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Park IW, Fiadjoe HK, Chaudhary P. Impact of Annexin A2 on virus life cycles. Virus Res 2024; 345:199384. [PMID: 38702018 PMCID: PMC11091703 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2024.199384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Due to the limited size of viral genomes, hijacking host machinery by the viruses taking place throughout the virus life cycle is inevitable for the survival and proliferation of the virus in the infected hosts. Recent reports indicated that Annexin A2 (AnxA2), a calcium- and lipid-binding cellular protein, plays an important role as a critical regulator in various steps of the virus life cycle. The multifarious AnxA2 functions in cells, such as adhesion, adsorption, endocytosis, exocytosis, cell proliferation and division, inflammation, cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, etc., are intimately related to the various clinical courses of viral infection. Ubiquitous expression of AnxA2 across multiple cell types indicates the broad range of susceptibility of diverse species of the virus to induce disparate viral disease in various tissues, and intracellular expression of AnxA2 in the cytoplasmic membrane, cytosol, and nucleus suggests the involvement of AnxA2 in the regulation of the different stages of various virus life cycles within host cells. However, it is yet unclear as to the molecular processes on how AnxA2 and the infected virus interplay to regulate virus life cycles and thereby the virus-associated disease courses, and hence elucidation of the molecular mechanisms on AnxA2-mediated virus life cycle will provide essential clues to develop therapeutics deterring viral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- In-Woo Park
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, United States.
| | - Hope K Fiadjoe
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, United States
| | - Pankaj Chaudhary
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Genetics, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, United States.
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2
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Calado M, Ferreira R, Pires D, Santos-Costa Q, Anes E, Brites D, Azevedo-Pereira JM. Unravelling the triad of neuroinvasion, neurodissemination, and neuroinflammation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the central nervous system. Rev Med Virol 2024; 34:e2534. [PMID: 38588024 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Since the identification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in 1983, many improvements have been made to control viral replication in the peripheral blood and to treat opportunistic infections. This has increased life expectancy but also the incidence of age-related central nervous system (CNS) disorders and HIV-associated neurodegeneration/neurocognitive impairment and depression collectively referred to as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). HAND encompasses a spectrum of different clinical presentations ranging from milder forms such as asymptomatic neurocognitive impairment or mild neurocognitive disorder to a severe HIV-associated dementia (HAD). Although control of viral replication and suppression of plasma viral load with combination antiretroviral therapy has reduced the incidence of HAD, it has not reversed milder forms of HAND. The objective of this review, is to describe the mechanisms by which HIV-1 invades and disseminates in the CNS, a crucial event leading to HAND. The review will present the evidence that underlies the relationship between HIV infection and HAND. Additionally, recent findings explaining the role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of HAND will be discussed, along with prospects for treatment and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Calado
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Ferreira
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David Pires
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health, Católica Medical School, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Estrada Octávio Pato, Rio de Mouro, Portugal
| | - Quirina Santos-Costa
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Elsa Anes
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Dora Brites
- Neuroinflammation, Signaling and Neuroregeneration Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - José Miguel Azevedo-Pereira
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Verma AS, Singh UP, Dwivedi PD, Singh A. Contribution of CNS cells in NeuroAIDS. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2011; 2:300-6. [PMID: 21180461 PMCID: PMC2996080 DOI: 10.4103/0975-7406.72129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
NeuroAIDS is becoming a major health problem among AIDS patients and long-term HIV survivors. As per 2009 estimates of UNAIDS report, more than 34 million people have been infected with HIV out of which ≥ 50% show signs and symptoms of neuropsychiatric disorders. These disorders affect central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS). CNS is one of the most protected organ systems in body which is protected by blood-brain barrier (BBB). Not only this, most of the cells of CNS are negative for receptors and co-receptors for HIV infections. Neurons have been found to be completely nonpermissive for HIV infection. These facts suggest that neurotoxicity could be an indirect mechanism responsible for neuropsychiatric complications. In this review, we will discuss the importance of different cell types of CNS and their contribution toward neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Swarup Verma
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector -125, Noida (UP) - 201 303, India
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Shah S, Nonnemacher MR, Pirrone V, Wigdahl B. Innate and adaptive factors regulating human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genomic activation. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2010; 5:278-93. [PMID: 20387125 PMCID: PMC3057210 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-010-9207-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2009] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, antiretroviral therapy targeting the viral entry process, reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease, has prolonged the lives of people infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). However, despite the development of more effective therapeutic strategies, reservoirs of viral infection remain. This review discusses molecular mechanisms surrounding the development of latency from the site of integration to pre- and post-integration maintenance of latency, including epigenetic factors. In addition, an overview of innate and adaptive cells important to HIV-1 infection are examined from the viewpoint of cytokines released and cytokines that act on these cells to explore an overall understanding of HIV-1 proviral genome activation. Finally, this review is discussed from the viewpoint of how an understanding of the interplay of all of these factors will help guide the next generation of therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Shah
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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García-Crespo K, Cadilla C, Skolasky R, Meléndez LM. Restricted HIV-1 replication in placental macrophages is caused by inefficient viral transcription. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 87:633-6. [PMID: 20042472 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0809556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-infected PM show restricted replication as compared with MDM. We aimed to determine at what point in the viral replication cycle this restriction occurs in PM as compared with MDM. We performed Alu-LTR PCR for proviral DNA to detect differences in HIV integration, real-time RT-PCR to measure env and gag mRNA levels, and Western blot analysis to detect differences in viral protein expression. PM and MDM were infected with HIV-1 BaL, and DNA was extracted after 24 h and at 6 days p.i. for real-time PCR studies. At 6 and 12 days p.i., cells were lysed for Western blot analyses. We found no difference in viral integration between PM and MDM but significantly lower levels of viral protein gp120 in PM than in MDM. Real-time RT-PCR analyses revealed 24-fold less env mRNA and tenfold less gag mRNA in PM. These results suggest that HIV-1 restriction in PM occurs at the level of transcription. This study is significant, as it advances our understanding of HIV-1 infection in PM and its contribution to decreased in utero vertical transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- K García-Crespo
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
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Anx2 interacts with HIV-1 Gag at phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate-containing lipid rafts and increases viral production in 293T cells. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5020. [PMID: 19325895 PMCID: PMC2657825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The neuronal damage characteristic of HIV-1-mediated CNS diseases is inflicted by HIV-1 infected brain macrophages. Several steps of viral replication, including assembly and budding, differ between macrophages and T cells; it is likely that cell-specific host factors mediate these differences. We previously defined Annexin 2 (Anx2) as an HIV Gag binding partner in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) that promotes proper viral assembly. Anx2, a calcium-dependent membrane-binding protein that can aggregate phospholipid-containing lipid rafts, is expressed to high levels in macrophages, but not in T lymphocytes or the 293T cell line. Here, we use bimolecular fluorescence complementation in the 293T cell model to demonstrate that Anx2 and HIV-1 Gag interact at the phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate-containing lipid raft membrane domains at which Gag mediates viral assembly. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Anx2 expression in 293T cells increases Gag processing and HIV-1 production. These data provide new evidence that Anx2, by interacting with Gag at the membranes that support viral assembly, functions in the late stages of HIV-1 replication.
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Rivieccio MA, Suh HS, Zhao Y, Zhao ML, Chin KC, Lee SC, Brosnan CF. TLR3 ligation activates an antiviral response in human fetal astrocytes: a role for viperin/cig5. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:4735-41. [PMID: 16982913 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.7.4735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
TLR3 functions as a viral nucleic acid sentinel activated by dsRNA viruses and virus replication intermediates within intracellular vesicles. To explore the spectrum of genes induced in human astrocytes by TLR3, we used a microarray approach and the analog polyriboinosinic polyribocytidylic acid (pIC) as ligand. As expected for TLR activation, pIC induced a wide array of cytokines and chemokines known for their role in inflammatory responses, as well as up-regulation of the receptor itself. The data also showed activation of a broad spectrum of antiviral response genes. To determine whether pIC induced an antiviral state in astrocytes, a pseudotyped HIV viral particle, vesicular stomatitis virus g-env-HIV-1, was used. pIC significantly abrogated HIV-1 replication, whereas IL-1, which also potently activates astrocytes, did not. One of the most highly up-regulated genes on microarray was the protein viperin/cig5. We found that viperin/cig5 expression was dependent on IFN regulatory factor 3 and NF-kappaB signaling, and that repetitive stimulation with pIC, but not IL-1, further increased expression. Viperin induction could also be substantially inhibited by neutralizing Abs to IFN-beta, as could HIV-1 replication. To explore a role for viperin in IFN-beta-mediated inhibition of HIV-1, we used an RNA interference (RNAi) approach. RNAi directed against viperin, but not a scrambled RNAi, significantly inhibited viperin expression, and also significantly reversed pIC-induced inhibition of HIV-1 replication. We conclude that viperin contributes to the antiviral state induced by TLR3 ligation in astrocytes, supporting a role for astrocytes as part of the innate immune response against infection in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Rivieccio
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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Leone C, Le Pavec G, Même W, Porcheray F, Samah B, Dormont D, Gras G. Characterization of human monocyte-derived microglia-like cells. Glia 2006; 54:183-92. [PMID: 16807899 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells are central to brain immunity and intervene in many human neurological diseases. The aim of this study was to develop a convenient cellular model for human microglial cells, suitable for HIV studies. Microglia derive from the hematogenous myelomonocytic lineage, possibly as a distinct subpopulation but in any case able to invade the CNS, proliferate, and differentiate into ameboid and then ramified microglia in the adult life. We thus attempted to derive microglia-like cells from human monocytes. When cultured with astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM), monocytes acquired a ramified morphology, typical of microglia. They overexpressed substance P and the calcium binding protein Iba-1 and dimly expressed class II MHC, three characteristics of microglial cells. Moreover, they also expressed a potassium inward rectifier current, another microglia-specific feature. These monocyte-derived microglia-like cells (MDMi) were CD4(+)/CD14(+), evocative of an activated microglia phenotype. When treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), MDMi lost their overexpression of substance P, which returned to untreated monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) level. Compared with MDM, MDMi expressed higher CD4 but lower CCR5 levels; they could be infected by HIV-1(BaL), but produced less virus progeny than MDM did. This model of human microglia may be an interesting alternative to primary microglia for large scale in vitro HIV studies and may help to better understand HIV-associated microgliosis and chronic inflammation in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathie Leone
- Laboratoire de Neuro-Immuno-Virologie, Service de Neurovirologie UMR E-01 CEA and Université Paris-Sud XI, CRSSA, IFR13 Institut Paris Sud Cytokines, Fontenay-aux Roses, France
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Ghafouri M, Amini S, Khalili K, Sawaya BE. HIV-1 associated dementia: symptoms and causes. Retrovirology 2006; 3:28. [PMID: 16712719 PMCID: PMC1513597 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-3-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2006] [Accepted: 05/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), neuronal cell death remains a problem that is frequently found in the brains of HIV-1-infected patients. HAART has successfully prevented many of the former end-stage complications of AIDS, however, with increased survival times, the prevalence of minor HIV-1 associated cognitive impairment appears to be rising among AIDS patients. Further, HIV-1 associated dementia (HAD) is still prevalent in treated patients as well as attenuated forms of HAD and CNS opportunistic disorders. HIV-associated cognitive impairment correlates with the increased presence in the CNS of activated, though not necessarily HIV-1-infected, microglia and CNS macrophages. This suggests that indirect mechanisms of neuronal injury and loss/death occur in HIV/AIDS as a basis for dementia since neurons are not themselves productively infected by HIV-1. In this review, we discussed the symptoms and causes leading to HAD. Outcome from this review will provide new information regarding mechanisms of neuronal loss in AIDS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ghafouri
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Temple University School of Medicine, Pennsylvania 19122, USA
| | - Shohreh Amini
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, USA
| | - Kamel Khalili
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Temple University School of Medicine, Pennsylvania 19122, USA
| | - Bassel E Sawaya
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neurovirology, Temple University School of Medicine, Pennsylvania 19122, USA
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Ryzhova EV, Vos RM, Albright AV, Harrist AV, Harvey T, González-Scarano F. Annexin 2: a novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag binding protein involved in replication in monocyte-derived macrophages. J Virol 2006; 80:2694-704. [PMID: 16501079 PMCID: PMC1395445 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.6.2694-2704.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication in the major natural target cells, CD4+ T lymphocytes and macrophages, is parallel in many aspects of the virus life cycle. However, it differs as to viral assembly and budding, which take place on plasma membranes in T cells and on endosomal membranes in macrophages. It has been postulated that cell type-specific host factors may aid in directing viral assembly to distinct destinations. In this study we defined annexin 2 (Anx2) as a novel HIV Gag binding partner in macrophages. Anx2-Gag binding was confined to productively infected macrophages and was not detected in quiescently infected monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) in which an HIV replication block was mapped to the late stages of the viral life cycle (A. V. Albright, R. M. Vos, and F. Gonzalez-Scarano, Virology 325:328-339, 2004). We demonstrate that the Anx2-Gag interaction likely occurs at the limiting membranes of late endosomes/multivesicular bodies and that Anx2 depletion is associated with a significant decline in the infectivity of released virions; this coincided with incomplete Gag processing and inefficient incorporation of CD63. Cumulatively, our data suggest that Anx2 is essential for the proper assembly of HIV in MDM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Ryzhova
- Department of Neurology and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3 W. Gates, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4283, USA
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Kramer-Hämmerle S, Rothenaigner I, Wolff H, Bell JE, Brack-Werner R. Cells of the central nervous system as targets and reservoirs of the human immunodeficiency virus. Virus Res 2005; 111:194-213. [PMID: 15885841 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The availability of highly active antiretroviral therapies (HAART) has not eliminated HIV-1 infection of the central nervous system (CNS) or the occurrence of HIV-associated neurological problems. Thus, the neurobiology of HIV-1 is still an important issue. Here, we review key features of HIV-1-cell interactions in the CNS and their contributions to persistence and pathogenicity of HIV-1 in the CNS. HIV-1 invades the brain very soon after systemic infection. Various mechanisms have been proposed for HIV-1 entry into the CNS. The most favored hypothesis is the migration of infected cells across the blood-brain barrier ("Trojan horse" hypothesis). Virus production in the CNS is not apparent before the onset of AIDS, indicating that HIV-1 replication in the CNS is successfully controlled in pre-AIDS. Brain macrophages and microglia cells are the chief producers of HIV-1 in brains of individuals with AIDS. HIV-1 enters these cells by the CD4 receptor and mainly the CCR5 coreceptor. Various in vivo and cell culture studies indicate that cells of neuroectodermal origin, particularly astrocytes, may also be infected by HIV-1. These cells restrict virus production and serve as reservoirs for HIV-1. A limited number of studies suggest restricted infection of oligodendrocytes and neurons, although infection of these cells is still controversial. Entry of HIV-1 into neuroectodermal cells is independent of the CD4 receptor, and a number of different cell-surface molecules have been implicated as alternate receptors of HIV-1. HIV-1-associated injury of the CNS is believed to be caused by numerous soluble factors released by glial cells as a consequence of HIV-1 infection. These include both viral and cellular factors. Some of these factors can directly induce neuronal injury and death by interacting with receptors on neuronal membranes (neurotoxic factors). Others can activate uninfected cells to produce inflammatory and neurotoxic factors and/or promote infiltration of monocytes and T-lymphocytes, thus amplifying the deleterious effects of HIV-1 infection. CNS responses to HIV-1 infection also include mechanisms that enhance neuronal survival and strengthen crucial neuronal support functions. Future challenges will be to develop strategies to prevent HIV-1 spread in the brain, bolster intrinsic defense mechanisms of the brain and to elucidate the impact of long-term persistence of HIV-1 on CNS functions in individuals without AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Kramer-Hämmerle
- Institute of Molecular Virology, GSF-National Research Center for Environment and Health, Ingolstädter Landstrasse 1, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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Albright AV, González-Scarano F. Microarray analysis of activated mixed glial (microglia) and monocyte-derived macrophage gene expression. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 157:27-38. [PMID: 15579277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Since macrophage activation can now be studied at a global level using modern microarray and proteomic analyses, discovery of novel macrophage activation genes is inevitable and important for understanding HIV-associated dementia (HAD). We isolated two different types of primary human macrophages: microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) from brain tissue and whole blood, respectively. The microarray analysis of differentially regulated macrophage activation genes reported here supports our previous assertions that the mixed glia (MIX) cultured in starvation conditions (DMEM alone) are a non-activated, or "quiescent", tissue culture model for studying macrophage activation in the brain. Transcript levels from these quiescent cultures provided a background level of gene expression and allowed for the identification of upregulated macrophage activation genes in the MIX brain cultures upon treatment with an array of soluble activation factors: serum components, cytokines, and growth factors. We found that 914 genes in the MIX cultures and 734 genes in the MDM cultures had a greater than twofold increase in expression. We discovered 180 genes with expression that was increased more than twofold in both culture types. Microarray-specific statistical analyses were performed to complement fold change analysis: significance analysis of microarrays (SAM) and Partek Pro. In the MIX cultures, we detected over a 100-fold increase in IL-1beta and TIMP1 transcription; Caspase 9, S100A8 and 9, MMP12, IL-8, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1), MRC-1, and IL-6 were also upregulated. Activation of starved MDM cultures resulted in fewer upregulated genes compared to MIX cultures. Genes upregulated in both MIX and MDM included CCL2 (MCP1), CCL7, CXCL5, TNFSF14, kinases, and phosphatases. These microarray data may provide leads for identifying previously unknown neurotoxins, disease biomarkers, and pathways responsible for the neuronal apoptosis observed in HAD and for the eventual identification of therapeutic targets and treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew V Albright
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, 255 Clinical Research Building, 415 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6146, USA.
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