of infection identified were sociality, age, males and high trophic levels, and both prevalence and diversity were often higher in undisturbed environments. Haemoplasmas likely use different and concurrent transmission routes and typically display enzootic dynamics when wild populations are studied longitudinally. Haemoplasma pathology is poorly known in wildlife but appears subclinical. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis, which causes disease in humans, probably has it natural host in bats. Haemoplasmas can serve as a model system in ecological and evolutionary studies, and future research on these pathogens in wildlife must focus on increasing the geographic range and taxa of studies and elucidating pathology, transmission and zoonotic potential. To facilitate such work, we recommend using universal PCR primers or NGS protocols to detect novel haemoplasmas and other genetic markers to differentiate among species and infer cross-species transmission.

The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) as Sentinel for Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Endemic and Non-Endemic Areas

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is one of the most important viral zoonosis caused by a neurotropic arbovirus (TBEV). In Germany, TBE is classified as a notifiable disease with an average of 350 autochthonous human cases annually. The incidence-based risk assessment in Germany came under criticism because every year, a number of autochthonous human TBE cases have been detected outside of the official risk areas. Therefore, it is necessary to find additional parameters to strengthen TBEV surveillance. The aim of this study was to examine red foxes as sentinels for TBE. Thus far, there are no published data about the sensitivity and specificity for serological methods testing fox samples. Hence, we aimed to define a system for the screening of TBEV-specific antibodies in red foxes. A total of 1233 fox sera were collected and examined by ELISA and IIFA and confirmed by micro-NT. The overall seroprevalence of antibodies against TBEV in red foxes from Germany confirmed by micro-NT was 21.1%. The seroprevalence differed significantly between risk (30.5%) and non-risk areas (13.1%), with good correlations to local TBE incidence in humans. In conclusion, serological monitoring of red foxes represents a promising surrogate marker system and may even determine unexpected TBEV foci in regions currently regarded as non-risk areas.

Serological evaluation of selected vector-borne pathogens in owned dogs from northern Spain based on a multicenter study using a commercial test

Background

Environmental conditions in northern Spain allow the development of different arthropods involved in the transmission of significant canine vector-borne pathogens. The aim of the study was to systematically assess seroprevalence rates for Leishmania infantum, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma spp., Dirofilaria immitis and Borrelia burgdorferi, and risk factors in dogs from all regions of the north of Spain.

Methods

A total of 556 dogs were included in this study between January 2017 and December 2018, belonging to 30 practices covering all regions in northern Spain (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country, Navarra, Aragon and Catalonia). All practices were located in the north of every region. Blood samples were analyzed using the 4DX SNAP® test (IDEXX Laboratories, Westbrook, Maine, USA) for the detection of D. immitis antigen and E. canis, B. burgdorferi and Anaplasma spp. antibodies. Leishmania SNAP® test (IDEXX Laboratories) was used for detection of L. infantum antibodies. Associations between prevalence of canine vector-borne pathogens, epidemiological and clinical signs data were statistically analyzed.

Results

The overall prevalence rates were 8.99% for L. infantum, 1.26% for Anaplasma spp., 0.9% for E. canis, 0.72% for B. burgdorferi, and 0.18% for D. immitis. Globally, 11.33% of the dogs included in the study were positive to any tested vector-borne pathogen. Leishmania infantum seroprevalence was the highest and the only one detected in all the regions. Leishmania infantum seropositivity was associated with age > 10 years-old, outdoor access, anemia, fever, dermatological signs, lympadenomegaly, muscular atrophy, ocular signs and renal disease. Ehrlichia canis seropositivity was associated with the summer season and living in urban areas. Apathy, weakness, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, fever and gastrointestinal clinical signs were also associated with E. canis antibody detection. Living in a rural area was also a risk factor for Anaplasma spp. and B. burgdorferi seropositivity.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first multicenter survey performed in northern Spain assessing different canine vector-borne diseases from all regions. Results show the presence of autochthonous cases of these diseases. The vector-borne pathogens found in this study should be included in the differential diagnosis in dogs from some areas previously considered non-endemic for these pathogens.

Under the skin: Ixodes ticks in the subcutaneous tissue of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Germany

BACKGROUND

Ixodes spp. are vectors of zoonotic pathogens. All three active life stages (larvae, nymphs, adults) need to feed on a host in order to develop. Usually ticks parasitize attached to the external surface of their hosts' skin. Interestingly, in some cases ticks can also be found in the subcutaneous tissue in a variety of hosts, such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and dogs.

METHODS

The visceral side of 126 red fox-furs from Germany was examined visually searching for ticks. The localization of ticks was recorded and assigned to ten specific body parts. Morphological identification of ticks was performed according to standardized taxonomic protocols. Ticks which could not be further identified were examined genetically via conventional PCR targeting the 16S rRNA and cox1 gene. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used for histopathological examination.

RESULTS

In 111 out of 126 (88.1%) examined coats, at least one tick was found in the subcutaneous tissue. A total of 1203 ticks were removed from the subcutaneous tissue. Well-preserved ticks could be identified based on morphological criteria, but most ticks were in a progressed state of decomposition. Here, morphological species identification was not successful. Also, PCR methods did not lead to a successful species identification. The following species and development stages were found by morphological identification: Ixodes ricinus (female, n = 289; male, n = 8; nymph, n = 1), I. hexagonus (female, n = 2), I. canisuga (female, n = 1). Male I. ricinus were found individually or copulating in pairs with females. Subcutaneous ticks were localized at three predominant affected body parts: ears, axillar and inguinal region. Histological examination of subcutaneous ticks revealed a granulomatous panniculitis.

CONCLUSIONS

To the authors' knowledge, this is the first finding of highly prevalent subcutaneous ticks in red foxes from Germany. Subcutaneous location of ticks seems to be very common in red foxes and the rule rather than the exception. Deep embedment of longirostra and long feeding times of females seem to put the subcutaneous location in favor. Most foxes were infested in the inguinal area, where the skin is thin and less hairy.

The brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu Roberts, 1965 across Australia: Morphological and molecular identification of R. sanguineus s.l. tropical lineage

The brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) is the most widely distributed tick species globally. Throughout the world there are at least two divergent lineages on dogs that are traditionally grouped into what was known as R. sanguineus. The species R. sanguineus was recently redescribed using a neotype reported from countries with a temperate climate. The second lineage distributed in countries with primarily tropical climates is currently designated R. sanguineus s.l. tropical lineage. Here, we present a comprehensive genetic evaluation of Australian brown dog ticks from across the continent that complements the morphological study of R. sanguineus sensu Roberts (1965). A total of 294 ticks were collected from dogs around Australia - including New South Wales, Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia - for morphological identification. All ticks were morphologically identified as R. sanguineus sensu Roberts (1965). DNA was isolated from a single leg from morphologically characterised individuals from New South Wales (n = 14), Queensland (n = 18), Northern Territory (n = 7) and Western Australia (n = 13), together with ticks from Fiji (n = 1) and the Seychelles (n = 1) for comparison with Australian ticks. The study revealed three cox1 haplotypes clustered only with R. sanguineus s.l. tropical lineage'. An updated distribution of R. sanguineus sensu Roberts (1965) is compared to the 1965 distribution. In the Australian context, R. sanguineus s.l. has appeared in north-western New South Wales but remains absent from coastal New South Wales. Despite both temperate and tropical climates being present in Australia, only R. sanguineus s.l. tropical lineage was found. The evidence does not support the presence of the strictly defined brown dog tick, R. sanguineus by Nava et al. (2018) in Australia, because the examined ticks are genetically and morphologically distinct. We recommend using the term brown dog tick, R. sanguineus sensu Roberts (1965) for specimens from Australia.

Factors affecting abundance of different stages of the endophilic tick Ixodes anatis in brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) shelters

Ixodes anatis is a species of endophilic (nidicolous) tick species parasitizing brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Even though they are endemic to New Zealand like their host, very little is known about these ticks or their population dynamics and relationships with their hosts. We conducted a study from May 2013 to June 2014 to evaluate the effect of shelter location (one of three gullies), habitat (forest, scrub and pasture) and type (tree, soil and surface) on the abundance of the different life stages of I. anatis. In total, 12,172 ticks were collected from 63 shelters, which were sampled monthly for 11 months over the 14 month period. Un-engorged larvae predominated over other stages accounting for 87.2% of the samples collected. We found that location, habitat in which the shelters were located, and the type of shelter were significant predictors of I. anatis abundance. Tree shelters in forests had significantly higher tick abundance than those in scrub and pasture. Tree and soil shelters in general had significantly more ticks than surface shelters. Shelters located in Kauri Bush a drier site, had higher abundances than those in wetter sites. While some of these changes can be explained with the movement of the host, we believe more research needs to be done on the effect of shelters' microclimate on I. anatis' life cycle.

High diversity of hemotropic mycoplasmas in Iberian wild carnivores

Two-hundred and thirty-one wild carnivores belonging to 10 species of in Spain were analyzed for the presence of DNA of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) by means of a universal real-time PCR targeting a 16S rRNA gene fragment. Positive reactions were found for wolf (Canis lupus: 6/37), fox (Vulpes vulpes: 1/41), Eurasian badger (Meles meles: 49/85), pine marten (Martes martes: 11/23), stone marten (Martes foina: 6/9), least weasel (Mustela nivalis: 4/4), European wildcat (Felis s. silvestris: 1/2) and common genet (Genetta genetta: 7/27). Sixty-four readable sequences were obtained, resulting in 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST). The highest diversity was detected in badger (6 ntST) and pine marten (5 ntST). The sequencing of a fragment of the RNase P gene showed that all positive reactions in wolves corresponded to Mycoplasma haemocanis. Three ntST showed an identity between 98-100% with Candidatus M. haemominutum, C. M. turicensis and C. M. haematoparvum, respectively. Four ntST were closely related to C. M. haemomeles and/or diverse genotypes reported from raccoons (Procyon lotor) in the USA. One ntST from a badger showed only 88% similarity to the closest published sequence and was phylogenetically unrelated to any other hemoplasma sequence reported. Three ntST were 99-100% similar to two different sequences reported in Spanish bats. This study confirms the widespread nature and the high genetic diversity of hemoplasma infection in carnivores. Wild carnivores might be natural hosts of some hemoplasmas infecting dogs and cats.

Phylogenetic insights on Mediterranean and Afrotropical Rhipicephalus species (Acari: Ixodida) based on mitochondrial DNA

A multigene phylogeny including 24 Rhipicephalus species from the Afrotropical and Mediterranean regions, based on mitochondrial DNA genes (COI, 12S and 16S), was constructed based on Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood estimations. The phylogenetic reconstruction revealed 31 Rhipicephalus clades, which include the first molecular records of Rhipicephalus duttoni (Neumann), and Rhipicephalus senegalensis (Koch). Our results support the R. pulchellus, R. evertsi and R. pravus complexes as more phylogenetically close to Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) than to the remaining Rhipicephalus clades, suggesting two main monophyletic groups within the genus. Additionally, the phenotypic resembling R. sanguineus s.l. and Rhipicephalus turanicus (Pomerantsev) are here represented by nine clades, of which none of the R. turanicus assemblages appeared as distributed in the Iberian Peninsula. These results not only indicate that both species include more cryptic diversity than the already reported, but also suggest that R. turanicus distribution is less extended than previously anticipated. This analysis allowed to improve species identification by exposing cryptic species and reinforced mtDNA markers suitability for intra/inter-species clarification analyses. Incorporating new species molecular records to improve phylogenetic clarification can significantly improve ticks' identification methods which will have epidemiologic implications on public health.

Mesocarnivores and macroparasites: altitude and land use predict the ticks occurring on red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)

Background

The red fox Vulpes vulpes is the most common mesocarnivore in Europe and with a wide geographical distribution and a high density in most terrestrial habitats of the continent. It is fast urbanising species, which can harbor high numbers of different tick species, depending on the region. Here we present the results of a large-scale study, trying to disentangle the intricate relationship between environmental factors and the species composition of ectoparasites in red foxes. The samples were collected in Transylvania (Romania), a region with a diverse geography and high biodiversity. The dead foxes (collected primarily through the National Surveillance Rabies Program) were examined carefully for the presence of ticks.

Results

Ticks (n = 4578) were found on 158 foxes (out of 293 examined; 53.9%). Four species were identified: Dermacentor marginatus, Ixodes canisuga, I. hexagonus and I. ricinus. The most common tick species was I. hexagonus (mean prevalence 37.5%, mean intensity 32.2), followed by I. ricinus (15.0%; 4.86), I. canisuga (4.8%; 7.71) and D. marginatus (3.7%; 3.45). Co-occurrence of two or more tick species on the same host was relatively common (12.6%), the most common co-occurrence being I. hexagonus - I. ricinus. For D. marginatus and I. canisuga the highest prevalence was recorded in lowlands, for I. hexagonus in hilly areas, while for I. ricinus in mountains.

Conclusions

Altitude influenced the intensity of parasitism, with highest intensity observed for all Ixodes species in hilly areas. Dermacentor marginatus occurred only in lowlands, I. canisuga in lowlands and hilly areas while the other two species occurred in all of the regions studied. Foxes from lower altitudes had the most tick species associated, with most incidences of co-parasitism also recorded here. Land use affected tick-species composition, with the presence of D. marginatus strongly associated with the extension of arable areas and lack of forests. The presence of I. hexagonus was determined only by the extent of arable lands. As foxes are frontrunners of wildlife urbanization process, with a continuous increase of their numbers in urban areas, the knowledge of their ticks’ ecology (and the pathogens vectored by these) is of utmost importance.

Ixodid ticks parasitizing wild carnivores in Romania

In Romania, data regarding hard-tick diversity and tick-host associations in wild carnivores are scarce. We aimed to identify tick species in wild carnivores and to establish reliable data on tick-host associations. The study was conducted in various Romanian localities from all five ecoregions found in the country. Fourteen species of wild carnivores were examined. Immature and adult ticks were collected and identified using the morphological keys. The frequency and mean intensity of tick infestation, overall and differentiated by species, developmental stage and host were calculated. Of 202 wild carnivores, 68 were parasitized by seven tick species (predominantly Ixodes ricinus, I. hexagonus and Dermacentor reticulatus). The mean intensity of tick infestation was similar in males (6.97, BCa 95% CI 5.15-9.88) and females (5.76, BCa 95% CI 4.15-9.17). The highest prevalence of infested animals was recorded in the pannonian and steppic ecoregions, 66.7 and 52.7%, respectively. In the continental ecoregion the prevalence was 26.7%, whereas in the pontic ecoregion it was 28%. The lowest value, 16.7% was recorded in the alpine ecoregion. In total 430 ticks were collected, and 24.8% (n = 50) of the animals were infested with more than one tick species. Fourteen new tick-host associations were recorded. Our results suggest that anthropogenic changes of the environment lead to the diminishing of the boundaries, between wild and domestic animals, increasing the exposure for both animals and humans, to infective agents, including tick-borne pathogens.

Seasonal dynamics of ixodid ticks on wild rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (Leporidae) from Central Spain

Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease and Myxomatosis caused a decline in the rabbit population in the second half of the last century. Despite some recovery, the risk of vector-borne disease is present and thus the importance of controlling vector populations. In the current study, we describe the ixodid tick fauna in wild rabbit in a natural reserve in Ciudad Real (Central Spain) during the course of two 3-year periods (2007-2009 and 2012-2014). Of all the ticks collected on average 72.5 % were larvae, 24.4 % nymphs and 3.1 % adults, although the percentage varied monthly. Seven tick species were identified: Hyalomma lusitanicum Koch (Parasitic indicator [PI] = number of ticks per examined rabbit = 96.47), Rhipicephalus pusillus Gil Collado (PI = 47.37), Haemaphysalis hispanica Gil Collado (PI = 12.15), Ixodes ventalloi Gil Collado (PI = 0.65), R. bursa Canestrini and Fanzago (PI = 0.18), R. sanguineus Latreille (PI = 0.11), Dermacentor marginatus Sulzer (PI = 0.01). In spring and summer, most abundant were larvae of H. lusitanicum, followed by immature stages of R. pusillus and Ha. hispanica. In autumn, the main tick species were nymphs of I. ventalloi whereas in winter adults of Ha. hispanica were more numerous. Rhipicephalus pusillus was present all year long, although not always in high percentage. PI of other species (R. bursa, R. sanguineus and D. marginatus) were too low to be representative. The seasonal dynamics of ticks on wild rabbit defined in this study could be useful to design species-specific control strategies.

Natural Anaplasmataceae infection in Rhipicephalus bursa ticks collected from sheep in the French Basque Country

Rhipicephalus bursa is one of 79 species of the genus Rhipicephalus in the family of Ixodidae. In this study, we investigated Anaplasmataceae bacteria associated with R. bursa collected after an epizootic outbreak of ovine anaplasmosis. 76 adult ticks, (60 male and 16 female ticks), were removed from sheep in two farms and all identified as R. bursa, all females were partially engorged. We found that 50% of the ticks were positive in the initial Anaplasmataceae qPCR screening. Bacterial species was identified by analyzing the sequences of amplicons of 23S rRNA, groEL and rpoB genes. 22.4% of ticks contained DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and 7.9% the DNA of Anaplasma ovis. Based on 23S rRNA and groEL genes analysis, we found that 19.7% of ticks contained a potentially new species of Ehrlichia. We propose the status of Candidatus for this uncultured species and we provisionally name it Candidatus Ehrlichia urmitei. No Wolbachia were identified. These results show that R. bursa can be a carrier of Anaplasmataceae bacteria.

Evaluation of biochemical and haematological parameters and prevalence of selected pathogens in feral cats from urban and rural habitats in South Korea

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we evaluated the potential association between the habitat types of feral cats and the prevalence of selected infectious pathogens and health status based on a set of blood parameters.

METHODS

We live-trapped 72 feral cats from two different habitat types: an urban area (n = 48) and a rural agricultural area (n = 24). We compared blood values and the prevalence of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and haemotropic Mycoplasma infection in feral cats from the two contrasting habitats.

RESULTS

Significant differences were observed in several blood values (haematocrit, red blood cells, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine) depending on the habitat type and/or sex of the cat. Two individuals from the urban area were seropositive for FIV (3.0%), and eight (12.1%) were positive for FeLV infection (five from an urban habitat and three from a rural habitat). Haemoplasma infection was more common. Based on molecular analysis, 38 cats (54.3%) were positive for haemoplasma, with a significantly higher infection rate in cats from rural habitats (70.8%) compared with urban cats (47.8%).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Our study recorded haematological and serum biochemical values, and prevalence of selected pathogens in feral cat populations from two different habitat types. A subset of important laboratory parameters from rural cats showed values under or above the corresponding reference intervals for healthy domestic cats, suggesting potential differences in the health status of feral cats depending on the habitat type. Our findings provide information about the association between 1) blood values (haematological and serum biochemistry parameters) and 2) prevalence of selected pathogen infections and different habitat types; this may be important for veterinarians who work with feral and/or stray cats and for overall cat welfare management.

Dermacentor reticulatus: a vector on the rise

Dermacentor reticulatus is a hard tick species with extraordinary biological features. It has a high reproduction rate, a rapid developmental cycle, and is also able to overcome years of unfavourable conditions. Dermacentor reticulatus can survive under water for several months and is cold-hardy even compared to other tick species. It has a wide host range: over 60 different wild and domesticated hosts are known for the three active developmental stages. Its high adaptiveness gives an edge to this tick species as shown by new data on the emergence and establishment of D. reticulatus populations throughout Europe. The tick has been the research focus of a growing number of scientists, physicians and veterinarians. Within the Web of Science database, more than a fifth of the over 700 items published on this species between 1897 and 2015 appeared in the last three years (2013–2015). Here we attempt to synthesize current knowledge on the systematics, ecology, geographical distribution and recent spread of the species and to highlight the great spectrum of possible veterinary and public health threats it poses. Canine babesiosis caused by Babesia canis is a severe leading canine vector-borne disease in many endemic areas. Although less frequently than Ixodes ricinus, D. reticulatus adults bite humans and transmit several Rickettsia spp., Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus or Tick-borne encephalitis virus. We have not solely collected and reviewed the latest and fundamental scientific papers available in primary databases but also widened our scope to books, theses, conference papers and specialists colleagues’ experience where needed. Besides the dominant literature available in English, we also tried to access scientific literature in German, Russian and eastern European languages as well. We hope to inspire future research projects that are necessary to understand the basic life-cycle and ecology of this vector in order to understand and prevent disease threats. We conclude that although great strides have been made in our knowledge of the eco-epidemiology of this species, several gaps still need to be filled with basic research, targeting possible reservoir and vector roles and the key factors resulting in the observed geographical spread of D. reticulatus.

Ectoparasite loads in sympatric urban populations of the northern white-breasted and the European hedgehog

We investigated abundance and prevalence of ticks and fleas infesting urban populations of two species of hedgehogs: the northern white-breasted hedgehog (Erinaceus roumanicus) and the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). The hedgehogs were captured in the city of Poznań (western Poland) over the period of 4 years. Both species of hedgehogs were infested with the castor bean tick (Ixodes ricinus), the hedgehog tick (Ixodes hexagonus), and the hedgehog flea (Archeopsylla erinacei). The northern white-breasted hedgehog had higher loads of I. ricinus and A. erinacei than the European hedgehog. The abundance and prevalence of I. hexagonus were similar on both species of hosts. Co-infestation with the two species of ticks was more frequent on the northern white-breasted hedgehog than on the European hedgehog. Therefore, these two closely related species of hedgehogs differ in their importance as hosts of arthropod vectors of pathogens in urban areas and might play a different role in the dynamics of zoonotic diseases.

Fox on the run--molecular surveillance of fox blood and tissue for the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in Austria

BACKGROUND

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a widespread species, harbouring many pathogens relevant for humans and pets. Indeed, Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia spp. among the bacteria and Hepatozoon canis as well as Babesia sp. among the parasites have been the focus of several studies.

FINDINGS

In a cohort of 36 foxes shot on one day in the north-eastern part of Austria, Babesia microti-like pathogens were found in 50%, while H. canis was detected in 58.3% of the samples. The spleen was more useful for detection of H. canis, whereas B. microti-like parasites were more frequently found in the blood. Bacteria could not be confirmed in any of the cases to demonstrate the occurrence of such tick-borne pathogens using PCR and sequencing on blood and spleen samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of B. microti-like and H. canis parasites raised many questions, because these infections have never been found autochthonously in dogs. Furthermore in the case of H. canis the main vector tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, is absent in the sampling area, leaving space for further hypotheses for transmission such as vertical transmission, transmission via ingestion of prey animals or other vector ticks. Further studies are needed to evaluate the risks for pets in this area. PCRs delivered differing results with the different tissues, suggesting the use of both spleen and blood to obtain an integral result.

Seasonal and spatial distribution of ixodid tick species feeding on naturally infested dogs from Eastern Austria and the influence of acaricides/repellents on these parameters

Background

Effective control of tick infestation and pathogen transmission requires profound knowledge of tick biology in view of their vector function. The particular time of the year when the different tick species start to quest and the favoured sites on the canine host are of major interest. The efficacy of acaricides/repellents to control ticks in the field requires observation.

Methods

To address these issues, 90 dogs, grouped in “untreated”, “acaricide/repellent” (permethrin) and “acaricide only” (fipronil) animals and subjected to tick infestation under natural conditions in Burgenland (Eastern Austria), were examined. The number and species of ticks occurring during and outside the protection time was evaluated during a period of 11 months and the biting location on the dogs’ skin was recorded.

Results

Of the 700 ticks collected, the most common species in that particular walking area was Ixodes ricinus, followed by Dermacentor reticulatus and Haemaphysalis concinna. Regarding the on-host activity, D. reticulatus displayed more infestations in early spring and late autumn, whereas I. ricinus occurred almost one month later in spring and one month earlier in autumn. H. concinna followed a monophasic pattern of activity with a peak in summer. The preferred feeding sites of the ticks on the dogs were on the head, neck, shoulder and chest. This distribution over the dog’s body was not influenced by the use of the drugs, although on the whole fewer ticks (22.5% of all ticks) were found during the protection time. Interestingly, differences occurred with the use of drugs compared to non-protected dogs with regard to the infestation over the year. Acaricide-treated dogs displayed a higher prevalence in April, May and September, whereas dogs of the acaricide/repellent group showed a higher infestation in March, July, October and November.

Conclusion

The different tick species display different on-dog activity peaks over the year, during which particular canine diseases can be expected and predicted, considering the specific incubation times for each pathogen.

The tick species occurring in this study do not seem to choose particular sites on the dogs. Their arrival place seems to represent the attachment and consequently the feeding sites. The use of acaricides leads to a significantly (p<0.01) lower number of infesting ticks but no change of the distribution pattern on the dogs was observed.