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Lecce M, Miazza D, Muzio C, Parigi M, Miazza A, Bergomi MG. Visuospatial, oculomotor, and executive reading skills evolve in elementary school, and errors are significant: a topological RAN study. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1383969. [PMID: 38903458 PMCID: PMC11188999 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1383969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
We investigate the development of visuospatial and oculomotor reading skills in a cohort of elementary school children. Employing a longitudinal methodology, the study applies the Topological serial digit Rapid Automated Naming (Top-RAN) battery, which evaluates visuospatial reading skills leveraging metrics addressing crowding, distractors, and voluntary attention orientation. The participant pool comprises 142 students (66 males, 76 females), including 46 non-native speakers (21 males, 25 females), representing a diverse range of ethnic backgrounds. The Top-RAN dataset encompasses performance, error, and self-correction metrics for each subtest and student, underscoring the significance of these factors in the process of reading acquisition. Analytical methods include dimensionality reduction, clustering, and classification algorithms, consolidated into a Python package to facilitate reproducible results. Our results indicate that visuospatial reading abilities vary according to the task and demonstrate a marked evolution over time, as seen in the progressive decrease in execution times, errors, and self-corrections. This pattern supports the hypothesis that the growth of oculomotor, attentional, and executive skills is primarily fostered by educational experiences and maturation. This investigation provides valuable insights into the dynamic nature of these skills during pivotal educational stages.
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McArthur AWD, Whitford V, Joanisse MF. Event-related Potential Measures of Visual Word Processing in Monolingual and Bilingual Children and Adults: A Focus on Word Frequency Effects. J Cogn Neurosci 2024; 36:1493-1522. [PMID: 38829713 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
How does language background influence the neural correlates of visual word recognition in children? To address this question, we used an ERP lexical decision task to examine first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) visual word processing in monolingual and bilingual school-aged children and young adults (n = 123). In particular, we focused on the effects of word frequency (an index of lexical accessibility) on RTs and the N400 ERP component. Behaviorally, we found larger L1 versus L2 word frequency effects among bilingual children, driven by faster and more accurate responses to higher-frequency words (no other language or age group differences were observed). Neurophysiologically, we found larger L1 word frequency effects in bilinguals versus monolinguals (across both age groups), reflected in more negative ERP amplitudes to lower-frequency words. However, the bilingual groups processed L1 and L2 words similarly, despite lower levels of subjective and objective L2 proficiency. Taken together, our findings suggest that divided L1 experience (but not L2 experience) influences the neural correlates of visual word recognition across childhood and adulthood.
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Vernet M, Ducrot S, Chaix Y. A Systematic Review on Visual-Processing Deficits in Neurofibromatosis Type 1: What Possible Impact on Learning to Read? Dev Neuropsychol 2024; 49:111-137. [PMID: 38469855 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2024.2326151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
This systematic review aimed to examine the possible implication of visual-perceptual, visuo-attentional and oculomotor processing in the reading deficits frequently experienced by children with Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), as previously shown in dyslexia. Using PRISMA methodological guidelines, we examined 49 studies; most of these reported visual-processing deficits in this population, raising the importance of directly studying the visuo-perceptual and visuo-attentional processes and eye-movement control involved in the learning-to-read process in NF1. The discussion provides a reflection for a better understanding of how visual-processing skills interact with reading deficits in NF1, as well as new avenues for their screening and care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Vernet
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LPL, Aix-en-Provence, France
- Centre de jour enfants, Centre hospitalier de Digne-les-Bains, Digne-les-Bains, France
- TONIC, Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, Université de Toulouse, Inserm, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Yves Chaix
- TONIC, Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, Université de Toulouse, Inserm, UPS, Toulouse, France
- Neuropediatric Department, Toulouse-Purpan University Hospital, Toulouse, France
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4
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Yan M, Pan J. Joint effects of individual reading skills and word properties on Chinese children's eye movements during sentence reading. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14754. [PMID: 37679436 PMCID: PMC10485247 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41041-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Word recognition during the reading of continuous text has received much attention. While a large body of research has investigated how linguistic properties of words affect eye movements during reading, it remains to be established how individual differences in reading skills affect momentary cognitive processes during sentence reading among typically developing Chinese readers. The present study set out to test the joint influences of word properties and individual reading skills on eye movements during reading among Chinese children. We recorded eye movements of 30 grade 3 (G3) children and 27 grade 5 (G5) children when they read sentences silently for comprehension. Predictors of linear mixed models included word frequency, visual complexity, and launch site distance, in addition to the participants' offline psychometric performances in rapid naming, morphological awareness, word segmenting, and character recognition. The results showed that word properties affected word recognition during sentence reading in both G3 and G5 children. Moreover, word segmenting predicted the G3 children's fixation durations and the G5 children's fixation location, whereas rapid naming predicted the G5 children's fixation duration. Implications are discussed based on the current findings, in light of how different literacy skills contribute to reading development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Jinger Pan
- Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, China.
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Justino J, Kolinsky R. Eye movements during reading in beginning and skilled readers: Impact of reading level or physiological maturation? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 236:103927. [PMID: 37126894 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We begin by presenting and examining relevant data in the literature on eye movements in reading, from childhood to adulthood. In particular, we discuss the differences found in eye movements during reading between children in different age groups and with different reading levels and skilled adult readers in terms of word recognition and sentence processing. We then critically discuss two hypotheses that account for the differences between children and adults' eye movement during reading: one being reading age itself - the changes in eye movement patterns in reading are regulated by the level of reading proficiency and its automatization - and the other being the role of maturation of oculomotor control and, consequently, its possible changes in eye movement patterns during reading. Finally, we list gaps in the research field and suggest that future research will benefit from investigating eye movements during reading in ex-illiterate adults who are in the process of learning to read in order to isolate both reading and maturational factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Justino
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
| | - Régine Kolinsky
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
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6
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Vernet M, Bellocchi S, Danna J, Massendari D, Jover M, Chaix Y, Ducrot S. The determinants of saccade targeting strategy in neurodevelopmental disorders: The influence of suboptimal reading experience. Vision Res 2023; 204:108162. [PMID: 36565661 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2022.108162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Whether eye-movements deficits are causal in reading disorders (RD) or rather a consequence of linguistic processing difficulty experienced by disabled readers has been extensively debated.Since RD are frequently comorbid with the Neurofibromatosis type1 (NF1), children with NF1 were used as a comparison group for children with dyslexia in this study.Eye movements were recorded while 21 dyslexic, 20 NF1, and 20 typically developing children performed an oculomotor lateralized bisection task. In this experiment, we manipulated the type of stimulus - discrete (words and strings of hashes) versus continuous (solid lines) - and the visual field where the stimulus was displayed (left vs right). The results showed that (1) only proficient readers (TD and NF1 without RD) showed fully developed oculomotor mechanisms for efficient reading, with a clear preferred viewing location located to the left of the word's centre in both visual fields, and fine-tuned saccade targeting guided by the between-character space information and (2) NF1 poor readers mirrored the dyslexic eye movement behaviour, with less accuracy and more variability in saccadic programming, no sensitivity to the discreteness of the stimuli, particularly in the left visual field. We concluded that disruption to oculomotor behaviour reflectsthe fact that many of the processes involved in reading are not yet automatized for children with RD, independently of NF1. This suggests that the differences in saccade targeting strategy between children with and without RD would be secondary consequences of their reduced reading experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Vernet
- ToNIC, Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, University of Toulouse, Inserm, UPS, France; Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LPL, Aix-en-Provence, France; CLLE, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France.
| | - Stéphanie Bellocchi
- Univ. Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, EPSYLON UR 4556, F34000, Montpellier, France
| | - Jérémy Danna
- CLLE, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | - Yves Chaix
- ToNIC, Toulouse NeuroImaging Center, University of Toulouse, Inserm, UPS, France; Children's Hospital, Toulouse-Purpan University Hospital, Toulouse, France
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Apfelbaum KS, Goodwin C, Blomquist C, McMurray B. The development of lexical competition in written- and spoken-word recognition. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023; 76:196-219. [PMID: 35296190 PMCID: PMC10962864 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221090483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Efficient word recognition depends on the ability to overcome competition from overlapping words. The nature of the overlap depends on the input modality: spoken words have temporal overlap from other words that share phonemes in the same positions, whereas written words have spatial overlap from other words with letters in the same places. It is unclear how these differences in input format affect the ability to recognise a word and the types of competitors that become active while doing so. This study investigates word recognition in both modalities in children between 7 and 15. Children complete a visual-world paradigm eye-tracking task that measures competition from words with several types of overlap, using identical word lists between modalities. Results showed correlated developmental changes in the speed of target recognition in both modalities. In addition, developmental changes were seen in the efficiency of competitor suppression for some competitor types in the spoken modality. These data reveal some developmental continuity in the process of word recognition independent of modality but also some instances of independence in how competitors are activated. Stimuli, data, and analyses from this project are available at: https://osf.io/eav72.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith S Apfelbaum
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Claire Goodwin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Christina Blomquist
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Bob McMurray
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Department of Linguistics, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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Koornneef A, Kraal A. Does BeeLine Reader’s gradient-coloured font improve the readability of digital texts for beginning readers? COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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9
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van Viersen S, Protopapas A, Georgiou GK, Parrila R, Ziaka L, de Jong PF. Lexicality effects on orthographic learning in beginning and advanced readers of Dutch: An eye-tracking study. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 75:1135-1154. [PMID: 34491141 PMCID: PMC9016678 DOI: 10.1177/17470218211047420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Orthographic learning is the topic of many recent studies about reading, but much
is still unknown about conditions that affect orthographic learning and their
influence on reading fluency development over time. This study investigated
lexicality effects on orthographic learning in beginning and relatively advanced
readers of Dutch. Eye movements of 131 children in Grades 2 and 5 were monitored
during an orthographic learning task. Children read sentences containing
pseudowords or low-frequency real words that varied in number of exposures. We
examined both offline learning outcomes (i.e., orthographic choice and spelling
dictation) of target items and online gaze durations on target words. The
results showed general effects of exposure, lexicality, and reading-skill level.
Also, a two-way interaction was found between the number of exposures and
lexicality when detailed orthographic representations were required, consistent
with a larger overall effect of exposure on learning the spellings of
pseudowords. Moreover, lexicality and reading-skill level were found to affect
the learning rate across exposures based on a decrease in gaze durations,
indicating a larger learning effect for pseudowords in Grade 5 children. Yet,
further interactions between exposure and reading-skill level were not present,
indicating largely similar learning curves for beginning and advanced readers.
We concluded that the reading system of more advanced readers may cope somewhat
better with words varying in lexicality, but is not more efficient than that of
beginning readers in building up orthographic knowledge of specific words across
repeated exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sietske van Viersen
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - George K Georgiou
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rauno Parrila
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Educational Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Laoura Ziaka
- Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Peter F de Jong
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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10
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Fan X, Reilly R. Reading development at the text level: an investigation of surprisal and embeddingbased text similarity effects on eyemovements in Chinese early readers. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 13. [PMID: 33828812 PMCID: PMC8012104 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.6.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes the use of semantic similarity measures based on distributed representations
of words, sentences, and paragraphs (so-called “embeddings”) to assess the
impact of supra-lexical factors on eye-movement data from early readers of Chinese. In
addition, we used a corpus-based measure of surprisal to assess the impact of local word
predictability. Eye movement data from 56 Chinese students were collected (a) in the
students’ 4th grade and (b) one year later while they were in 5th grade. Results indicated
that surprisal and some text similarity measures have a significant impact on the momentto-
moment processing of words in reading. The paper presents an easy-to-use set of tools
for linking the low-level aspects of fixation durations to a hierarchy of sentence-level and
paragraph-level features that can be computed automatically. The study is the first attempt,
as far as we are aware, to track the developmental trajectory of these influences in developing
readers across a range of reading abilities. The similarity-based measures described
here can be used (a) to provide a measure of reader sensitivity to sentence and paragraph
cohesion and (b) to assess specific texts for their suitability for readers of different reading
ability levels.
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11
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Joseph HSSL, Nation K, Liversedge SP. Using Eye Movements to Investigate Word Frequency Effects in Children's Sentence Reading. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2013.12087485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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12
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Valle A, Binder KS, Walsh CB, Nemier C, Bangs KE. Eye Movements, Prosody, and Word Frequency Among Average- and High- Skilled Second-Grade Readers. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2013.12087483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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13
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14
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Kraal A, van den Broek PW, Koornneef AW, Ganushchak LY, Saab N. Differences in text processing by low- and high-comprehending beginning readers of expository and narrative texts: Evidence from eye movements. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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15
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Kim YSG, Petscher Y, Vorstius C. Unpacking eye movements during oral and silent reading and their relations to reading proficiency in beginning readers. CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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16
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Return-sweep saccades during reading in adults and children. Vision Res 2019; 155:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2018.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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17
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Fabry RE, Kukkonen K. Reconsidering the Mind-Wandering Reader: Predictive Processing, Probability Designs, and Enculturation. Front Psychol 2019; 9:2648. [PMID: 30670998 PMCID: PMC6331403 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on mind-wandering frequently use reading as an experimental task. In these studies, reading is conceived as a cognitive process that potentially offers a contrast to mind-wandering, because it seems to be task-related, goal-directed and stimulus-dependent. More recent work attempts to avoid the dichotomy of successful cognitive processes and processes of mind-wandering found in earlier studies. We approach the issue from the perspective that texts provoke modes of cognitive involvement different from the information processing and recall account that underlies many early mind-wandering studies. After all, reading itself is an umbrella term for activities that are characterized by a variety of phenomenological and functional signatures. We conceptualize reading and mind-wandering in relation to each other through the framework of enculturated predictive processing, which is informed by research in literary studies. Earlier accounts think of reading predominantly in terms of the construction of situation models that organize textual information. By contrast, enculturated predictive processing foregrounds shifting stances readers can take in relation to the text. Characters featuring in literary texts might be mind-wandering themselves, or passages in literary style might make the construction of a clearly defined situational model impossible. Furthermore, we take into account that texts often elicit mind-wandering through the construction of task-relevant and attention-driven virtual scenarios in readers' minds. This more complex account of reading can enrich recent attempts to understand mind-wandering as a complex, multi-dimensional phenomenon. The study of mind-wandering can benefit, we argue, from a closer attention to the process of reading and to the texts it deploys as stimuli. The emerging perspective from enculturated predictive processing and literary studies makes distinctions in reading that in turn enable research on mind-wandering to ask more precise questions about (1) different kinds of mind-wandering, (2) different modes of reading, and (3) how and where they interconnect across time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina E Fabry
- Department of Philosophy II, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Karin Kukkonen
- Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Danna J, Massendari D, Furnari B, Ducrot S. The optimal viewing position effect in printed versus cursive words: Evidence of a reading cost for the cursive font. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 188:110-121. [PMID: 29908365 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Two eye-movement experiments were conducted to examine the effects of font type on the recognition of words presented in central vision, using a variable-viewing-position technique. Two main questions were addressed: (1) Is the optimal viewing position (OVP) for word recognition modulated by font type? (2) Is the cursive font more appropriate than the printed font in word recognition in children who exclusively write using a cursive script? In order to disentangle the role of perceptual difficulty associated with the cursive font and the impact of writing habits, we tested French adults (Experiment 1) and second-grade French children, the latter having exclusively learned to write in cursive (Experiment 2). Results revealed that the printed font is more appropriate than the cursive for recognizing words in both adults and children: adults were slightly less accurate in cursive than in printed stimuli recognition and children were slower to identify cursive stimuli than printed stimuli. Eye-movement measures also revealed that the OVP curves were flattened in cursive font in both adults and children. We concluded that the perceptual difficulty of the cursive font degrades word recognition by impacting the OVP stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémy Danna
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LNC, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Fédération 3C, Marseille, France.
| | - Delphine Massendari
- Université Paris Descartes, CNRS, LPP, Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, Paris, France; Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LPL, Marseille, France
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Whitford V, Joanisse MF. Do eye movements reveal differences between monolingual and bilingual children's first-language and second-language reading? A focus on word frequency effects. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:318-337. [PMID: 29800793 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
An extensive body of research has examined reading acquisition and performance in monolingual children. Surprisingly, however, much less is known about reading in bilingual children, who outnumber monolingual children globally. Here, we address this important imbalance in the literature by employing eye movement recordings to examine both global (i.e., text-level) and local (i.e., word-level) aspects of monolingual and bilingual children's reading performance across their first-language (L1) and second-language (L2). We also had a specific focus on lexical accessibility, indexed by word frequency effects. We had three main findings. First, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L1 reading performance relative to monolingual children, including larger L1 word frequency effects. Second, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L2 versus L1 reading performance, including larger L2 word frequency effects. Third, both groups of children displayed reduced global and local reading performance relative to adult comparison groups (across their known languages), including larger word frequency effects. Notably, our first finding was not captured by traditional offline measures of reading, such as standardized tests, suggesting that these measures may lack the sensitivity to detect such nuanced between-group differences in reading performance. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that bilingual children's simultaneous exposure to two reading systems leads to eye movement reading behavior that differs from that of monolingual children and has important consequences for how lexical information is accessed and integrated in both languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Whitford
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79902, USA.
| | - Marc F Joanisse
- Department of Psychology, Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada
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20
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Real-time coordination of visual and linguistic processes in novice readers. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:388-396. [PMID: 29625749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Skilled reading requires coordinating real-time visual fixations, orthographic analyses, and phonological encoding across multiple words in sentences. These procedures are well studied in experienced readers, but less is known about their status during development. To investigate how visual properties influence the origins of coordinated processing, the current study combined rapid automatized naming (RAN) with an eye-tracking paradigm and compared the timing of fixations and vocalizations in typically developing adults and 6-year-old children. Within RAN displays, sequences varied visual features of items (i.e., similar such as p-q vs. dissimilar such as p-t) and their locations in rows (i.e., row-initial vs. row-medial positions). Adults and children accessed parafoveal preview of subsequent items when fixating on current items, leading to longer latency to speak for similar items compared with dissimilar ones. Both groups also vocalized previous items while fixating on current items, leading to longer eye-voice overlap for row-medial items compared with row-initial ones. Yet, relative to adults, children exhibited exaggerated delays in latency to speak from parafoveal preview and reduced eye-voice overlap due to row transitions. Together, this suggests that coordinated processing is present at the earliest points of development but that greater inexperience increases susceptibility to momentary visual hurdles. Relationships to previous work on real-time RAN performance in dyslexic adults and children are discussed.
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21
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Kim YSG, Vorstius C, Radach R. Does Online Comprehension Monitoring Make a Unique Contribution to Reading Comprehension in Beginning Readers? Evidence from Eye Movements. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF READING 2018; 22:367-383. [PMID: 30078981 PMCID: PMC6071415 DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2018.1457680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The goal was to investigate the nature of online comprehension monitoring, its predictors, and its relation to reading comprehension. Questions were concerned with (1) beginning readers' sensitivity to inconsistencies, (2) predictors of online comprehension monitoring, and (3) the relation of online comprehension monitoring to reading comprehension over and above word reading and listening comprehension. Using eye-tracking technology, online comprehension monitoring was measured as the amount of time spent rereading target implausible words and looking back at surrounding contexts. Results from 319 second graders revealed that children spent greater time fixating on inconsistent than consistent words and engaged in more frequent lookbacks. Comprehension monitoring was explained by both word reading and listening comprehension. However, comprehension monitoring did not uniquely predict reading comprehension after accounting for word reading and listening comprehension. These results provide insight into the nature of comprehension monitoring and its role in reading comprehension for beginning readers.
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Grainger J. Orthographic processing: A ‘mid-level’ vision of reading: The 44th Sir Frederic Bartlett Lecture. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:335-359. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1314515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
I will describe how orthographic processing acts as a central interface between visual and linguistic processing during reading, and as such can be considered to be the ‘mid-level vision’ of reading research. In order to make this case, I first summarize the evidence in favour of letter-based word recognition before examining work investigating how orthographic similarities among words influence single word reading. I describe how evidence gradually accumulated against traditional measures of orthographic similarity and the associated theories of orthographic processing, forcing a reconsideration of how letter-position information is represented by skilled readers. Then, I present the theoretical framework that was developed to explain these findings, with a focus on the distinction between location-specific and location-invariant orthographic representations. Finally, I describe work extending this theoretical framework in two main directions: first, to the realm of reading development, with the aim to specify the key changes in the processing of letters and letter strings that accompany successful learning to read, and second, to the realm of sentence reading, in order to specify how orthographic information can be processed across several words in parallel, and how skilled readers keep track of which letters belong to which words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Grainger
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Aix-Marseille University & CNRS, Marseille, France
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Spichtig AN, Pascoe JP, Ferrara JD, Vorstius C. A Comparison of Eye Movement Measures across Reading Efficiency Quartile Groups in Elementary, Middle, and High School Students in the U.S. J Eye Mov Res 2017; 10. [PMID: 33828663 PMCID: PMC7141082 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.10.4.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This cross-sectional study examined eye movements during reading across grades in stu-dents with differing levels of reading efficiency. Eye-movement recordings were obtained while students in grades 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 silently read normed grade-leveled texts with demonstrated comprehension. Recordings from students in each reading rate quartile at each grade level were compared to characterize differences in reading rate, number of fixations, number of regressions, and fixation durations. Comparisons indicated that stu-dents in higher reading rate quartiles made fewer fixations and regressions per word, and had shorter fixation durations. These indices of greater efficiency were also characteristic of students in upper as compared to lower grades, with two exceptions: (a) between grades 6 and 8, fixations and regressions increased while reading rates stagnated and fixation durations continued to decline, and (b) beyond grade 6 there was relatively little growth in the reading efficiency of students in the lower two reading rate quartiles. These results suggest that declines in fixation duration across grades may in part reflect broader matura-tional processes, while higher fixation and regression rates may distinguish students who continue to struggle with word recognition during their high school years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John D Ferrara
- Reading Plus,Winooski, Vermont, United States of America
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Vinuela-Navarro V, Erichsen JT, Williams C, Woodhouse JM. Saccades and fixations in children with delayed reading skills. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2017; 37:531-541. [DOI: 10.1111/opo.12392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cathy Williams
- School of Social and Community Medicine; University of Bristol; Bristol UK
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Eckstein MK, Guerra-Carrillo B, Miller Singley AT, Bunge SA. Beyond eye gaze: What else can eyetracking reveal about cognition and cognitive development? Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 25:69-91. [PMID: 27908561 PMCID: PMC6987826 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This review provides an introduction to two eyetracking measures that can be used to study cognitive development and plasticity: pupil dilation and spontaneous blink rate. We begin by outlining the rich history of gaze analysis, which can reveal the current focus of attention as well as cognitive strategies. We then turn to the two lesser-utilized ocular measures. Pupil dilation is modulated by the brain's locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system, which controls physiological arousal and attention, and has been used as a measure of subjective task difficulty, mental effort, and neural gain. Spontaneous eyeblink rate correlates with levels of dopamine in the central nervous system, and can reveal processes underlying learning and goal-directed behavior. Taken together, gaze, pupil dilation, and blink rate are three non-invasive and complementary measures of cognition with high temporal resolution and well-understood neural foundations. Here we review the neural foundations of pupil dilation and blink rate, provide examples of their usage, describe analytic methods and methodological considerations, and discuss their potential for research on learning, cognitive development, and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria K Eckstein
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Berkeley, United States
| | | | | | - Silvia A Bunge
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Berkeley, United States; Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California at Berkeley, United States.
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Krieber M, Bartl-Pokorny KD, Pokorny FB, Zhang D, Landerl K, Körner C, Pernkopf F, Pock T, Einspieler C, Marschik PB. Eye Movements during Silent and Oral Reading in a Regular Orthography: Basic Characteristics and Correlations with Childhood Cognitive Abilities and Adolescent Reading Skills. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170986. [PMID: 28151950 PMCID: PMC5289712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to define differences between silent and oral reading with respect to spatial and temporal eye movement parameters. Eye movements of 22 German-speaking adolescents (14 females; mean age = 13;6 years;months) were recorded while reading an age-appropriate text silently and orally. Preschool cognitive abilities were assessed at the participants’ age of 5;7 (years;months) using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. The participants’ reading speed and reading comprehension at the age of 13;6 (years;months) were determined using a standardized inventory to evaluate silent reading skills in German readers (Lesegeschwindigkeits- und -verständnistest für Klassen 6–12). The results show that (i) reading mode significantly influenced both spatial and temporal characteristics of eye movement patterns; (ii) articulation decreased the consistency of intraindividual reading performances with regard to a significant number of eye movement parameters; (iii) reading skills predicted the majority of eye movement parameters during silent reading, but influenced only a restricted number of eye movement parameters when reading orally; (iv) differences with respect to a subset of eye movement parameters increased with reading skills; (v) an overall preschool cognitive performance score predicted reading skills at the age of 13;6 (years;months), but not eye movement patterns during either silent or oral reading. However, we found a few significant correlations between preschool performances on subscales of sequential and simultaneous processing and eye movement parameters for both reading modes. Overall, the findings suggest that eye movement patterns depend on the reading mode. Preschool cognitive abilities were more closely related to eye movement patterns of oral than silent reading, while reading skills predicted eye movement patterns during silent reading, but less so during oral reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Krieber
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Katrin D. Bartl-Pokorny
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Florian B. Pokorny
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BEE-PRI: Brain, Ears & Eyes–Pattern Recognition Initiative, BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Machine Intelligence & Signal Processing Group, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Dajie Zhang
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Karin Landerl
- Developmental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christof Körner
- Cognitive Psychology & Neuroscience, Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Franz Pernkopf
- BEE-PRI: Brain, Ears & Eyes–Pattern Recognition Initiative, BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Signal Processing and Speech Communication Laboratory, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Pock
- Institute for Computer Graphics and Vision, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Christa Einspieler
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Peter B. Marschik
- Research Unit iDN–Interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BEE-PRI: Brain, Ears & Eyes–Pattern Recognition Initiative, BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Sperlich A, Meixner J, Laubrock J. Development of the perceptual span in reading: A longitudinal study. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 146:181-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Kasisopa B, Reilly RG, Luksaneeyanawin S, Burnham D. Child readers' eye movements in reading Thai. Vision Res 2016; 123:8-19. [PMID: 27137836 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
It has recently been found that adult native readers of Thai, an alphabetic scriptio continua language, engage similar oculomotor patterns as readers of languages written with spaces between words; despite the lack of inter-word spaces, first and last characters of a word appear to guide optimal placement of Thai readers' eye movements, just to the left of word-centre. The issue addressed by the research described here is whether eye movements of Thai children also show these oculomotor patterns. Here the effect of first and last character frequency and word frequency on the eye movements of 18 Thai children when silently reading normal unspaced and spaced text was investigated. Linear mixed-effects model analyses of viewing time measures (first fixation duration, single fixation duration, and gaze duration) and of landing site location revealed that Thai children's eye movement patterns were similar to their adult counterparts. Both first character frequency and word frequency played important roles in Thai children's landing sites; children tended to land their eyes further into words, close to the word centre, if the word began with higher frequency first characters, and this effect was facilitated in higher frequency words. Spacing also facilitated more effective use of first character frequency and it also assisted in decreasing children's viewing time. The use of last-character frequency appeared to be a later development, affecting mainly single fixation duration and gaze duration. In general, Thai children use the same oculomotor control mechanisms in reading spaced and unspaced texts as Thai adults, who in turn have similar oculomotor control as readers of spaced texts. Thus, it appears that eye movements in reading converge on the optimal landing site using whatever cues are available to guide such placement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjawan Kasisopa
- MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour, and Development, Western Sydney University, Australia.
| | - Ronan G Reilly
- MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour, and Development, Western Sydney University, Australia; Department of Computer Science, Maynooth University, Ireland.
| | | | - Denis Burnham
- MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour, and Development, Western Sydney University, Australia.
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Krieber M, Bartl-Pokorny KD, Pokorny FB, Einspieler C, Langmann A, Körner C, Falck-Ytter T, Marschik PB. The Relation between Reading Skills and Eye Movement Patterns in Adolescent Readers: Evidence from a Regular Orthography. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0145934. [PMID: 26727255 PMCID: PMC4699816 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decades, the relation between reading skills and eye movement behavior has been well documented in English-speaking cohorts. As English and German differ substantially with regard to orthographic complexity (i.e. grapheme-phoneme correspondence), we aimed to delineate specific characteristics of how reading speed and reading comprehension interact with eye movements in typically developing German-speaking (Austrian) adolescents. Eye movements of 22 participants (14 females; mean age = 13;6 years;months) were tracked while they were performing three tasks, namely silently reading words, texts, and pseudowords. Their reading skills were determined by means of a standardized German reading speed and reading comprehension assessment (Lesegeschwindigkeits- und -verständnistest für Klassen 6−12). We found that (a) reading skills were associated with various eye movement parameters in each of the three reading tasks; (b) better reading skills were associated with an increased efficiency of eye movements, but were primarily linked to spatial reading parameters, such as the number of fixations per word, the total number of saccades and saccadic amplitudes; (c) reading speed was a more reliable predictor for eye movement parameters than reading comprehension; (d) eye movements were highly correlated across reading tasks, which indicates consistent reading performances. Contrary to findings in English-speaking cohorts, the reading skills neither consistently correlated with temporal eye movement parameters nor with the number or percentage of regressions made while performing any of the three reading tasks. These results indicate that, although reading skills are associated with eye movement patterns irrespective of language, the temporal and spatial characteristics of this association may vary with orthographic consistency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Krieber
- Research Unit iDN–interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Katrin D. Bartl-Pokorny
- Research Unit iDN–interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Florian B. Pokorny
- Research Unit iDN–interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Machine Intelligence & Signal Processing Group, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- BEE-PRI: Brain, Ears & Eyes–Pattern Recognition Initiative, BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christa Einspieler
- Research Unit iDN–interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Andrea Langmann
- Department of Strabism, Pediatric Ophthalmology and Rehabilitation of Visually Impaired, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Christof Körner
- Cognitive Psychology & Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Terje Falck-Ytter
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Peter B. Marschik
- Research Unit iDN–interdisciplinary Developmental Neuroscience, Institute of Physiology, Center for Physiological Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BEE-PRI: Brain, Ears & Eyes–Pattern Recognition Initiative, BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Cop U, Drieghe D, Duyck W. Eye Movement Patterns in Natural Reading: A Comparison of Monolingual and Bilingual Reading of a Novel. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134008. [PMID: 26287379 PMCID: PMC4545791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND METHOD This paper presents a corpus of sentence level eye movement parameters for unbalanced bilingual first language (L1) and second-language (L2) reading and monolingual reading of a complete novel (56 000 words). We present important sentence-level basic eye movement parameters of both bilingual and monolingual natural reading extracted from this large data corpus. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Bilingual L2 reading patterns show longer sentence reading times (20%), more fixations (21%), shorter saccades (12%) and less word skipping (4.6%), than L1 reading patterns. Regression rates are the same for L1 and L2 reading. These results could indicate, analogous to a previous simulation with the E-Z reader model in the literature, that it is primarily the speeding up of lexical access that drives both L1 and L2 reading development. Bilingual L1 reading does not differ in any major way from monolingual reading. This contrasts with predictions made by the weaker links account, which predicts a bilingual disadvantage in language processing caused by divided exposure between languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uschi Cop
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Wouter Duyck
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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Schroeder S, Hyönä J, Liversedge SP. Developmental eye-tracking research in reading: Introduction to the special issue. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1046877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Schroeder
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD) , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jukka Hyönä
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , Turku, Finland
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Tiffin-Richards SP, Schroeder S. Word length and frequency effects on children's eye movements during silent reading. Vision Res 2015; 113:33-43. [PMID: 26048684 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we measured the eye movements of a large sample of 2nd grade German speaking children and a control group of adults during a silent reading task. To be able to directly investigate the interaction of word length and frequency effects we employed controlled sentence frames with embedded target words in an experimental design in which length and frequency were manipulated independently of one another. Unlike previous studies which have investigated the interaction of word length and frequency effects in children, we used age-appropriate word frequencies for children. We found significant effects of word length and frequency for both children and adults while effects were generally greater for children. The interaction of word length and frequency was significant for children in gaze duration and total viewing time eye movement measures but not for adults. Our results suggest that children rely on sublexical decoding of infrequent words, leading to greater length effects for infrequent than frequent words while adults do not show this effect when reading children's reading materials.
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Mancheva L, Reichle ED, Lemaire B, Valdois S, Ecalle J, Guérin-Dugué A. An Analysis of Reading Skill Development using E-Z Reader. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 27:357-373. [PMID: 27148437 DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1024255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Previously reported simulations using the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control suggest that the patterns of eye movements observed with children versus adult readers reflect differences in lexical processing proficiency (Reichle et al., 2013). However, these simulations fail to specify precisely what aspect(s) of lexical processing (e.g., orthographic processing) account for the concurrent changes in eye movements and reading skill. To examine this issue, the E-Z Reader model was first used to simulate the aggregate eye-movement data from 15 adults and 75 children to replicate the finding that gross differences in reading skill can be accounted for by differences in lexical processing proficiency. The model was then used to simulate the eye-movement data of individual children so that the best-fitting lexical-processing parameters could be correlated to measures of orthographic knowledge, phonological-processing skill, sentence comprehension, and general intelligence. These analyses suggest that orthographic knowledge accounts for variance in the eye-movement measures that is observed with between-individual differences in reading skill. The theoretical implications of this conclusion will be discussed in relation to computational models of reading and our understanding of reading skill development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyuba Mancheva
- GIPSA-lab, University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France; University of Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, F-38000 Grenoble, France; CNRS, LPNC UMR5105, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Erik D Reichle
- Centre for Vision and Cognition, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Benoît Lemaire
- University of Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, F-38000 Grenoble, France; CNRS, LPNC UMR5105, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Sylviane Valdois
- University of Grenoble Alpes, LPNC, F-38000 Grenoble, France; CNRS, LPNC UMR5105, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Jean Ecalle
- Laboratoire d'Etude des Mécanismes Cognitifs, Université de Lyon 2, LabEx Cortex ANR-11-LABX-0042, France
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Marx C, Hawelka S, Schuster S, Hutzler F. An incremental boundary study on parafoveal preprocessing in children reading aloud: Parafoveal masks overestimate the preview benefit. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 27:549-561. [PMID: 26246890 PMCID: PMC4487581 DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1008494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Parafoveal preprocessing is an important factor for efficient reading and, in eye-movement studies, is typically investigated by means of parafoveal masking: Valid previews are compared to instances in which masks prevent preprocessing. A long-held assumption was that parafoveal preprocessing, as assessed by this technique, only reflects facilitation (i.e., a preview benefit). Recent studies, however, suggested that the benefit estimate is inflated due to interference of the parafoveal masks, i.e., the masks inflict processing costs. With children from Grades 4 and 6, we administered the novel incremental priming technique. The technique manipulates the salience of the previews by systematically varying its perceptibility (i.e., by visually degrading the previews). This technique does not require a baseline condition, but makes it possible to determine whether a preview induces facilitation or interference. Our salience manipulation of valid previews revealed a preview benefit in the children of both Grades. For two commonly used parafoveal masks, we observed interference corroborating the notion that masks are not a proper baseline. With the novel incremental boundary technique, in contrast, one can achieve an accurate estimate of the preview benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Marx
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
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36
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Rau AK, Moll K, Snowling MJ, Landerl K. Effects of orthographic consistency on eye movement behavior: German and English children and adults process the same words differently. J Exp Child Psychol 2015; 130:92-105. [PMID: 25462034 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2014.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anne K Rau
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Kristina Moll
- Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 80337 München, Germany
| | - Margaret J Snowling
- Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK; Department of Experimental Psychology and St. John's College, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3JP, UK
| | - Karin Landerl
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; Department of Psychology, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Tiffin-Richards SP, Schroeder S. Children's and adults' parafoveal processes in German: Phonological and orthographic effects. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2014.999076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P. Tiffin-Richards
- MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD), Max Planck Institute for Human Development , Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Schroeder
- MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD), Max Planck Institute for Human Development , Berlin, Germany
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38
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Sperlich A, Schad DJ, Laubrock J. When preview information starts to matter: Development of the perceptual span in German beginning readers. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2014.993990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anja Sperlich
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam , Potsdam, Germany
| | | | - Jochen Laubrock
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam , Potsdam, Germany
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Laishley AE, Liversedge SP, Kirkby JA. Lexical processing in children and adults during word copying. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2014.991396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abby E. Laishley
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University , Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
| | - Simon P. Liversedge
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton , Building 44, Highfield Campus, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Julie A. Kirkby
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University , Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
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Becoming a written word: Eye movements reveal order of acquisition effects following incidental exposure to new words during silent reading. Cognition 2014; 133:238-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Gagl B, Hawelka S, Hutzler F. A similar correction mechanism in slow and fluent readers after suboptimal landing positions. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:355. [PMID: 24917801 PMCID: PMC4042281 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present eye movements study investigated the optimal viewing position (OVP) and inverted-optimal viewing position (I-OVP) effects in slow readers. The basis of these effects is a phenomenon called corrective re-fixations, which describes a short saccade from a suboptimal landing position (word beginning or end) to the center of the word. The present study found corrective re-fixations in slow readers, which was evident from the I-OVP effects in first fixation durations, the OVP effect in number of fixations and the OVP effect in re-fixation probability. The main result is that slow readers, despite being characterized by a fragmented eye movement pattern during reading, nevertheless share an intact mechanism for performing corrective re-fixations. This correction mechanism is not linked to linguistic processing, but to visual and oculomotor processes, which suggests the integrity of oculomotor and visual processes in slow readers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Gagl
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neurocognitive Research, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neurocognitive Research, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neurocognitive Research, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
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Inhoff AW, Radach R. Parafoveal preview benefits during silent and oral reading: Testing the parafoveal information extraction hypothesis. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2013.879630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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43
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Vorstius C, Radach R, Lonigan CJ. Eye movements in developing readers: A comparison of silent and oral sentence reading. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2014.881445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Pan J, Yan M, Laubrock J, Shu H, Kliegl R. Saccade-target selection of dyslexic children when reading Chinese. Vision Res 2014; 97:24-30. [PMID: 24508073 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2014.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This study investigates the eye movements of dyslexic children and their age-matched controls when reading Chinese. Dyslexic children exhibited more and longer fixations than age-matched control children, and an increase of word length resulted in a greater increase in the number of fixations and gaze durations for the dyslexic than for the control readers. The report focuses on the finding that there was a significant difference between the two groups in the fixation landing position as a function of word length in single-fixation cases, while there was no such difference in the initial fixation of multi-fixation cases. We also found that both groups had longer incoming saccade amplitudes while the launch sites were closer to the word in single fixation cases than in multi-fixation cases. Our results suggest that dyslexic children's inefficient lexical processing, in combination with the absence of orthographic word boundaries in Chinese, leads them to select saccade targets at the beginning of words conservatively. These findings provide further evidence for parafoveal word segmentation during reading of Chinese sentences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinger Pan
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Germany.
| | | | - Hua Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, China
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Reichle ED, Liversedge SP, Drieghe D, Blythe HI, Joseph HSSL, White SJ, Rayner K. Using E-Z Reader to examine the concurrent development of eye-movement control and reading skill. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2013; 33:110-149. [PMID: 24058229 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Compared to skilled adult readers, children typically make more fixations that are longer in duration, shorter saccades, and more regressions, thus reading more slowly (Blythe & Joseph, 2011). Recent attempts to understand the reasons for these differences have discovered some similarities (e.g., children and adults target their saccades similarly; Joseph, Liversedge, Blythe, White, & Rayner, 2009) and some differences (e.g., children's fixation durations are more affected by lexical variables; Blythe, Liversedge, Joseph, White, & Rayner, 2009) that have yet to be explained. In this article, the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control in reading (Reichle, 2011; Reichle, Pollatsek, Fisher, & Rayner, 1998) is used to simulate various eye-movement phenomena in adults vs. children in order to evaluate hypotheses about the concurrent development of reading skill and eye-movement behavior. These simulations suggest that the primary difference between children and adults is their rate of lexical processing, and that different rates of (post-lexical) language processing may also contribute to some phenomena (e.g., children's slower detection of semantic anomalies; Joseph et al., 2008). The theoretical implications of this hypothesis are discussed, including possible alternative accounts of these developmental changes, how reading skill and eye movements change across the entire lifespan (e.g., college-aged vs. older readers), and individual differences in reading ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik D Reichle
- University of Southampton - Centre for Visual Cognition, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
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Ducrot S, Pynte J, Ghio A, Lété B. Visual and linguistic determinants of the eyes' initial fixation position in reading development. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 142:287-98. [PMID: 23419806 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Two eye-movement experiments with one hundred and seven first- through fifth-grade children were conducted to examine the effects of visuomotor and linguistic factors on the recognition of words and pseudowords presented in central vision (using a variable-viewing-position technique) and in parafoveal vision (shifted to the left or right of a central fixation point). For all groups of children, we found a strong effect of stimulus location, in both central and parafoveal vision. This effect corresponds to the children's apparent tendency, for peripherally located targets, to reach a position located halfway between the middle and the left edge of the stimulus (preferred viewing location, PVL), whether saccading to the right or left. For centrally presented targets, refixation probability and lexical-decision time were the lowest near the word's center, suggesting an optimal viewing position (OVP). The viewing-position effects found here were modulated (1) by print exposure, both in central and parafoveal vision; and (2) by the intrinsic qualities of the stimulus (lexicality and word frequency) for targets in central vision but not for parafoveally presented targets.
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Joseph HSSL, Liversedge SP. Children's and adults' on-line processing of syntactically ambiguous sentences during reading. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54141. [PMID: 23349807 PMCID: PMC3547875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While there has been a fair amount of research investigating children’s syntactic processing during spoken language comprehension, and a wealth of research examining adults’ syntactic processing during reading, as yet very little research has focused on syntactic processing during text reading in children. In two experiments, children and adults read sentences containing a temporary syntactic ambiguity while their eye movements were monitored. In Experiment 1, participants read sentences such as, ‘The boy poked the elephant with the long stick/trunk from outside the cage’ in which the attachment of a prepositional phrase was manipulated. In Experiment 2, participants read sentences such as, ‘I think I’ll wear the new skirt I bought tomorrow/yesterday. It’s really nice’ in which the attachment of an adverbial phrase was manipulated. Results showed that adults and children exhibited similar processing preferences, but that children were delayed relative to adults in their detection of initial syntactic misanalysis. It is concluded that children and adults have the same sentence-parsing mechanism in place, but that it operates with a slightly different time course. In addition, the data support the hypothesis that the visual processing system develops at a different rate than the linguistic processing system in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly S S L Joseph
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
The study of eye movements has proven to be one of the most successful approaches in research on reading. In this overview, it is argued that a major reason for this success is that eye movement measurement is not just a methodology--the control of eye movements is actually part and parcel of the dynamics of information processing within the task of reading itself. Some major developments over the last decade are discussed with a focus on the issue of spatially distributed word processing and its relation to the development of reading models. The survey ends with a description of two newly emerging trends in the field: the study of continuous reading in non-Roman writing systems and the broadening of the scope of research to encompass individual differences and developmental issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Radach
- General and Biological Psychology, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany.
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Bellocchi S, Muneaux M, Bastien-Toniazzo M, Ducrot S. I can read it in your eyes: what eye movements tell us about visuo-attentional processes in developmental dyslexia. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2013; 34:452-460. [PMID: 23041659 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Most studies today agree about the link between visual-attention and oculomotor control during reading: attention seems to affect saccadic programming, that is, the position where the eyes land in a word. Moreover, recent studies show that visuo-attentional processes are strictly linked to normal and impaired reading. In particular, a large body of research has found evidence of defective visuo-attentional processes in dyslexics. What do eye movements tell us about visuo-attentional deficits in developmental dyslexia? The purpose of this paper is to explore the link between oculomotor control and dyslexia, taking into account its heterogeneous manifestation and comorbidity. Clinical perspectives in the use of the eye-movements approach to better explore and understand reading impairments are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Bellocchi
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, LPL UMR 7309, 13100 Aix en Provence, France.
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The role of saccades in multitasking: towards an output-related view of eye movements. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2011; 75:452-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-011-0352-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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