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Freitas BCG, Dias DD, Reis LAM, Hernández LHA, Cereja GJGP, Aragão CF, da Silva SP, Nunes Neto JP, Elias CN, Cruz ACR. Evaluation of Multiple RNA Extraction Protocols for Chikungunya Virus Screening in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6700. [PMID: 38928410 PMCID: PMC11204034 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (Togaviridae, Alphavirus; CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne global health threat. The main urban vector of CHIKV is the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is found throughout Brazil. Therefore, it is important to carry out laboratory tests to assist in the virus's diagnosis and surveillance. Most molecular biology methodologies use nucleic acid extraction as the first step and require quality RNA for their execution. In this context, four RNA extraction protocols were evaluated in Ae. aegypti experimentally infected with CHIKV. Six pools were tested in triplicates (n = 18), each containing 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, or 40 mosquitoes per pool (72 tests). Four commercial kits were compared: QIAamp®, Maxwell®, PureLink®, and PureLink® with TRIzol®. The QIAamp® and PureLink® with TRIzol® kits had greater sensitivity. Two negative correlations were observed: as the number of mosquitoes per pool increases, the Ct value decreases, with a higher viral load. Significant differences were found when comparing the purity and concentration of RNA. The QIAamp® protocol performed better when it came to lower Ct values and higher RNA purity and concentration. These results may provide help in CHIKV entomovirological surveillance planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Caroline Garcia Freitas
- Parasite Biology in the Amazon Region Graduate Program, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil; (B.C.G.F.); (D.D.D.); (L.A.M.R.); (J.P.N.N.)
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Daniel Damous Dias
- Parasite Biology in the Amazon Region Graduate Program, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil; (B.C.G.F.); (D.D.D.); (L.A.M.R.); (J.P.N.N.)
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Lúcia Aline Moura Reis
- Parasite Biology in the Amazon Region Graduate Program, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil; (B.C.G.F.); (D.D.D.); (L.A.M.R.); (J.P.N.N.)
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Leonardo Henrique Almeida Hernández
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Glennda Juscely Galvão Pereira Cereja
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Carine Fortes Aragão
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Sandro Patroca da Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | - Joaquim Pinto Nunes Neto
- Parasite Biology in the Amazon Region Graduate Program, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil; (B.C.G.F.); (D.D.D.); (L.A.M.R.); (J.P.N.N.)
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
| | | | - Ana Cecília Ribeiro Cruz
- Parasite Biology in the Amazon Region Graduate Program, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil; (B.C.G.F.); (D.D.D.); (L.A.M.R.); (J.P.N.N.)
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil; (L.H.A.H.); (G.J.G.P.C.); (C.F.A.); (S.P.d.S.)
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Cruz ACR, Hernández LHA, Aragão CF, da Paz TYB, da Silva SP, da Silva FS, de Aquino AA, Cereja GJGP, do Nascimento BLS, Rosa Junior JW, Elias CN, Nogueira CG, Ramos DG, Fonseca V, Giovanetti M, Alcantara LCJ, Nunes BTD, Vasconcelos PFDC, Martins LC, Nunes-Neto JP. The Importance of Entomo-Virological Investigation of Yellow Fever Virus to Strengthen Surveillance in Brazil. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:329. [PMID: 37368747 PMCID: PMC10305592 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8060329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The largest outbreak of sylvatic yellow fever virus (YFV) in eight decades was recorded in Brazil between 2016-2018. Besides human and NHP surveillance, the entomo-virological approach is considered as a complementary tool. For this study, a total of 2904 mosquitoes of the Aedes, Haemagogus and Sabethes genera were collected from six Brazilian states (Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Pará, and Tocantins) and grouped into 246 pools, which were tested for YFV using RT-qPCR. We detected 20 positive pools from Minas Gerais, 5 from Goiás, and 1 from Bahia, including 12 of Hg. janthinomys and 5 of Ae. albopictus. This is the first description of natural YFV infection in this species and warns of the likelihood of urban YFV re-emergence with Ae. albopictus as a potential bridge vector. Three YFV sequences from Hg. janthinomys from Goiás and one from Minas Gerais, as well as one from Ae. albopictus from Minas Gerais were clustered within the 2016-2018 outbreak clade, indicating YFV spread from Midwest and its infection in a main and likely novel bridging vector species. Entomo-virological surveillance is critical for YFV monitoring in Brazil, which could highlight the need to strengthen YFV surveillance, vaccination coverage, and vector control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cecília Ribeiro Cruz
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Henrique Almeida Hernández
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil
| | - Carine Fortes Aragão
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Thito Yan Bezerra da Paz
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil
| | - Sandro Patroca da Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Fábio Silva da Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil
| | - Ana Alice de Aquino
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, PA, Brazil
| | - Glennda Juscely Galvão Pereira Cereja
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Bruna Lais Sena do Nascimento
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - José Wilson Rosa Junior
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | | | | | - Daniel Garkauskas Ramos
- Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Brasília 70723-040, DF, Brazil
| | - Vagner Fonseca
- Public Health Emergency Department, Pan American Health Organization, World Health Organization, Brasília 70800-400, DF, Brazil
| | - Marta Giovanetti
- René Rachou Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Belo Horizonte 30190-002, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Bruno Tardelli Diniz Nunes
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Pedro F. da Costa Vasconcelos
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Pará State University, Belém 66087-670, PA, Brazil
| | - Livia Carício Martins
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Joaquim Pinto Nunes-Neto
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Health and Environment Surveillance Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
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Identification of Neotropical Culex Mosquitoes by MALDI-TOF MS Profiling. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:tropicalmed8030168. [PMID: 36977169 PMCID: PMC10055718 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8030168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) fauna of French Guiana encompasses 242 species, of which nearly half of them belong to the genus Culex. Whereas several species of Culex are important vectors of arboviruses, only a limited number of studies focus on them due to the difficulties to morphologically identify field-caught females. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has been reported as a promising method for the identification of mosquitoes. Culex females collected in French Guiana were morphologically identified and dissected. Abdomens were used for molecular identification using the COI (cytochrome oxidase 1) gene. Legs and thorax of 169 specimens belonging to 13 Culex species, (i.e., Cx. declarator, Cx. nigripalpus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. usquatus, Cx. adamesi, Cx. dunni, Cx. eastor, Cx. idottus, Cx. pedroi, Cx. phlogistus, Cx. portesi, Cx. rabanicolus and Cx. spissipes) were then submitted to MALDI-TOF MS analysis. A high intra-species reproducibility and inter-species specificity of MS spectra for each mosquito body part tested were obtained. A corroboration of the specimen identification was revealed between MALDI-TOF MS, morphological and molecular results. MALDI-TOF MS protein profiling proves to be a suitable tool for identification of neotropical Culex species and will permit the enhancement of knowledge on this highly diverse genus.
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Foster JE, López K, Eastwood G, Guzman H, Carrington CVF, Tesh RB, Auguste AJ. Phylogenetic characterization of Orthobunyaviruses isolated from Trinidad shows evidence of natural reassortment. Virus Genes 2023; 59:473-478. [PMID: 36763228 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-023-01973-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
The genus Orthobunyavirus is a diverse group of viruses in the family Peribunyaviridae, recently classified into 20 serogroups, and 103 virus species. Although most viruses within these serogroups are phylogenetically distinct, the absence of complete genome sequences has left several viruses incompletely characterized. Here we report the complete genome sequences for 11 orthobunyaviruses isolated from Trinidad, French Guiana, Guatemala, and Panama that were serologically classified into six serogroups and 10 species. Phylogenetic analyses of these 11 newly derived sequences indicate that viruses belonging to the Patois, Capim, Guama, and Group C serocomplexes all have a close genetic origin. We show that three of the 11 orthobunyaviruses characterized (belonging to the Group C and Bunyamwera serogroups) have evidence of histories of natural reassortment through the M genome segment. Our data also suggests that two distinct lineages of Group C viruses concurrently circulate in Trinidad and are transmitted by the same mosquito vectors. This study also highlights the importance of complementing serological identification with nucleotide sequencing when characterizing orthobunyaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome E Foster
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Krisangel López
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Gillian Eastwood
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.,Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.,Global Change Center at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Hilda Guzman
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA
| | - Christine V F Carrington
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Robert B Tesh
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA
| | - Albert J Auguste
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA. .,Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-Borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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5
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Silva FA, Ferreira MS, Araújo PA, Casseb SMM, Silva SP, Nunes Neto JP, Chiang JO, Rosa Junior JW, Chagas LL, Freitas MNO, Santos ÉB, Hernández L, Paz T, Vasconcelos PFC, Martins LC. Serological and Molecular Evidence of the Circulation of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Subtype IIIA in Humans, Wild Vertebrates and Mosquitos in the Brazilian Amazon. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112391. [PMID: 36366489 PMCID: PMC9695375 DOI: 10.3390/v14112391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the interaction between viruses and ecosystems in areas with or without anthropic interference can contribute to the organization of public health services, as well as prevention and disease control. An arbovirus survey was conducted at Caxiuanã National Forest, Pará, Brazil, where 632 local residents, 338 vertebrates and 15,774 pools of hematophagous arthropods were investigated. Neutralization antibodies of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus, subtype IIIA, Mucambo virus (MUCV) were detected in 57.3% and 61.5% of humans and wild vertebrates, respectively; in addition, genomic fragments of MUCV were detected in pool of Uranotaenia (Ura.) geometrica. The obtained data suggest an enzootic circulation of MUCV in the area. Understanding the circulation of endemic and neglected arboviruses, such as MUCV, represents an important health problem for the local residents and for the people living in the nearby urban centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franko A. Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Post-Graduation Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Correspondence:
| | - Milene S. Ferreira
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Pedro A. Araújo
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Samir M. M. Casseb
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Sandro P. Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Joaquim P. Nunes Neto
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Jannifer O. Chiang
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - José W. Rosa Junior
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Liliane L. Chagas
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Maria N. O. Freitas
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Éder B. Santos
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Hernández
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Thito Paz
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
| | - Pedro F. C. Vasconcelos
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Department of Pathology, Pará State University, Belém 66045-315, PA, Brazil
| | - Lívia C. Martins
- Department of Arbovirology and Haemorragic Fevers, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
- Post-Graduation Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Ananindeua 67030-000, PA, Brazil
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da Silva Ribeiro AC, Martins LC, da Silva SP, de Almeida Medeiros DB, Miranda KKP, Nunes Neto JP, de Oliveira Monteiro HA, do Nascimento BLS, Junior JWR, Cruz ACR, da Costa Vasconcelos PF, Carvalho VL, Rodrigues SG. Negeviruses isolated from mosquitoes in the Brazilian Amazon. Virol J 2022; 19:17. [PMID: 35062977 PMCID: PMC8778500 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-022-01743-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are several groups of viruses including Insect Specific Viruses (ISV) such as the taxon Negevirus, a group of viruses phylogenetically related to plant viruses. Negeviruses replicate in mosquito cells, but not in vertebrate cells. METHODS Pools of hematophagous arthropods were inoculated in Vero and C6/36 cells. The cells were observed to detect possible cytopathic effect. Then, indirect immunofluorescence, RT-PCR, and nucleotide sequencing were performed. RESULTS Seven samples which presented negative results for flaviviruses, alphaviruses and bunyaviruses, but showed cytopathic effect in C6/36 cells were sequenced. We identified the occurrence of a variety of ISVs, most of them belonging to the taxon Negevirus: The Brejeira, Negev, Cordoba and Wallerfield viruses, including a new virus for science, tentatively named Feitosa virus. CONCLUSIONS We detected negeviruses in the Amazon region, including two viruses that were isolated for the first time in Brazil: Cordoba virus and the Negev virus and, a new virus for science: the Feitosa virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cláudia da Silva Ribeiro
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Lívia Caricio Martins
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Sandro Patroca da Silva
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Daniele Barbosa de Almeida Medeiros
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Keissy Karoline Pinheiro Miranda
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Joaquim Pinto Nunes Neto
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Hamilton Antônio de Oliveira Monteiro
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Bruna Lais Sena do Nascimento
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Jose Wilson Rosa Junior
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Ana Cecilia Ribeiro Cruz
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Pedro Fernando da Costa Vasconcelos
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Valéria Lima Carvalho
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
| | - Sueli Guerreiro Rodrigues
- Department of Arbovirology and Hemorrhagic Fevers and Postgraduate Program in Virology, Evandro Chagas Institute, Rodovia BR-316 km 7 s/n, Levilândia, Ananindeua, Pará 67030-000 Brazil
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7
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Mazur FG, Morinisi LM, Martins JO, Guerra PPB, Freire CCM. Exploring Virome Diversity in Public Data in South America as an Approach for Detecting Viral Sources From Potentially Emerging Viruses. Front Genet 2022; 12:722857. [PMID: 35126446 PMCID: PMC8814814 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.722857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The South American continent presents a great diversity of biomes, whose ecosystems are constantly threatened by the expansion of human activity. The emergence and re-emergence of viral populations with impact on the human population and ecosystem have shown increases in the last decades. In deference to the growing accumulation of genomic data, we explore the potential of South American-related public databases to detect signals that contribute to virosphere research. Therefore, our study aims to investigate public databases with emphasis on the surveillance of viruses with medical and ecological relevance. Herein, we profiled 120 "sequence read archives" metagenomes from 19 independent projects from the last decade. In a coarse view, our analyses identified only 0.38% of the total number of sequences from viruses, showing a higher proportion of RNA viruses. The metagenomes with the most important viral sequences in the analyzed environmental models were 1) aquatic samples from the Amazon River, 2) sewage from Brasilia, and 3) soil from the state of São Paulo, while the models of animal transmission were detected in mosquitoes from Rio Janeiro and Bats from Amazonia. Also, the classification of viral signals into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (family) allowed us to infer from metadata a probable host range in the virome detected in each sample analyzed. Further, several motifs and viral sequences are related to specific viruses with emergence potential from Togaviridae, Arenaviridae, and Flaviviridae families. In this context, the exploration of public databases allowed us to evaluate the scope and informative capacity of sequences from third-party public databases and to detect signals related to viruses of clinical or environmental importance, which allowed us to infer traits associated with probable transmission routes or signals of ecological disequilibrium. The evaluation of our results showed that in most cases the size and type of the reference database, the percentage of guanine-cytosine (GC), and the length of the query sequences greatly influence the taxonomic classification of the sequences. In sum, our findings describe how the exploration of public genomic data can be exploited as an approach for epidemiological surveillance and the understanding of the virosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Caio C. M. Freire
- Department Genetics and Evolution, UFSCar—Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
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Auguste AJ, Langsjoen RM, Porier DL, Erasmus JH, Bergren NA, Bolling BG, Luo H, Singh A, Guzman H, Popov VL, Travassos da Rosa APA, Wang T, Kang L, Allen IC, Carrington CVF, Tesh RB, Weaver SC. Isolation of a novel insect-specific flavivirus with immunomodulatory effects in vertebrate systems. Virology 2021; 562:50-62. [PMID: 34256244 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We describe the isolation and characterization of a novel insect-specific flavivirus (ISFV), tentatively named Aripo virus (ARPV), that was isolated from Psorophora albipes mosquitoes collected in Trinidad. The ARPV genome was determined and phylogenetic analyses showed that it is a dual host associated ISFV, and clusters with the main mosquito-borne flaviviruses. ARPV antigen was significantly cross-reactive with Japanese encephalitis virus serogroup antisera, with significant cross-reactivity to Ilheus and West Nile virus (WNV). Results suggest that ARPV replication is limited to mosquitoes, as it did not replicate in the sandfly, culicoides or vertebrate cell lines tested. We also demonstrated that ARPV is endocytosed into vertebrate cells and is highly immunomodulatory, producing a robust innate immune response despite its inability to replicate in vertebrate systems. We show that prior infection or coinfection with ARPV limits WNV-induced disease in mouse models, likely the result of a robust ARPV-induced type I interferon response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert J Auguste
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA; Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
| | - Rose M Langsjoen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Danielle L Porier
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Jesse H Erasmus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Nicholas A Bergren
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Bethany G Bolling
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Huanle Luo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Ankita Singh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Hilda Guzman
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Vsevolod L Popov
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | | | - Tian Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Lin Kang
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Monroe, LA, 71203, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Irving C Allen
- Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Christine V F Carrington
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Robert B Tesh
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Scott C Weaver
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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Jeffries CL, White M, Wilson L, Yakob L, Walker T. Detection of Cell-Fusing Agent virus across ecologically diverse populations of Aedes aegypti on the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia. Wellcome Open Res 2020; 5:149. [PMID: 33869790 PMCID: PMC8030115 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16030.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background. Outbreaks of mosquito-borne arboviral diseases including dengue virus (DENV), Zika virus (ZIKV), yellow fever virus (YFV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) have recently occurred in the Caribbean. The geographical range of the principal vectors responsible for transmission, Aedes (Ae.) aegypti and Ae. albopictus are increasing and greater mosquito surveillance is needed in the Caribbean given international tourism is so prominent. The island of Saint Lucia has seen outbreaks of DENV and CHIKV in the past five years but vector surveillance has been limited with the last studies dating back to the late 1970s. Natural disasters have changed the landscape of Saint Lucia and the island has gone through significant urbanisation. Methods. In this study, we conducted an entomological survey of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus distribution across the island and analysed environmental parameters associated with the presence of these species in addition to screening for medically important arboviruses and other flaviviruses. Results. Although we collected Ae. aegypti across a range of sites across the island, no Ae. albopictus were collected despite traps being placed in diverse ecological settings. The number of Ae. aegypti collected was significantly associated with higher elevation, and semi-urban settings yielded female mosquito counts per trap-day that were five-fold lower than urban settings. Screening for arboviruses revealed a high prevalence of cell-fusing agent virus (CFAV). Conclusions. Outbreaks of arboviruses transmitted by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus have a history of occurring in small tropical islands and Saint Lucia is particularly vulnerable given the limited resources available to undertake vector control and manage outbreaks. Surveillance strategies can identify risk areas for predicting future outbreaks. Further research is needed to determine the diversity of current mosquito species, investigate insect-specific viruses, as well as pathogenic arboviruses, and this should also be extended to the neighbouring smaller Caribbean islands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L. Jeffries
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Mia White
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Louisia Wilson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Laith Yakob
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Thomas Walker
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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10
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Vieira CJDSP, Andrade CDD, Kubiszeski JR, Silva DJFD, Barreto ES, Massey AL, Canale GR, Bernardo CSS, Levi T, Peres CA, Bronzoni RVDM. Detection of Ilheus virus in mosquitoes from southeast Amazon, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2020; 113:424-427. [PMID: 31050765 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trz031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arbovirus surveillance in field-collected mosquitoes is essential in monitoring virus activity to avoid emergence and outbreaks of arboviruses. METHODS We used reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction methods to search for arbovirus in mosquitoes collected in Brazil's southeast Amazon forest remnants during 2015-2016. RESULTS We detected Iheus virus (ILHV) RNA in Culex declarator, Culex (Melanoconion) and Ochlerotatus serratus mosquitoes. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate ILHV circulation in the studied area, highlighting its potential emergence in human population. More studies are necessary to confirm the roles of these three species in ILHV maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Camila Decol de Andrade
- Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 1200 Avenida Alexandre Ferronato, Sinop, Brazil
| | - Janaína Rigotti Kubiszeski
- Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 1200 Avenida Alexandre Ferronato, Sinop, Brazil
| | - David José Ferreira da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 1200 Avenida Alexandre Ferronato, Sinop, Brazil
| | - Eriana Serpa Barreto
- Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 1200 Avenida Alexandre Ferronato, Sinop, Brazil
| | - Aimee Leigh Massey
- College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Nash Hall, 2820 SW Campus Way, Corvallis, USA
| | - Gustavo Rodrigues Canale
- Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Humanas e Sociais, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, 1200 Avenida Alexandre Ferronato, Sinop, Brazil
| | - Christine Steiner São Bernardo
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia, Rua José Moreira Sobrinho, Jequié, Brazil
| | - Taal Levi
- College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Nash Hall, 2820 SW Campus Way, Corvallis, USA
| | - Carlos Augusto Peres
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, England
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11
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Jeffries CL, White M, Wilson L, Yakob L, Walker T. Detection of a novel insect-specific flavivirus across ecologically diverse populations of Aedes aegypti on the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia. Wellcome Open Res 2020; 5:149. [PMID: 33869790 PMCID: PMC8030115 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16030.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background. Outbreaks of mosquito-borne arboviral diseases including dengue virus (DENV), Zika virus (ZIKV), yellow fever virus (YFV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) have recently occurred in the Caribbean. The geographical range of the principle vectors responsible for transmission, Aedes (Ae.) aegypti and Ae. albopictus is increasing and greater mosquito surveillance is needed in the Caribbean given international tourism is so prominent. The island of Saint Lucia has seen outbreaks of DENV and CHIKV in the past five years but vector surveillance has been limited with the last studies dating back to the late 1970s. Natural disasters have changed the landscape of Saint Lucia and the island has gone through significant urbanisation. Methods. In this study, we conducted an entomological survey of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus distribution across the island and analysed environmental parameters associated with the presence of these species in addition to screening for medically important arboviruses and other flaviviruses. Results. Although we collected Ae. aegypti across a range of sites across the island, no Ae. albopictus were collected despite traps being placed in diverse ecological settings. The number of Ae. aegypti collected was significantly associated with higher elevation, and semi-urban settings yielded female mosquito counts per trap-day that were five-fold lower than urban settings. Screening for arboviruses revealed a high prevalence of a novel insect-specific flavivirus closely related to cell fusing agent virus (CFAV). Conclusions. Outbreaks of arboviruses transmitted by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus have a history of occurring in small tropical islands and Saint Lucia is particularly vulnerable given the limited resources available to undertake vector control and manage outbreaks. Surveillance strategies can identify risk areas for predicting future outbreaks and further research is needed to determine the diversity of current mosquito species and this should be extended to the neighbouring smaller Caribbean islands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L. Jeffries
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Mia White
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Louisia Wilson
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Laith Yakob
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Thomas Walker
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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12
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Mavian C, Dulcey M, Munoz O, Salemi M, Vittor AY, Capua I. Islands as Hotspots for Emerging Mosquito-Borne Viruses: A One-Health Perspective. Viruses 2018; 11:E11. [PMID: 30585228 PMCID: PMC6356932 DOI: 10.3390/v11010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
During the past ten years, an increasing number of arbovirus outbreaks have affected tropical islands worldwide. We examined the available literature in peer-reviewed journals, from the second half of the 20th century until 2018, with the aim of gathering an overall picture of the emergence of arboviruses in these islands. In addition, we included information on environmental and social drivers specific to island setting that can facilitate the emergence of outbreaks. Within the context of the One Health approach, our review highlights how the emergence of arboviruses in tropical islands is linked to the complex interplay between their unique ecological settings and to the recent changes in local and global sociodemographic patterns. We also advocate for greater coordination between stakeholders in developing novel prevention and mitigation approaches for an intractable problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Mavian
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Melissa Dulcey
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Olga Munoz
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- One Health Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Marco Salemi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Amy Y Vittor
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Ilaria Capua
- Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- One Health Center of Excellence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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13
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Domingo-Calap P, Schubert B, Joly M, Solis M, Untrau M, Carapito R, Georgel P, Caillard S, Fafi-Kremer S, Paul N, Kohlbacher O, González-Candelas F, Bahram S. An unusually high substitution rate in transplant-associated BK polyomavirus in vivo is further concentrated in HLA-C-bound viral peptides. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007368. [PMID: 30335851 PMCID: PMC6207329 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with human BK polyomavirus, a small double-stranded DNA virus, potentially results in severe complications in immunocompromised patients. Here, we describe the in vivo variability and evolution of the BK polyomavirus by deep sequencing. Our data reveal the highest genomic evolutionary rate described in double-stranded DNA viruses, i.e., 10−3–10−5 substitutions per nucleotide site per year. High mutation rates in viruses allow their escape from immune surveillance and adaptation to new hosts. By combining mutational landscapes across viral genomes with in silico prediction of viral peptides, we demonstrate the presence of significantly more coding substitutions within predicted cognate HLA-C-bound viral peptides than outside. This finding suggests a role for HLA-C in antiviral immunity, perhaps through the action of killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors. The present study provides a comprehensive view of viral evolution and immune escape in a DNA virus. Little is known about the mechanisms of evolution and viral immune escape in double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses. Here, we study the evolution of BK polyomavirus and observe the highest genomic evolutionary rate described so far for a dsDNA virus, in the range of RNA viruses, which usually evolve rapidly. Furthermore, the prediction of viral peptides to determine immune escape suggests a specific role of HLA-C in antiviral immunity. These findings are helpful for future advances in antiviral therapies and provide a step forward in our understanding of in vivo viral evolution in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Domingo-Calap
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- * E-mail: (PDC); (SB)
| | - Benjamin Schubert
- Center for Bioinformatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Applied Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mélanie Joly
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Néphrologie et Transplantation Rénale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Morgane Solis
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratoire de Virologie, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Pôle de Biologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Meiggie Untrau
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Raphael Carapito
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratoire Central d’Immunologie, Plateau Technique de Biologie, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, France
| | - Philippe Georgel
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sophie Caillard
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Service de Néphrologie et Transplantation Rénale, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Samira Fafi-Kremer
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratoire de Virologie, Plateau Technique de Microbiologie, Pôle de Biologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicodème Paul
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Oliver Kohlbacher
- Center for Bioinformatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Applied Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science, Tübingen, Germany
- Quantitative Biology Center, Tübingen, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Biomolecular Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Translational Bioinformatics, University Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Fernando González-Candelas
- Unidad Mixta Infección y Salud Pública FISABIO/Universitat de València, Institute for Integrative Systems Biology I2SysBio (CSIC-UV) and CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Valencia, Spain
| | - Seiamak Bahram
- Plateforme GENOMAX, Laboratoire d’ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, OMICARE, Centre de Recherche d’Immunologie et d’Hématologie, Strasbourg, France
- Laboratoire Central d’Immunologie, Plateau Technique de Biologie, Nouvel Hôpital Civil, France
- * E-mail: (PDC); (SB)
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14
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Aragão CF, Cruz ACR, Nunes Neto JP, Monteiro HADO, da Silva EVP, da Silva SP, Andrade ATDS, Tadei WP, Pinheiro VCS. Circulation of Chikungunya virus in Aedes aegypti in Maranhão, Northeast Brazil. Acta Trop 2018; 186:1-4. [PMID: 29932932 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The simultaneous circulation of Dengue virus (DENV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) arboviruses have placed Brazil among the main worldwide endemic areas. Brazilian Northeast region concentrates the highest incidence of infections caused by CHIKV and ZIKV. In Maranhão, the second biggest northeastern state, there are cases of human infections caused by these three arboviruses and presence of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus vectors. In this context, this study aimed to investigate the circulation of CHIKV, DENV and ZIKV in Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes collected in urban areas of Barra do Corda, Caxias, Codó, São Luís and São Mateus do Maranhão municipalities in the state of Maranhão through Quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) technique. 428 Ae. aegypti and 1 Ae. albopictus were collected, which formed 44 pools. Three of these showed positive results for CHIKV: AR832767 (five Ae. aegypti female collected in Caxias), AR832784 and AR832785 (both composed of 20 Ae. aegypti female collected in São Mateus do Maranhão). This study consolidates information about CHIKV circulation in state of Maranhão, as well as the role of Ae. aegypti in the transmission of CHIKV in urban area.
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Auguste AJ, Liria J, Forrester NL, Giambalvo D, Moncada M, Long KC, Morón D, de Manzione N, Tesh RB, Halsey ES, Kochel TJ, Hernandez R, Navarro JC, Weaver SC. Evolutionary and Ecological Characterization of Mayaro Virus Strains Isolated during an Outbreak, Venezuela, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 21:1742-50. [PMID: 26401714 PMCID: PMC4593426 DOI: 10.3201/eid2110.141660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2010, an outbreak of febrile illness with arthralgic manifestations was detected at La Estación village, Portuguesa State, Venezuela. The etiologic agent was determined to be Mayaro virus (MAYV), a reemerging South American alphavirus. A total of 77 cases was reported and 19 were confirmed as seropositive. MAYV was isolated from acute-phase serum samples from 6 symptomatic patients. We sequenced 27 complete genomes representing the full spectrum of MAYV genetic diversity, which facilitated detection of a new genotype, designated N. Phylogenetic analysis of genomic sequences indicated that etiologic strains from Venezuela belong to genotype D. Results indicate that MAYV is highly conserved genetically, showing ≈17% nucleotide divergence across all 3 genotypes and 4% among genotype D strains in the most variable genes. Coalescent analyses suggested genotypes D and L diverged ≈150 years ago and genotype diverged N ≈250 years ago. This virus commonly infects persons residing near enzootic transmission foci because of anthropogenic incursions.
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A newly isolated reovirus has the simplest genomic and structural organization of any reovirus. J Virol 2014; 89:676-87. [PMID: 25355879 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02264-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED A total of 2,691 mosquitoes representing 17 species was collected from eight locations in southwest Cameroon and screened for pathogenic viruses. Ten isolates of a novel reovirus (genus Dinovernavirus) were detected by culturing mosquito pools on Aedes albopictus (C6/36) cell cultures. A virus that caused overt cytopathic effects was isolated, but it did not infect vertebrate cells or produce detectable disease in infant mice after intracerebral inoculation. The virus, tentatively designated Fako virus (FAKV), represents the first 9-segment, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) virus to be isolated in nature. FAKV appears to have a broad mosquito host range, and its detection in male specimens suggests mosquito-to-mosquito transmission in nature. The structure of the T=1 FAKV virion, determined to subnanometer resolution by cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM), showed only four proteins per icosahedral asymmetric unit: a dimer of the major capsid protein, one turret protein, and one clamp protein. While all other turreted reoviruses of known structures have at least two copies of the clamp protein per asymmetric unit, FAKV's clamp protein bound at only one conformer of the major capsid protein. The FAKV capsid architecture and genome organization represent the most simplified reovirus described to date, and phylogenetic analysis suggests that it arose from a more complex ancestor by serial loss-of-function events. IMPORTANCE We describe the detection, genetic, phenotypic, and structural characteristics of a novel Dinovernavirus species isolated from mosquitoes collected in Cameroon. The virus, tentatively designated Fako virus (FAKV), is related to both single-shelled and partially double-shelled viruses. The only other described virus in this genus was isolated from cultured mosquito cells. It was previously unclear whether the phenotypic characteristics of that virus were reflective of this genus in nature or were altered during serial passaging in the chronically infected cell line. FAKV is a naturally occurring single-shelled reovirus with a unique virion architecture that lacks several key structural elements thought to stabilize a single-shelled reovirus virion, suggesting what may be the minimal number of proteins needed to form a viable reovirus particle. FAKV evolved from more complex ancestors by losing a genome segment and several virion proteins.
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Pisano MB, Torres C, Ré VE, Farías AA, Sánchez Seco MP, Tenorio A, Campos R, Contigiani MS. Genetic and evolutionary characterization of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus isolates from Argentina. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2014; 26:72-9. [PMID: 24833218 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) are emerging pathogens of medical and veterinary importance circulating in America. Argentina is a country free from epizootic VEEV activity, with circulation of enzootic strains belonging to Rio Negro virus (RNV; VEEV subtype VI) and Pixuna virus (PIXV, VEEV subtype IV). In this work, we aim to report the sequencing and phylogenetic analyses of all Argentinean VEE viruses, including 7 strains previously isolated from mosquitoes in 1980, 5 sequences obtained from rodents in 1991 and 11 sequences amplified from mosquitoes between 2003 and 2005. Two genomic regions, corresponding to the non-structural protein 4 (nsP4) and the protein E3/E2 (PE2) genes were analyzed, but only 8 samples could be amplified in the last one (longer and more variable fragment of 702 bp). For both genomic fragments, phylogenetic trees showed the absence of lineages within RNV group, and a close genetic relationship between Argentinean strains and the prototype strain BeAr35645 for PIXV clade. The analysis of nsP4 gene opens the possibility to propose a possible geographic clustering of strains within PIXV group (Argentina and Brazil). Coalescent analysis performed on RNV sequences suggested a common ancestor of 58.3 years (with a 95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval of 16.4-345.7) prior to 1991 and inferred a substitution rate of 9.8×10(-5)substitutions/site/year, slightly lower than other enzootic VEE viruses. These results provide, for the first time, information about genetic features and variability of all VEEVs detected in Argentina, creating a database that will be useful for future detections in our country. This is particularly important for RNV, which has indigenous circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Belén Pisano
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J.M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, X5016 Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Carolina Torres
- Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Junín 956, 4° piso, C1113AAD Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Viviana Elizabeth Ré
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J.M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, X5016 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Adrián Alejandro Farías
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J.M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, X5016 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Paz Sánchez Seco
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Carretera Pozuelo Km 2, E28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Tenorio
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Carretera Pozuelo Km 2, E28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rodolfo Campos
- Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Junín 956, 4° piso, C1113AAD Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marta Silvia Contigiani
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J.M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, X5016 Córdoba, Argentina
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Thompson NN, Auguste AJ, Travassos da Rosa APA, Carrington CVF, Blitvich BJ, Chadee DD, Tesh RB, Weaver SC, Adesiyun AA. Seroepidemiology of selected alphaviruses and flaviviruses in bats in Trinidad. Zoonoses Public Health 2014; 62:53-60. [PMID: 24751420 PMCID: PMC7165661 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A serosurvey of antibodies against selected flaviviruses and alphaviruses in 384 bats (representing 10 genera and 14 species) was conducted in the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Sera were analysed using epitope‐blocking enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) specific for antibodies against West Nile virus (WNV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), all of which are zoonotic viruses of public health significance in the region. Overall, the ELISAs resulted in the detection of VEEV‐specific antibodies in 11 (2.9%) of 384 bats. Antibodies to WNV and EEEV were not detected in any sera. Of the 384 sera, 308 were also screened using hemagglutination inhibition assay (HIA) for antibodies to the aforementioned viruses as well as St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV; which also causes epidemic disease in humans), Rio Bravo virus (RBV), Tamana bat virus (TABV) and western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV). Using this approach, antibodies to TABV and RBV were detected in 47 (15.3%) and 3 (1.0%) bats, respectively. HIA results also suggest the presence of antibodies to an undetermined flavivirus(es) in 8 (2.6%) bats. Seropositivity for TABV was significantly (P < 0.05; χ2) associated with bat species, location and feeding preference, and for VEEV with roost type and location. Differences in prevalence rates between urban and rural locations were statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ2) for TABV only. None of the aforementioned factors was significantly associated with RBV seropositivity rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- N N Thompson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
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Thompson NN, Auguste AJ, Coombs D, Blitvich BJ, Carrington CVF, da Rosa APT, Wang E, Chadee DD, Drebot MA, Tesh RB, Weaver SC, Adesiyun AA. Serological evidence of flaviviruses and alphaviruses in livestock and wildlife in Trinidad. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:969-78. [PMID: 22989182 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2012.0959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Seroprevalence rates of selected arboviruses in animal populations in Trinidad were determined using serum samples collected between 2006 and 2009 from horses (n=506), cattle (n=163), sheep (n=198), goats (n=82), pigs (n=184), birds (n=140), rodents (n=116), and other vertebrates (n=23). The sera were screened for antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Bussuquara virus (BSQV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), and western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV), using hemagglutination inhibition assay (HIA) and epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Antibodies to SLEV were detected in a total of 49 (9.7%) horses, 8 (4.9%) cattle, 1 (1.2%) goat, 2 (1.4%) wild birds, and 3 (2.2%) wild rodents by both methods. In contrast, antibodies to EEEV, VEEV, and WNV were detected only in horses, at rates of 4.3%, 0.8%, and 17.2%, respectively, by ELISA, and IgM capture ELISA was WNV-positive in 3 (0.6%) of these sera. Among locally bred unvaccinated horses that had never left Trinidad, seroprevalence rates against WNV were 12.1% and 17.2% by ELISA and HIA, respectively. The presence of WNV- and SLEV-specific antibodies in a representative sample of horse sera that were both ELISA- and HIA-seropositive was confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization testing (PRNT). Antibodies to ILHV and BSQV were not detected in any of the serum samples tested (i.e., sera from horses, other livestock, and wild birds in the case of ILHV, and wild mammals in the case of BSQV). The data indicate the presence of WNV in Trinidad, and continuing low-level circulation of SLEV, EEEV, and VEEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadin N Thompson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
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Auguste AJ, Adams AP, Arrigo NC, Martinez R, Travassos da Rosa APA, Adesiyun AA, Chadee DD, Tesh RB, Carrington CVF, Weaver SC. Isolation and characterization of sylvatic mosquito-borne viruses in Trinidad: enzootic transmission and a new potential vector of Mucambo virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011; 83:1262-5. [PMID: 21118932 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.10-0280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito surveillance was carried out in three forested regions of Trinidad during July 2007-March 2009. A total of 185,397 mosquitoes representing at least 46 species was collected, divided into pools of 1-50 mosquitoes according to species and sex, and screened for arboviruses using cytopathic effect assays on Vero cell monolayers. Eighty-five viruses were isolated, including members of the genera Alphavirus (Mucambo virus; MUCV) and Orthobunyavirus (Caraparu, Oriboca, Bimiti, and Wyeomyia viruses). Species of the Culex subgenus Melanoconion accounted for 56% of the total number of mosquitoes collected and 97% of the viruses isolated; Cx. (Mel.) portesi accounted for 92% of virus isolations. Our results also implicate for the first time Aedes (Ochlerotatus) hortator as a potential vector of MUCV. Phylogenetic analyses of 43 MUCV strains suggest population subdivision within Trinidad, consistent with the hypothesis of enzootic maintenance in localized rodent populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert J Auguste
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, and School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.
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Evolutionary patterns of eastern equine encephalitis virus in North versus South America suggest ecological differences and taxonomic revision. J Virol 2009; 84:1014-25. [PMID: 19889755 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01586-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) complex consists of four distinct genetic lineages: one that circulates in North America (NA EEEV) and the Caribbean and three that circulate in Central and South America (SA EEEV). Differences in their geographic, pathogenic, and epidemiologic profiles prompted evaluation of their genetic diversity and evolutionary histories. The structural polyprotein open reading frames of all available SA EEEV and recent NA EEEV isolates were sequenced and used in evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses. The nucleotide substitution rate per year for SA EEEV (1.2 x 10(-4)) was lower and more consistent than that for NA EEEV (2.7 x 10(-4)), which exhibited considerable rate variation among constituent clades. Estimates of time since divergence varied widely depending upon the sequences used, with NA and SA EEEV diverging ca. 922 to 4,856 years ago and the two main SA EEEV lineages diverging ca. 577 to 2,927 years ago. The single, monophyletic NA EEEV lineage exhibited mainly temporally associated relationships and was highly conserved throughout its geographic range. In contrast, SA EEEV comprised three divergent lineages, two consisting of highly conserved geographic groupings that completely lacked temporal associations. A phylogenetic comparison of SA EEEV and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV) demonstrated similar genetic and evolutionary patterns, consistent with the well-documented use of mammalian reservoir hosts by VEEV. Our results emphasize the evolutionary and genetic divergences between members of the NA and SA EEEV lineages, consistent with major differences in pathogenicity and ecology, and propose that NA and SA EEEV be reclassified as distinct species in the EEE complex.
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