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la Cruz-Saldana TD, Bustos JA, Requena-Herrera MP, Martinez-Merizalde N, Ortiz-Cam L, Cáceres AL, Guzman C, Gavidia CM, Ugarte-Gil C, Castillo-Neyra R. A scoping review on control strategies for Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2024.08.21.24312335. [PMID: 39228722 PMCID: PMC11370509 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.21.24312335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2024]
Abstract
Background Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a widespread neglected zoonotic disease caused by Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (EG) with a global burden of control in the billions of dollars. E. granulosus' life cycle involves definitive, intermediate, and humans as dead-end hosts. Echinococcosis control programs use strategies that focus on any of these hosts. We aimed to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the EG control interventions worldwide. Methods We conducted a scoping review by mapping all studies on interventions for EG control following the Arksey and O'Malley Framework. We screened identified articles, and charted and coded selected papers. We classified the data based on target host, type of study, and control mechanism. We described the efficacy or safety outcomes, and the associated barriers/facilitators for the intervention. Critical appraisal was conducted. Results From 7,853 screened studies, we analyzed 45: seven centered on human interventions, 21 on animals, and 17 on both. Studies on humans focused on educational strategies and human CE monitoring. The studies on animals were field trials and most were based on Praziquantel (PZQ) for dogs. Studies focused on both animals and humans had, in general, more participants, lasted longer, and covered larger geographical areas. Overall, the quality of studies was moderate to low. Conclusions Available evidence suggests that long-term interventions aimed at both animals and humans can achieve significant reduction in EG transmission, particularly when PZQ treatment for dogs is included. Higher quality evidence, standardization of methodologies, and better reporting on post-intervention outcomes are necessary for drawing stronger conclusions. Further evidence is needed to assess the sustainability and scalability of control measures. Nonetheless, an integrative One Health approach is essential for overcoming the multiple challenges associated with sustaining long-term control efforts for Echinococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania De la Cruz-Saldana
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Center for Global Health, School of Health Sciences, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas (UPC), Lima, Perú
| | - Javier A Bustos
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Center for Global Health, School of Health Sciences, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas (UPC), Lima, Perú
| | - Maria P Requena-Herrera
- One Health Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | | | - Lizzie Ortiz-Cam
- One Health Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Ana Lucía Cáceres
- School of Medicine, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Carolina Guzman
- Center for Global Health, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- School of Medicine, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Cesar M Gavidia
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
| | - Cesar Ugarte-Gil
- Department of Epidemiology. School of Public and Population Health, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Ricardo Castillo-Neyra
- One Health Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology & Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine at University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Nocerino M, Pepe P, Ciccone E, Maurelli MP, Bosco A, Boué F, Umhang G, Lahmar S, Said Y, Sotiraki S, Ligda P, Laatamna A, Reghaissia N, Saralli G, Musella V, Alterisio MC, Piegari G, Rinaldi L. Epidemiological update of cystic echinococcosis in livestock and assessment of practices related to its control in the Mediterranean area. Acta Trop 2024; 255:107240. [PMID: 38705342 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus, is a zoonotic parasitic disease that still represents a serious threat to human and animal health worldwide. The Mediterranean basin is recognized as one of the major hotspots of CE due to several factors, including the presence of diverse intermediate host species as well as socio-economic and cultural conditions of local communities. This study aims to take a closer look at epidemiological data on CE in the Mediterranean area and assess the knowledge attitudes and practices of shepherds towards this disease in four countries (Algeria, Greece, Italy and Tunisia), highly endemic for CE, with the final goal of identifying highly endemic risk areas and practices in use which might potentially allow the persistence of E. granulosus infection in these areas. To update the epidemiological scenario of CE in Mediterranean areas, a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature on CE prevalence data published during the 2017-2023 period was carried out and, through a geographical information system (GIS), a map displaying the current CE distribution in the Mediterranean area was generated. In addition, a questionnaire survey was conducted through in-depth interviews of the farmers to collect information on their management system as well as knowledge attitudes and practices towards CE. From the farmer-participatory survey some risky practices emerged including the non-regular deworming of dogs or the use of ineffective drugs or dosing, as well as the provision of uncooked animal viscera to dogs. Finally, lower levels of knowledge and awareness of the disease was observed among farmers from North Africa compared with those of European countries. In conclusion, the results obtained highlight that CE is still a very serious problem in Mediterranean areas and increased efforts are needed to promote awareness among farmers and to turn research results into policy in order to reduce the spread of this disease, according to the One Health perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Nocerino
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy
| | - Paola Pepe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy.
| | - Elena Ciccone
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy; Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Maurelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy; Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Antonio Bosco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy; Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Franck Boué
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire, BP 40009, Malzéville 54220, France
| | - Gérald Umhang
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire, BP 40009, Malzéville 54220, France
| | - Samia Lahmar
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, University of Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Yousra Said
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, University of Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Smaragda Sotiraki
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation-Demeter, Thessaloniki 57001, Greece
| | - Panagiota Ligda
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation-Demeter, Thessaloniki 57001, Greece
| | - AbdElkarim Laatamna
- Laboratory of Exploration and Valorization of Steppic Ecosystems, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Djelfa, Moudjbara Road, BP, Djelfa 3117, Algeria
| | - Nassiba Reghaissia
- Institute of Agronomic and Veterinary Sciences, University of Souk Ahras, Annaba Road, Souk Ahras 41000, Algeria
| | - Giorgio Saralli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Musella
- Department of Health Science, University "Magna Græcia" of Catanzaro, Viale Europa, Catanzaro 88100, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Alterisio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Piegari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples 80137, Italy; Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
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3
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Ciccone E, Bosco A, Pepe P, Nocerino M, Lattero N, Umhang G, AbdElkarim L, Lahmar S, Said Y, Saralli G, Piegari G, Alterisio MC, Baka R, Sotiraki S, Boué F, Rinaldi L. Baiting not-owned dogs against Echinococcus granulosus: innovative tools for integrated control. Parasitology 2024; 151:421-428. [PMID: 38576256 PMCID: PMC11044063 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182024000258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by the larval stage of the cestode Echinococcus granulosus, is one of the most widespread zoonoses in Mediterranean countries. Baiting not-owned dogs with praziquantel (PZQ), due to their key role in the maintaining the transmission of CE, currently appears to be the most effective way to limit the transmission of CE, as well as an important aspect to introduce for the control of this parasitic disease. Therefore, this study aims to test 3 types of PZQ-based baits by evaluating different parameters (integrity over time, attractiveness and palatability for dogs, and mechanical resistance after release to different altitudes) and the bait acceptance in field by target animals, i.e. not-owned dogs, by using camera traps. The double PZQ-laced baits (with a double layer of highly palatable chews) showed the greatest resistance in the environment while also preserving the attractiveness and palatability up to 10 days, also withstood heights of 25 m, thus resulting as the most suitable also for drone delivery. The results on the field showed that most of the baits were consumed by not-owned dogs (82.2%), while the remaining were consumed by wild boars (8.9%), foxes (6.7%), badgers (1.1%) and hedgehogs (1.1%), confirming the specific and high attractiveness of the double PZQ-laced baits for the target population and highlights how an anthelmintic baiting programme may be a viable tool for the management of E. granulosus among free-ranging dog populations in endemic rural areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ciccone
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Center for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Antonio Bosco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Center for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Paola Pepe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Martina Nocerino
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Nicola Lattero
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Center for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
| | - Gerald Umhang
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire, BP 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France
| | - Laatamna AbdElkarim
- Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, Laboratory of Exploration and Valorization of Steppic Ecosystems, University of Djelfa, Moudjbara Road, BP 3117, Djelfa, Algeria
| | - Samia Lahmar
- Parasitology Laboratory, National School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Yousra Said
- Parasitology Laboratory, National School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Giorgio Saralli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale of Lazio and Tuscany M. Aleandri, Via Appia Nuova, 00178 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Piegari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Alterisio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Rania Baka
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organization-Demeter, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Smaragda Sotiraki
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organization-Demeter, 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Franck Boué
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire, BP 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Center for Animal Health (CRESAN), Campania Region, Italy
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4
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Nocerino M, Pepe P, Bosco A, Ciccone E, Maurelli MP, Boué F, Umhang G, Pellegrini J, Lahmar S, Said Y, Sotiraki S, Ligda P, Laatamna A, Saralli G, Paciello O, Alterisio MC, Rinaldi L. An innovative strategy for deworming dogs in Mediterranean areas highly endemic for cystic echinococcosis. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:86. [PMID: 38395867 PMCID: PMC10893745 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06184-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cystic echinococcosis (CE), caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato, is a zoonotic parasitic disease of economic and public health importance worldwide, especially in the Mediterranean area. Canids are the main definitive hosts of the adult cestode contaminating the environment with parasite eggs released with feces. In rural and peri-urban areas, the risk of transmission to livestock as well as humans is high because of the free-roaming behavior of owned/not owned dogs. Collecting data on animal movements and behavior using GPS dataloggers could be a milestone to contain the spread of this parasitosis. Thus, this study aims to develop a comprehensive control strategy, focused on deworming a dog population in a pilot area of southern Italy (Campania region) highly endemic for CE. METHODS Accordingly, five sheep farms, tested to be positive for CE, were selected. In each sheep farm, all shepherd dogs present were treated every 2 months with praziquantel. Furthermore, 15 GPS dataloggers were applied to sheep and dogs, and their movements were tracked for 1 month; the distances that they traveled and their respective home ranges were determined using minimum convex polygon (MCP) analysis with a convex hull geometry as output. RESULTS The results showed that the mean daily walking distances traveled by sheep and dogs did not significantly differ. Over 90% of the point locations collected by GPS fell within 1500 mt of the farm, and the longest distances were traveled between 10:00 and 17:00. In all the sheep farms monitored, the area traversed by the animals during their daily activities showed an extension of < 250 hectares. Based on the home range of the animals, the area with the highest risk of access from canids (minimum safe convex polygon) was estimated around the centroid of each farm, and a potential scheme for the delivery of praziquantel-laced baits for the treatment of not owned dogs gravitating around the grazing area was designed. CONCLUSIONS This study documents the usefulness of geospatial technology in supporting parasite control strategies to reduce disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Nocerino
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Paola Pepe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy.
| | - Antonio Bosco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Naples, Campania Region, Italy
| | - Elena Ciccone
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Naples, Campania Region, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Maurelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Naples, Campania Region, Italy
| | - Franck Boué
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle Agricole et Vétérinaire, BP 40009, 54220, Malzéville, France
| | - Gérald Umhang
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle Agricole et Vétérinaire, BP 40009, 54220, Malzéville, France
| | - Justine Pellegrini
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife Diseases, Technopôle Agricole et Vétérinaire, BP 40009, 54220, Malzéville, France
| | - Samia Lahmar
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Univ., Manouba, Tunisie
| | - Yousra Said
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Univ., Manouba, Tunisie
| | - Smaragda Sotiraki
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation-Demeter, 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Panagiota Ligda
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hellenic Agricultural Organisation-Demeter, 57001, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - AbdElkarim Laatamna
- Laboratory of Exploration and Valorization of Steppic Ecosystems, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, University of Djelfa, Moudjbara Road, BP 3117, Djelfa, Algeria
| | - Giorgio Saralli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, Rome, Italy
| | - Orlando Paciello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Alterisio
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, 80137, Naples, Italy
- Regional Reference Centre for Animal Health (CRESAN), Naples, Campania Region, Italy
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5
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Milano A, Robbiati C, Declich S, Calistri P, Pediconi O, Amato L, Paronyan L, Avetisyan L, Manucharyan A, Avetisyan G, Yesayan T, Gevorgyan A, Markosyan T, Dente MG. Assessing the Adoption of One Health Approaches in National Plans to Combat Health Threats: The Pilot of a One Health Conceptual Framework in Armenia. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:22. [PMID: 38251220 PMCID: PMC10819525 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Due to several factors, such as environmental and climate changes, the risk of health threats originating at the human-animal-environment interface, including vector-borne diseases (VBDs) and zoonoses, is increasing. Low-resource settings struggle to counter these multidimensional risks due to their already-strained health systems and are therefore disproportionally affected by the impact caused by these changes. Systemic approaches like One Health (OH) are sought to strengthen prevention and preparedness strategies by addressing the drivers of potential threats with a multidisciplinary and multisectoral approach, considering the whole system at the human-animal-environment interface. The integration of OH in national plans can be challenging due to the lack of effective coordination and collaboration among different sectors. To support the process of knowledge coproduction about the level of OH integration in prevention and preparedness strategies against health threats in Armenia, a situation analysis was performed on Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever/virus and anthrax (identified by local stakeholders as priorities to be addressed with the OH approach), and actions to strengthen the national OH system were identified with the support of a OH conceptual framework. The study highlighted that multidisciplinary and multisectoral efforts towards prevention and preparedness against VBDs and zoonoses threats need to be strengthened in Armenia, and priority actions to integrate the OH approach were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Milano
- National Center for Global Health, Italian National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità), 00161 Rome, Italy
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia Robbiati
- National Center for Global Health, Italian National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità), 00161 Rome, Italy
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Declich
- National Center for Global Health, Italian National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Calistri
- National Reference Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology, Programming, Information and Risk Analysis (COVEPI), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Ombretta Pediconi
- Training and Project Management Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Laura Amato
- National Reference Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology, Programming, Information and Risk Analysis (COVEPI), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Lusine Paronyan
- Zoonotic and Parasitic Diseases Epidemiology Department, National Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yerevan 0096, Armenia
| | - Lilit Avetisyan
- National Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yerevan 0096, Armenia
| | - Arsen Manucharyan
- Reference Laboratory Center Reference Laboratory of Episootology, Ectoparasitology and Entomology, National Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yerevan 0096, Armenia
| | - Georgi Avetisyan
- Veterinary Inspectorate, Food Safety Inspection Body, MoE, Yerevan 0010, Armenia
| | - Tigran Yesayan
- Veterinary Inspectorate, Food Safety Inspection Body, MoE, Yerevan 0010, Armenia
| | - Arman Gevorgyan
- Veterinary Inspectorate, Food Safety Inspection Body, MoE, Yerevan 0010, Armenia
| | | | - Maria Grazia Dente
- National Center for Global Health, Italian National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità), 00161 Rome, Italy
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6
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De Biase D, Prisco F, Pepe P, Bosco A, Piegari G, d'Aquino I, Russo V, Papparella S, Maurelli MP, Rinaldi L, Paciello O. Evaluation of the Local Immune Response to Hydatid Cysts in Sheep Liver. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10050315. [PMID: 37235398 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10050315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to characterize the inflammatory phenotype of livers of sheep naturally infected by cystic echinococcosis, 100 sheep livers have been macroscopically assessed for the presence of hydatid cysts and sampled for histopathological and molecular analysis. According to gross and microscopic examination, livers were subsequently classified into three groups: normal liver (Group A), liver with the presence of fertile hydatid cysts (Group B), and liver with the presence of sterile hydatid cysts (Group C). Immunohistochemical analyses were accomplished using primary antibodies anti-Iba1, anti-CD3, anti-CD20, anti-TGF-β, and anti-MMP9. Finally, real-time PCR was performed in order to estimate the concentration levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (INF-γ), interleukin (IL)-12, IL-10, and TGF-β. Immunohistochemical analysis showed a diffuse immunolabelling of mononuclear cells for Iba-1 and TGF-β and a higher amount of CD20+ B cells compared to CD3+ T cells in both Groups B and C. The expression levels of Th-1-like immune cytokines TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-12 did not show significant statistical differences. However, we found a significant increase in expression levels of Th-2 immune cytokines TGF-β and IL-10 in Groups B and C compared to Group A. Taken together, our findings suggest that macrophages have a predominant role in the local immune response to cystic echinococcosis. Moreover, we can speculate that Th2 immunity may be dominant, corroborating the idea that B cells are decisively essential in the control of the immune response during parasitic infection and that the immunomodulatory role of IL-10 and TGF-β may ensure the persistence of the parasite within the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide De Biase
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy
| | - Francesco Prisco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Paola Pepe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Antonio Bosco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Piegari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Ilaria d'Aquino
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Valeria Russo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Serenella Papparella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Maurelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
| | - Orlando Paciello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Napoli "Federico II", CREMOPAR, Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Napoli, Italy
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7
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Saarma U, Skirnisson K, Björnsdottir TS, Laurimäe T, Kinkar L. Cystic echinococcosis in Iceland: a brief history and genetic analysis of a 46-year-old Echinococcus isolate collected prior to the eradication of this zoonotic disease. Parasitology 2023:1-6. [PMID: 37161714 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182023000355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is considered the most severe parasitic disease that ever affected the human population in Iceland. Before the start of eradication campaign in the 1860s, Iceland was a country with very high prevalence of human CE, with approximately every fifth person infected. Eradication of CE from Iceland by 1979 was a huge success story and served as a leading example for other countries on how to combat such a severe One Health problem. However, there is no genetic information on Echinococcus parasites before eradication. Here, we reveal the genetic identity for one of the last Echinococcus isolates in Iceland, obtained from a sheep 46 years ago (1977). We sequenced a large portion of the mitochondrial genome (8141 bp) and identified the isolate as Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto genotype G1. As G1 is known to be highly infective genotype to humans, it may partly explain why such a large proportion of human population in Iceland was infected at a time . The study demonstrates that decades-old samples hold significant potential to uncover genetic identities of parasites in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urmas Saarma
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Karl Skirnisson
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | | | - Teivi Laurimäe
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Liina Kinkar
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, J. Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
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Entezami M, Nocerino M, Widdicombe J, Bosco A, Cringoli G, Casulli A, Iacono GL, Rinaldi L, Prada JM. The spatial distribution of cystic echinococcosis in Italian ruminant farms from routine surveillance data. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2022.1034572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
IntroductionCystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic parasite caused by the cestode Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) which predominantly affects livestock. The disease is endemic in central-southern and insular Italy, with CE particularly infecting sheep, goats, cattle, and water buffalo. The spatial distribution of CE in endemic regions is not widely understood, with surveillance efforts varying across the region.MethodsIn this study, we investigated the spatial distribution of CE in livestock using samples from farms across different livestock species using a Stochastic Partial Differential Equations (SPDE) model. Samples were collected during a survey conducted in the area of central-southern and insular Italy between the years 2019 – 2021.ResultsA total of 3141 animal samples (126 goats, 601 sheep and 2414 cattle and water buffalo) were inspected for Echinococcus s.l. cysts through routine surveillance in abattoirs by postmortem visual examination, palpation and incision of target organs. The geographic location of the farm of origin (a total of 2,878) for each sample was recorded. CE prevalence of 46.0% (1,323/2,878) was estimated at the farm level with 78.3% (462/590) of farms with sheep, 28.6% (36/126) of farms with goats, 36.5% (747/2,049) of farms with cattle, and 23.5% (102/434) of farms with water buffalo infected.DiscussionThe spatial model evaluated the probability of infection in farms across the sampled regions, with the distribution of CE showing high clustering of infected cattle farms in Sardinia and Sicily regions, and sheep farms in Salerno province (Campania region). The output of this study can be used to identify CE hot-spots and to improve surveillance and control programs in endemic areas of Italy.
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In vitro Scolicidal Efficacy of 5-Fluorouracil and Radiation Against Protoscoleces of Echinococcus granulosus Sensu Lato. Acta Parasitol 2022; 67:820-826. [PMID: 35113338 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-022-00518-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) is a globally distributed zoonosis. CE treatment is difficult, but radiation and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) can be effective. However, the combination of radiation and 5-FU has not been reported. This study evaluated the effect of combination of 5-FU and radiation on E. granulosus s.l. protoscoleces (PSCs). MATERIAL AND METHODS In this study, PSCs were collected from the liver of diseased sheep, and some were exposed to a single dose of 20 Gy 6-MV X-ray combined with (5 μg/mL or 10 μg/mL) 5-FU in vitro. Methylene blue staining was used to detect the viability of the PSCs. Transcription of EgHSP70 and Egp38 was measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT- PCR). RESULTS A single dose of radiation killed 18% of the PSCs, and 5-FU showed weak parasiticidal efficacy on the first day of treatment. After 14 d, 5 μg and 10 μg/mL of 5-FU killed 40.20% and 50.02% of the PSCs, whereas 20 Gy of radiation killed 31.44%. The combination of 5-FU (10 μg/mL) with 20 Gy of radiation showed 77.55% killing efficacy. qRT-PCR showed that 5-FU inhibited Egp38 expression, whereas radiation increased its expression. EgHSP70 was highly expressed 14 days after radiation treatment. The data indicate that 5-FU has parasiticidal efficacy against the PSCs of E. granulosus s.l. CONCLUSION The lethal efficacy of PSCs caused by a single dose of radiation exposure is related to the upregulated expression level of Egp38 and EgHSP70. The killing effect of 5-FU (10 μg/mL) with 20Gy of radiation was significantly better than that of single treatment group. This study provided a basis for the potential role of 5-FU combined with radiation in the treatment of CE.
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Ultrasonography of Parasitic Diseases in Domestic Animals: A Systematic Review. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12101252. [PMID: 35625097 PMCID: PMC9137995 DOI: 10.3390/ani12101252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The aim of this literature review was to summarize the current knowledge on the application of ultrasonography in diagnosis, staging and monitoring of helminthic diseases in domestic animals. We selected and analyzed 122 papers about the application of ultrasonography in parasitic disease in ruminants, equids, swine, and companion animals. Helminths can be recognized in ultrasound images by their morphology, size, and location. In some cases, the parasites are not directly seen by ultrasound, but the lesions caused by them can be easily visualized. Ultrasound imaging is taking on an increasingly important role in veterinary parasitology. Abstract The aim of this review was to summarize the current knowledge on the application of ultrasonography in diagnosis, staging and monitoring of helminthic diseases in domestic animals. Only peer reviewed papers written in English language were included in this systematic review. All papers concerning unicellular parasites, wild animals, non-domestic experimental animals, or ex vivo or in vitro applications of ultrasonography were excluded from the review. A total of 122 papers met the inclusion criteria. Among them 47% concerned nematodes, 37% cestodes, and 16% trematodes with the genus Dirofilaria, Echinococcus, and Fasciola the most represented, respectively. Helminths can be recognized in ultrasound images by their morphology, size, and location. In some cases, the parasite stages are not directly seen by ultrasound, but the lesions caused by them can be easily visualized. Ultrasound imaging is taking on an increasingly important role in the diagnosis, staging, monitoring, and control of parasitic diseases in veterinary medicine. However, it cannot replace the clinical approach and the diagnostic tests commonly used in veterinary parasitology.
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Sarıözkan S, Küçükoflaz M. Estimating the production losses due to cystic echinococcosis in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Turkey. Vet Res Commun 2021; 46:203-208. [PMID: 34651281 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-021-09848-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The current study aimed at estimating the direct (condemned offal) and indirect (meat, milk, and fecundity losses) production losses due to cystic echinococcosis (CE) in water buffaloes in Turkey. A spreadsheet loss model was constructed, and the mean prevalence ratio of CE was accepted as 3.8% in male and 21.7% in female buffaloes. The annual financial losses were estimated with official and previously published data under expected (mean value), optimistic (lowered by 10%), and pessimistic (increased by 10%) scenarios with the prices current in 2021. The production losses in an infected male and female water buffalo were estimated at $54.5 ($49.1-59.9) and $89.9 ($80.9-98.9), respectively. Due to CE, the nationwide annual total production losses were estimated at $1.5 million ($1.3-1.6) for water buffaloes in Turkey. In conclusion, farmers, policymakers, and the public need to be informed about CE's risks and financial impact. Control/eradication programs should be included in government policies at the national level after a cost/benefit analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savaş Sarıözkan
- Department of Animal Health Economics and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey.
| | - Mehmet Küçükoflaz
- Department of Animal Science, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
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Bosco A, Alves LC, Cociancic P, Amadesi A, Pepe P, Morgoglione ME, Maurelli MP, Ferrer-Miranda E, Santoro KR, Nascimento Ramos RA, Rinaldi L, Cringoli G. Epidemiology and spatial distribution of Echinococcus granulosus in sheep and goats slaughtered in a hyperendemic European Mediterranean area. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:421. [PMID: 34419132 PMCID: PMC8380321 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04934-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a worldwide parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato affecting livestock, particularly sheep and goats. However, often this parasitosis is underestimated. For this reason, this study aimed to evaluate the epidemiological features and spatial distribution of CE in sheep and goats slaughtered in a hyperendemic Mediterranean area. Methods A survey was conducted in the Basilicata region (southern Italy) from 2014 to 2019. A total of 1454 animals (1265 sheep and 189 goats) from 824 farms were examined for hydatid cyst detection by visual inspection, palpation and incision of target organs. All the CE cysts were counted and classified into five morphostructural types (unilocular, multiseptate, calcified, caseous and hyperlaminated). Molecular analysis was performed on 353 cysts. For spatial analysis, a kriging interpolation method was used to create risk maps, while clustering was assessed by Moran’s I test. Results CE prevalence of 72.2% (595/824) and 58.4% (849/1454) was observed at the farm and animal levels, respectively, with higher values in sheep (62.9%) than goats (28.0%). The liver and lungs were the most frequently infected organs in both sheep and goats. Most of recovered cysts were of the calcified and multiseptate morphotypes. All the isolates were identified as E. granulosus sensu stricto (genotypes G1–G3). Spatial distribution showed a moderate clustering of positive animals. Conclusion The findings of this study can be used to better understand the eco-epidemiology of echinococcosis and to improve CE surveillance and prevention programs in regions highly endemic for CE. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bosco
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Leucio Camara Alves
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Paola Cociancic
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy.,Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores (CEPAVE-CONICET-UNLP-asociado a CICPBA), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alessandra Amadesi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Paola Pepe
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Maria Elena Morgoglione
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Maria Paola Maurelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy.
| | - Edyniesky Ferrer-Miranda
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Agreste of Pernambuco, Garanhuns, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Kleber Régis Santoro
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Agreste of Pernambuco, Garanhuns, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cringoli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, CREMOPAR, Naples, Campania, Italy
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Barlaam A, Temesgen TT, Tysnes KR, Rinaldi L, Ferrari N, Sannella AR, Normanno G, Cacciò SM, Robertson LJ, Giangaspero A. Contamination of fresh produce sold on the Italian market with Cyclospora cayetanensis and Echinococcus multilocularis. Food Microbiol 2021; 98:103792. [PMID: 33875219 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the presence of Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii and Echinococcus spp. in fresh produce sold in Italy, 324 locally produced 'ready-to-eat' (RTE) mixed-salad packages belonging to three brands and 324 berries packages (blueberries and blackberries imported from Peru and Mexico, respectively, and raspberries grown in Italy) were purchased at retail. Nine individual packages from each of the six types of fresh produce were collected monthly for one year, and with the same produce pooled, this resulted in a total of 72 pools for the whole year. Using microscopy (FLOTAC), a Cyclospora-like oocyst was detected in a blueberry sample and a taeniid egg was detected in a RTE-salad sample. Molecular tools confirmed these to be C. cayetanensis and Echinococcus multilocularis, respectively. Toxoplasma gondii was not detected in any of the samples. This study shows for the first time in Europe that imported berries on the Italian market may be contaminated with C. cayetanensis and RTE salads grown in Italy with E. multilocularis. The results indicate a new epidemiological scenario and highlight that current management of fresh produce, locally produced or imported, does not ensure products are free from parasite contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Barlaam
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71121, Foggia, Italy.
| | - Tamirat T Temesgen
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Adamstuen Campus, P.O. Box 369 Sentrum, 0102, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristoffer R Tysnes
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Adamstuen Campus, P.O. Box 369 Sentrum, 0102, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura Rinaldi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Nicola Ferrari
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna R Sannella
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Normanno
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71121, Foggia, Italy
| | - Simone M Cacciò
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucy J Robertson
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Adamstuen Campus, P.O. Box 369 Sentrum, 0102, Oslo, Norway
| | - Annunziata Giangaspero
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, 71121, Foggia, Italy
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Borriello G, Guccione J, Di Loria A, Bosco A, Pepe P, Prisco F, Cringoli G, Paciello O, Rinaldi L, Ciaramella P. Fast Focus Ultrasound Liver Technique for the Assessment of Cystic Echinococcosis in Sheep. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020452. [PMID: 33572256 PMCID: PMC7914832 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. The liver ultrasonography can be considered as the gold standard for the in vivo diagnosis detection of CE. Nevertheless, control programs against E. granulosus are considered long-term actions that require an integrated approach and the high expenditure of time and financial resources. This parasitosis still causes severe economic losses both in human healthcare and in the entire livestock breeding system, with loss in milk, meat, and wool production. Considering the impact of this zoonosis in the modern sheep’s breeding system, a reliable hepatic ultrasound could represent an innovative strategy to control and even eradicate the disease in sheep farms. Based on these considerations, the present study aimed to evaluate a fast-focused technique for hepatic CE detection in different sheep breeds and compare the performance of the latter with another fast-scan (previously evaluated in Sarda sheep breed), the complete ultrasound liver examination, and the anatomopathological examination. Abstract A complete ultrasound examination (cUS) of the liver was performed on 172 female sheep and compared to the performance of a fast-focused ultrasound technique to diagnose echinococcal cysts. The scanned area was divided in: HYP (right hypocondrium), zone (Z)1 from HYP to the 11th intercostal space (IS), Z2 (10th–8th IS) and Z3 (7th–5th IS). Contiguous scans were also examined (HYP + Z1, Z1 + Z2, Z2 + Z3). Furthermore, during the procedures, the sheep were divided into three groups according to the body weight: Group (G) 1 (lighter), G2 (medium), and G3 (heavier). Finally, diagnostic outcomes were compared with necropsy findings. cUS obtained the highest values of sensitivity (Se) (91%), Specificity (Sp) (80%), and positive-zones (124/138, 90%), as compared to the other scans. cUS was also characterized by high values of Se and Sp and was able to identify a great number of positive-zones, when sheep were divided by body-weight groups. Similar performances were obtained in G1 by HYP (Se: 91%–Sp: 82%; 18/20, 90% of positive-zones) and HYP + Z1 scans (Se: 91%–Sp: 82; 90% of positive-zones, 18/20). Thus, in lighter breeds, the examination of HYP and HYP + Z1 scan windows could be considered reliable techniques for identifying the infected animals, while in heavier sheep the cUS still represents the best option.
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