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Miller CJ, Veazey RS. T Cells in the Female Reproductive Tract Can Both Block and Facilitate HIV Transmission. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 15:36-40. [PMID: 31431806 DOI: 10.2174/1573395514666180807113928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Because HIV is sexually transmitted, there is considerable interest in defining the nature of anti-HIV immunity in the female reproductive tract (FRT) and in developing ways to elicit antiviral immunity in the FRT through vaccination. Although it is assumed that the mucosal immune system of the FRT is of central importance for protection against sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV, this arm of the immune system has only recently been studied. Here we provide a brief review of the role of T cells in the FRT in blocking and facilitating HIV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Miller
- Professor of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Center for Comparative Medicine.,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, Ca, 95616
| | - Ronald S Veazey
- Professor of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine.,Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433
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Berry N, Manoussaka M, Ham C, Ferguson D, Tudor H, Mattiuzzo G, Klaver B, Page M, Stebbings R, Das AT, Berkhout B, Almond N, Cranage MP. Role of Occult and Post-acute Phase Replication in Protective Immunity Induced with a Novel Live Attenuated SIV Vaccine. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1006083. [PMID: 28002473 PMCID: PMC5176322 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to evaluate the role of persisting virus replication during occult phase immunisation in the live attenuated SIV vaccine model, a novel SIVmac239Δnef variant (SIVrtTA) genetically engineered to replicate in the presence of doxycycline was evaluated for its ability to protect against wild-type SIVmac239. Indian rhesus macaques were vaccinated either with SIVrtTA or with SIVmac239Δnef. Doxycycline was withdrawn from 4 of 8 SIVrtTA vaccinates before challenge with wild-type virus. Unvaccinated challenge controls exhibited ~107 peak plasma viral RNA copies/ml persisting beyond the acute phase. Six vaccinates, four SIVmac239Δnef and two SIVrtTA vaccinates exhibited complete protection, defined by lack of wild-type viraemia post-challenge and virus-specific PCR analysis of tissues recovered post-mortem, whereas six SIVrtTA vaccinates were protected from high levels of viraemia. Critically, the complete protection in two SIVrtTA vaccinates was associated with enhanced SIVrtTA replication in the immediate post-acute vaccination period but was independent of doxycycline status at the time of challenge. Mutations were identified in the LTR promoter region and rtTA gene that do not affect doxycycline-control but were associated with enhanced post-acute phase replication in protected vaccinates. High frequencies of total circulating CD8+T effector memory cells and a higher total frequency of SIV-specific CD8+ mono and polyfunctional T cells on the day of wild-type challenge were associated with complete protection but these parameters were not predictive of outcome when assessed 130 days after challenge. Moreover, challenge virus-specific Nef CD8+ polyfunctional T cell responses and antigen were detected in tissues post mortem in completely-protected macaques indicating post-challenge control of infection. Within the parameters of the study design, on-going occult-phase replication may not be absolutely required for protective immunity. Development of an HIV vaccine remains a global health priority. In non-human primates live-attenuated SIV induces a potent vaccine effect. Following disappearance of vaccine virus from the peripheral circulation replication persists in lymphoid tissue. To address whether this occult replication is critical to the generation of protective immunity we used a novel construct (SIVrtTA) based on the prototypic live attenuated SIVmac239Δnef but which requires the presence of the antibiotic doxycycline to replicate. Protection appeared independent of doxycycline status at the time of virulent virus challenge suggesting that occult replication may not be absolutely necessary for persistence of immunity; however, stronger protection was observed in monkeys vaccinated with SIVrtTA where vaccine replication persisted for longer after peak viraemia. Moreover, some evidence of very low level breakthrough of vaccine virus replication was seen and protection was weaker than that obtained with SIVmac239Δnef. Both vaccination and challenge perturbed circulating T cell populations, but only the frequency of SIV-specific CD8+ polyfunctional T cells measured on the day of challenge was associated with protection. Replication-conditional mutants such as SIVrtTA have great potential in unlocking the complex interactions between the vaccine virus and host responses in the generation of potent anti-viral protection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Berry
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Maria Manoussaka
- Institute for Infection & Immunity, St George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Ham
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Deborah Ferguson
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Tudor
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Giada Mattiuzzo
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Bep Klaver
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mark Page
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Stebbings
- Division of Biotherapeutics, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Atze T. Das
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Neil Almond
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Martin P. Cranage
- Institute for Infection & Immunity, St George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Hill SE, Boehm GW, Prokosch ML. Vulnerability to Disease as a Predictor of Faster Life History Strategies. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-015-0040-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The development of a preventive HIV vaccine remains an unresolved challenge. Animal models that can predict the results of HIV vaccine efficacy trials and identify the immune mechanisms responsible for vaccine protection would be most useful for HIV vaccine development. The purpose of the current review is to critique recent developments in the use of animal models of HIV infection in preclinical studies of AIDS vaccines and to describe how the use of improved animal models can inform the development of an HIV vaccine. RECENT FINDINGS The results of preclinical experiments with candidate HIV vaccines can vary with the SIV challenge virus used. It is now known that there is considerable variability in the neutralization sensitivity and that the level of viral sequence diversity within the challenge stocks varies. This has allowed more realistic preclinical vaccine studies with heterologous vaccine antigens and challenge viruses. Further, the dose of challenge virus and the route of virus challenge can modify the efficacy of candidate vaccines in preclinical studies. SUMMARY Recent experiments demonstrate that nonhuman primate models of AIDS can reproduce the complex biology of HIV transmission, recapitulate the results of HIV vaccine efficacy trials in humans and be used to identify correlates of protection.
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Fieni F, Stone M, Ma ZM, Dutra J, Fritts L, Miller CJ. Viral RNA levels and env variants in semen and tissues of mature male rhesus macaques infected with SIV by penile inoculation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76367. [PMID: 24146859 PMCID: PMC3795772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV is shed in semen but the anatomic site of virus entry into the genital secretions is unknown. We determined viral RNA (vRNA) levels and the envelope gene sequence in the SIVmac 251 viral populations in the genital tract and semen of 5 adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) that were infected after experimental penile SIV infection. Paired blood and semen samples were collected from 1–9 weeks after infection and the monkeys were necropsied eleven weeks after infection. The axillary lymph nodes, testes, epididymis, prostate, and seminal vesicles were collected and vRNA levels and single-genome analysis of the SIVmac251 env variants was performed. At the time of semen collection, blood vRNA levels were between 3.09 and 7.85 log10 vRNA copies/ml plasma. SIV RNA was found in the axillary lymph nodes of all five monkeys and in 3 of 5 monkeys, all tissues examined were vRNA positive. In these 3 monkeys, vRNA levels (log10 SIVgag copies/ug of total tissue RNA) in the axillary lymph node (6.48±0.50) were significantly higher than in the genital tract tissues: testis (3.67±2.16; p<0.05), epididymis (3.08±1.19; p<0.0001), prostate (3.36±1.30; p<0.01), and seminal vesicle (2.67±1.50; p<0.0001). Comparison of the SIVmac251 env viral populations in blood plasma, systemic lymph node, and genital tract tissues was performed in two of the macaques. Visual inspection of the Neighbor-Joining phylograms revealed that in both animals, all the sequences were generally distributed evenly among all tissue compartments. Importantly, viral populations in the genital tissues were not distinct from those in the systemic tissues. Our findings demonstrate striking similarity in the viral populations in the blood and male genital tract tissues within 3 months of penile SIV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis Fieni
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Mars Stone
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Zhong-Min Ma
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph Dutra
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Linda Fritts
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Miller
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Del Prete GQ, Scarlotta M, Newman L, Reid C, Parodi LM, Roser JD, Oswald K, Marx PA, Miller CJ, Desrosiers RC, Barouch DH, Pal R, Piatak M, Chertova E, Giavedoni LD, O'Connor DH, Lifson JD, Keele BF. Comparative characterization of transfection- and infection-derived simian immunodeficiency virus challenge stocks for in vivo nonhuman primate studies. J Virol 2013; 87:4584-95. [PMID: 23408608 PMCID: PMC3624367 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03507-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) stocks for in vivo nonhuman primate models of AIDS are typically generated by transfection of 293T cells with molecularly cloned viral genomes or by expansion in productively infected T cells. Although titers of stocks are determined for infectivity in vitro prior to in vivo inoculation, virus production methods may differentially affect stock features that are not routinely analyzed but may impact in vivo infectivity, mucosal transmissibility, and early infection events. We performed a detailed analysis of nine SIV stocks, comprising five infection-derived SIVmac251 viral swarm stocks and paired infection- and transfected-293T-cell-derived stocks of both SIVmac239 and SIVmac766. Representative stocks were evaluated for (i) virus content, (ii) infectious titer, (iii) sequence diversity and polymorphism frequency by single-genome amplification and 454 pyrosequencing, (iv) virion-associated Env content, and (v) cytokine and chemokine content by 36-plex Luminex analysis. Regardless of production method, all stocks had comparable particle/infectivity ratios, with the transfected-293T stocks possessing the highest overall virus content and infectivity titers despite containing markedly lower levels of virion-associated Env than infection-derived viruses. Transfected-293T stocks also contained fewer and lower levels of cytokines and chemokines than infection-derived stocks, which had elevated levels of multiple analytes, with substantial variability among stocks. Sequencing of the infection-derived SIVmac251 stocks revealed variable levels of viral diversity between stocks, with evidence of stock-specific selection and expansion of unique viral lineages. These analyses suggest that there may be underappreciated features of SIV in vivo challenge stocks with the potential to impact early infection events, which may merit consideration when selecting virus stocks for in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Q. Del Prete
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Laura Newman
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Carolyn Reid
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | | | - James D. Roser
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Kelli Oswald
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Preston A. Marx
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Christopher J. Miller
- Center for Comparative Medicine and California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Ronald C. Desrosiers
- New England Primate Research Center, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dan H. Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ranajit Pal
- Advanced Bioscience Laboratories, Inc., Kensington, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael Piatak
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Elena Chertova
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Luis D. Giavedoni
- Department of Virology and Immunology
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - David H. O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Brandon F. Keele
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
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Mucosal priming with a replicating-vaccinia virus-based vaccine elicits protective immunity to simian immunodeficiency virus challenge in rhesus monkeys. J Virol 2013; 87:5669-77. [PMID: 23487457 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03247-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal surfaces are not targeted by most human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccines, despite being major routes for HIV-1 transmission. Here we report a novel vaccination regimen consisting of a mucosal prime with a modified replicating vaccinia virus Tiantan strain (MVTT(SIVgpe)) and an intramuscular boost with a nonreplicating adenovirus strain (Ad5(SIVgpe)). This regimen elicited robust cellular immune responses with enhanced magnitudes, sustainability, and polyfunctionality, as well as higher titers of neutralizing antibodies against the simian immunodeficiency virus SIV(mac1A11) in rhesus monkeys. The reductions in peak and set-point viral loads were significant in most animals, with one other animal being protected fully from high-dose intrarectal inoculation of SIV(mac239). Furthermore, the animals vaccinated with this regimen were healthy, while ~75% of control animals developed simian AIDS. The protective effects correlated with the vaccine-elicited SIV-specific CD8(+) T cell responses against Gag and Pol. Our study provides a novel strategy for developing an HIV-1 vaccine by using the combination of a replicating vector and mucosal priming.
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Abstract
As the threat of exposure to emerging and reemerging viruses within a naive population increases, it is vital that the basic mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune response be thoroughly investigated. By using animal models in this endeavor, the response to viruses can be studied in a more natural context to identify novel drug targets, and assess the efficacy and safety of new products. This is especially true in the advent of the Food and Drug Administration's animal rule. Although no one animal model is able to recapitulate all the aspects of human disease, understanding the current limitations allows for a more targeted experimental design. Important facets to be considered before an animal study are the route of challenge, species of animals, biomarkers of disease, and a humane endpoint. This chapter covers the current animal models for medically important human viruses, and demonstrates where the gaps in knowledge exist.
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Spear G, Rothaeulser K, Fritts L, Gillevet PM, Miller CJ. In captive rhesus macaques, cervicovaginal inflammation is common but not associated with the stable polymicrobial microbiome. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52992. [PMID: 23285244 PMCID: PMC3532444 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaginal inoculation of rhesus macaques (RM) with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) has been used to study the biology of HIV transmission. Although the results of vaginal SIV transmission experiments could be affected by vaginal inflammation, studies to date have been conducted without regard to levels of pre-existing genital inflammation present in RM. We collected cevicovaginal secretions (CVS) from 33–36 RM during the mid menstrual cycle (day 10–20) at 2 time points approximately 8 months apart and characterized the mRNA and protein levels of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and interferon-stimulated genes. There was extreme variability in the levels of inflammatory mediators (IFN-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF, IL-1b, IP-10, MIG, IL-12 and IL-17). In most animals, the mRNA levels of the inflammatory mediators were similar in the 2 CVS samples collected 8 months apart, suggesting that genital inflammation is stable in a subset of captive female RM. At both time points the cervicovaginal microbiota had low levels of Lactobacillus and was relatively diverse with an average of 13 genera in the samples from the first time point (median 13, range 7–21) and an average of 11.5 genera in the samples from the second time point (median 11, range 5–20). Many of the macaques had similar microbiota in the samples collected 8 months apart. However, we found no correlation between specific bacterial genera and the mRNA or protein levels of the inflammatory mediators in the genital tract of RM in this study. It seems likely that results of published vaginal SIV transmission experiments in RM have been influenced by pre-existing inflammation in the animals used for the experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Spear
- Department Immunology/Microbiology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kristina Rothaeulser
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Linda Fritts
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Patrick M. Gillevet
- Microbiome Analysis Center, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Miller
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Live-attenuated lentivirus immunization modulates innate immunity and inflammation while protecting rhesus macaques from vaginal simian immunodeficiency virus challenge. J Virol 2012; 86:9188-200. [PMID: 22696662 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00532-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunization with attenuated lentiviruses is the only reliable method of protecting rhesus macaques (RM) from vaginal challenge with pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). CD8(+) lymphocyte depletion prior to SIVmac239 vaginal challenge demonstrated that a modest, Gag-specific CD8(+) T cell response induced by immunization with simian-human immunodeficiency virus 89.6 (SHIV89.6) protects RM. Although CD8(+) T cells are required for protection, there is no anamnestic expansion of SIV-specific CD8(+) T cells in any tissues except the vagina after challenge. Further, SHIV immunization increased the number of viral target cells in the vagina and cervix, suggesting that the ratio of target cells to antiviral CD8(+) T cells was not a determinant of protection. We hypothesized that persistent replication of the attenuated vaccine virus modulates inflammatory responses and limits T cell activation and expansion by inducing immunoregulatory T cell populations. We found that attenuated SHIV infection decreased the number of circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells, suppressed T cell activation, decreased mRNA levels of proinflammatory mediators, and increased mRNA levels of immunoregulatory molecules. Three days after SIV vaginal challenge, SHIV-immunized RM had significantly more T regulatory cells in the vagina than the unimmunized RM. By day 14 postchallenge, immune activation and inflammation were characteristic of unimmunized RM but were minimal in SHIV-immunized RM. Thus, a modest vaccine-induced CD8(+) T cell response in the context of immunoregulatory suppression of T cell activation may protect against vaginal HIV transmission.
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Antiviral antibodies and T cells are present in the foreskin of simian immunodeficiency virus-infected rhesus macaques. J Virol 2012; 86:7098-106. [PMID: 22532691 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00410-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
No information exists regarding immune responses to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the foreskin or glans of the human penis, although this is a key tissue for HIV transmission. To address this gap, we characterized antiviral immune responses in foreskin of male rhesus macaques (RMs) inoculated with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strain SIVmac251 by penile foreskin exposure. We found a complete population of immune cells in the foreskin and glans of normal RMs, although B cells were less common than CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. IgG-secreting cells were detected by enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay in cell suspensions made from the foreskin. In the foreskin and glans of SIV-infected RMs, although B cells were less common than CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, SIV-specific IgG antibody was present in foreskin secretions. In addition, cytokine-secreting SIV-specific CD8(+) T cells were readily found in cell suspensions made from the foreskin. Although potential HIV target cells were found in and under the epithelium covering all penile surfaces, the presence of antiviral effector B and T cells in the foreskin suggests that vaccines may be able to elicit immunity in this critical site to protect men from acquiring HIV.
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Low-dose penile SIVmac251 exposure of rhesus macaques infected with adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) and then immunized with a replication-defective Ad5-based SIV gag/pol/nef vaccine recapitulates the results of the phase IIb step trial of a similar HIV-1 vaccine. J Virol 2011; 86:2239-50. [PMID: 22156519 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06175-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Step Trial showed that the MRKAd5 HIV-1 subtype B Gag/Pol/Nef vaccine did not protect men from HIV infection or reduce setpoint plasma viral RNA (vRNA) levels but, unexpectedly, it did modestly enhance susceptibility to HIV infection in adenovirus type 5 (Ad5)-seropositive, uncircumcised men. As part of the process to understand the results of the Step Trial, we designed a study to determine whether rhesus macaques chronically infected with a host-range mutant Ad5 (Ad5hr) and then immunized with a replication defective Ad5 SIVmac239 Gag/Pol/Nef vaccine were more resistant or susceptible to SIV infection than unimmunized rhesus macaques challenged with a series of escalating dose penile exposures to SIVmac 251. The Ad5 SIV vaccine induced CD8(+) T cell responses in 70% of the monkeys, which is similar to the proportion of humans that responded to the vaccine in the Step Trial. However, the vaccine did not protect vaccinated animals from penile SIV challenge. At the lowest SIV exposure dose (10(3) 50% tissue culture infective doses), 2 of 9 Ad5-seropositive animals immunized with the Ad5 SIV vaccine became infected compared to 0 of 34 animals infected in the other animal groups (naive animals, Ad5-seropositive animals immunized with the empty Ad5 vector, Ad5-seronegative animals immunized with the Ad5 SIV vaccine, and Ad5-seronegative animals immunized with the empty Ad5 vector). Penile exposure to more concentrated virus inocula produced similar rates of infection in all animal groups. Although setpoint viral loads were unaffected in Step vaccinees, the Ad5 SIV-immunized animals had significantly lower acute-phase plasma vRNA levels compared to unimmunized animals. Thus, the results of the nonhuman primate (NHP) study described here recapitulate the lack of protection against HIV acquisition seen in the Step Trial and suggest a greater risk of infection in the Ad5-seropositive animals immunized with the Ad5 SIV vaccine. Further studies are necessary to confirm the enhancement of virus acquisition and to discern associated mechanisms.
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Hutchison AT, Schmitz JE, Miller CJ, Sastry KJ, Nehete PN, Major AM, Ansari AA, Tatevian N, Lewis DE. Increased inherent intestinal granzyme B expression may be associated with SIV pathogenesis in Asian non-human primates. J Med Primatol 2011; 40:414-26. [PMID: 21732950 PMCID: PMC3193863 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2011.00482.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Unlike Asian non-human primates, chronically SIV-infected African non-human primates (NHP) display a non-pathogenic disease course. The different outcomes may be related to the development of an SIV-mediated breach of the intestinal mucosa in the Asian species that is absent in the African animals. METHODS To examine possible mechanisms that could lead to the gut breach, we determined whether the colonic lamina propria (LP) of SIV-naïve Asian monkeys contained more granzyme B (GrB) producing CD4 T cells than did that of the African species. GrB is a serine protease that may disrupt mucosal integrity by damaging tight junction proteins. RESULTS We found that the colonic LP of Asian NHP contain more CD4(+) /GrB(+) cells than African NHP. We also observed reduced CD4 expression on LP T cells in African green monkeys. CONCLUSION Both phenotypic differences could protect against SIV-mediated damage to the intestinal mucosa and could lead to future therapies in HIV(+) humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- A T Hutchison
- University of Texas Health Science Center-Medical School at Houston, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Houston, 77030, USA.
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Characterization of an effective CTL response against HIV and SIV infections. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:103924. [PMID: 21976964 PMCID: PMC3184421 DOI: 10.1155/2011/103924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A vaccine inducing protective immunity in mucosal tissues and secretions may stop or limit HIV infection. Although cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are clearly associated with control of viral replication in HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infections, there are examples of uncontrolled viral replication in the face of strong CD8+ T-cell responses. The number of functions, breadth, avidity, and magnitude of CTL response are likely to be important factors in the effectiveness of anti-HIV T-cell response, but the location and persistence of effector CD8+ T cells are also critical factors. Although the only HIV vaccine clinical trial targeting cellular immunity to prevent HIV infection failed, vaccine strategies using persistent agents against pathogenic mucosal challenge in macaque models are showing unique success. Thus, the key to control the initial focus of viral replication at the portal of entry may rely on the continuous generation of effector CTL responses at mucosal level.
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Coming of age: reconstruction of heterosexual HIV-1 transmission in human ex vivo organ culture systems. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:383-96. [PMID: 21430654 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2011.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), from men to women, involves exposure to infectious HIV-1 in semen. Therefore, the cellular and molecular processes that underlie HIV-1 transmission are closely interconnected with fundamental principles of human reproductive biology. Human ex vivo organ culture systems allow experimental reconstruction of HIV-1 transmission, using human semen and premenopausal cervicovaginal mucosal tissue, with specific emphasis on the progression from exposure to development of primary HIV-1 infection. Clearly, an isolated piece of human tissue cannot duplicate the full complexity of events in natural infections, but with correct observation of conventional medical and ethical standards, there is no opportunity to study HIV-1 exposure and primary infection in young women. Human mucosal organ cultures allow direct study of HIV-1 infection in a reproducible format while retaining major elements of complexity and variability that typify community-based HIV-1 transmission. Experimental manipulation of human mucosal tissue both allows and requires acquisition of new insights into basic processes of human mucosal immunology. Expanding from the current foundations, we believe that human organ cultures will become increasingly prominent in experimental studies of HIV-1 transmission and continuing efforts to prevent HIV-1 infection at human mucosal surfaces.
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Hladik F, Doncel GF. Preventing mucosal HIV transmission with topical microbicides: challenges and opportunities. Antiviral Res 2011; 88 Suppl 1:S3-9. [PMID: 21109065 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2010.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2010] [Revised: 09/14/2010] [Accepted: 09/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A combination of prevention and treatment modalities will be needed to successfully control the global spread of HIV. Microbicides, drug products topically applied to mucosal surfaces to prevent HIV infection, are one of these biomedical interventions that hold great promise. In order to be efficacious, microbicides must overcome several challenges imposed by the mucosal microenvironment they intend to protect and the mischievous human immunodeficiency virus with its enormous capacity to adapt. Recent data, however, supports the establishment of the primo-infection by only a small number of founder viruses, which are highly vulnerable to microbicidal intervention at the initial stages of mucosal invasion. The biological foundation of these challenges and opportunities in microbicide development is explored in this review. This article forms part of a special supplement on presentations covering HIV transmission and microbicides, based on the symposium "Trends in Microbicide Formulations", held on 25 and 26 January 2010, Arlington, VA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Hladik
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Doncel GF, Joseph T, Thurman AR. Role of semen in HIV-1 transmission: inhibitor or facilitator? Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 65:292-301. [PMID: 21087339 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00931.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) accounts for 60-90% of new infections, especially in developing countries. During male-to-female transmission, the virus is typically deposited in the vagina as cell-free and cell-associated virions carried by semen. But semen is more than just a carrier for HIV-1. Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies supports both inhibitory and enhancing effects. Intrinsic antiviral activity mediated by cationic antimicrobial peptides, cytotoxicity, and blockage of HIV-dendritic cell interactions are seminal plasma properties that inhibit HIV-1 infection. On the contrary, neutralization of vaginal acidic pH, enhanced virus-target cell attachment by seminal amyloid fibrils, opsonization by complement fragments, and electrostatic interactions are factors that facilitate HIV-1 infection. The end result, i.e., inhibition or enhancement of HIV mucosal infection, in vivo, likely depends on the summation of all these biological effects. More research is needed, especially in animal models, to dissect the role of these factors and establish their relevance in HIV-1 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo F Doncel
- CONRAD-Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA.
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Voronin Y, Phogat S. HIV/AIDS: vaccines and alternate strategies for treatment and prevention. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1205 Suppl 1:E1-9. [PMID: 20860672 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05759.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The symposium "HIV/AIDS: Vaccines and Alternate Strategies for Treatment and Prevention" brought together HIV vaccine researchers to discuss the latest developments in the field. From basic discoveries in virus diversity and mechanisms of neutralization by antibodies to nonhuman primate research and clinical trials of vaccine candidates in volunteers, scientists are making great strides in understanding the mechanisms that may protect against HIV and pathways to achieve this protection through vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yegor Voronin
- Global HIV Vaccine Enterprise, New York, New York, USA.
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Greene JM, Lhost JJ, Burwitz BJ, Budde ML, Macnair CE, Weiker MK, Gostick E, Friedrich TC, Broman KW, Price DA, O'Connor SL, O'Connor DH. Extralymphoid CD8+ T cells resident in tissue from simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac239{Delta}nef-vaccinated macaques suppress SIVmac239 replication ex vivo. J Virol 2010; 84:3362-72. [PMID: 20089651 PMCID: PMC2838091 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02028-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 01/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Live-attenuated vaccination with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) SIVmac239Deltanef is the most successful vaccine product tested to date in macaques. However, the mechanisms that explain the efficacy of this vaccine remain largely unknown. We utilized an ex vivo viral suppression assay to assess the quality of the immune response in SIVmac239Deltanef-immunized animals. Using major histocompatibility complex-matched Mauritian cynomolgus macaques, we did not detect SIV-specific functional immune responses in the blood by gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) enzyme-linked immunospot assay at select time points; however, we found that lung CD8(+) T cells, unlike blood CD8(+) T cells, effectively suppress virus replication by up to 80%. These results suggest that SIVmac239Deltanef may be an effective vaccine because it elicits functional immunity at mucosal sites. Moreover, these results underscore the limitations of relying on immunological measurements from peripheral blood lymphocytes in studies of protective immunity to HIV/SIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin M. Greene
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer J. Lhost
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin J. Burwitz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Melisa L. Budde
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Caitlin E. Macnair
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Madelyn K. Weiker
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Gostick
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas C. Friedrich
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Karl W. Broman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Price
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Shelby L. O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - David H. O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin 53715, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, Wales, United Kingdom
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Genescà M, McChesney MB, Miller CJ. Depo-provera treatment does not abrogate protection from intravenous SIV challenge in female macaques immunized with an attenuated AIDS virus. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9814. [PMID: 20352116 PMCID: PMC2843738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a previous study, progesterone treatment of female monkeys immunized with live, attenuated SHIV89.6 abrogated the generally consistent protection from vaginal simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) challenge. The mechanisms responsible for the loss of protection remain to be defined. The objective of the present study was to determine whether Depo-Provera administration alters protection from intravenous SIV challenge in SHIV-immunized female macaques. METHODS AND FINDINGS Two groups of female macaques were immunized with attenuated SHIV89.6 and then challenged intravenously with SIVmac239. Four weeks before challenge, one animal group was treated with Depo-Provera, a commonly used injectable contraceptive progestin. As expected, SHIV-immunized monkeys had significantly lower peak and set-point plasma viral RNA levels compared to naïve controls, but in contrast to previously published findings with vaginal SIV challenge, the Depo-Provera SHIV-immunized animals controlled SIV replication to a similar, or even slightly greater, degree than did the untreated SHIV-immunized animals. Control of viral replication from week 4 to week 20 after challenge was more consistent in the progesterone-treated, SHIV-immunized animals than in untreated, SHIV-immunized animals. Although levels of interferon-gamma production were similar, the SIV-specific CD8(+) T cells of progesterone-treated animals expressed more functions than the anti-viral CD8(+) T cells from untreated animals. CONCLUSIONS Depo-Provera did not diminish the control of viral replication after intravenous SIV challenge in female macaques immunized with a live-attenuated lentivirus. This result contrasts with the previously reported effect of Depo-Provera(R) on protection from vaginal SIV challenge and strongly implies that the decreased protection from vaginal challenge is due to effects of progesterone on the genital tract rather than to systemic effects. Further, these results demonstrate that the effects of hormonal contraceptives on vaccine efficacy need to be considered in the context of testing and use of an AIDS vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meritxell Genescà
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Michael B. McChesney
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Miller
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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Abstract
The HIV vaccines tested in the halted Step efficacy trial and the modestly successful phase 3 RV144 trial were designed to elicit strong systemic immune responses; therefore, strategies to direct immune responses into mucosal sites should be tested in an effort to improve AIDS vaccine efficacy. However, as increased CD4(+) T-cell activation and recruitment to mucosal sites have the potential to enhance HIV transmission, mucosal immune responses to HIV vaccines should primarily consist of effector CD8(+) T cells and plasma cells. Controlling the level of mucosal T-cell activation may be a critical factor in developing an effective mucosal AIDS vaccine. Immunization routes and adjuvants that can boost antiviral immunity in mucosal surfaces offer a reasonable opportunity to improve AIDS vaccine efficacy. Nonhuman primate models offer the best system for preclinical evaluation of these approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meritxell Genescà
- Center for Comparative Medicine, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Christopher J. Miller
- Center for Comparative Medicine, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616 USA
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