Looking at faces from different angles: Europeans fixate different features in Asian and Caucasian faces

Face to face: The eyes as an anchor in multimodal communication

Making eye contact with our conversational partners is what is most common in multimodal communication. Yet, little is known about this behavior. Prior studies have reported different findings on what we look at in the narrator's face. Some studies show eye gaze is usually focused on our conversational partner's eyes, other studies have shown evidence for eye gaze primarily on the narrator's mouth, and yet others find evidence for fixations on the narrator's nose bridge perhaps as a transition for eye gaze between the eyes and mouth. The current study aimed to shed light on these different findings by investigating eye gaze on a narrator's face in a fixed cognitive task. Experiment 1 monitored participants' eye gaze when looking at videos of a male and female human narrator. Experiment 2 used a virtual human, allowing manipulation of different parts of the narrator's face to validate the findings in Experiment 1. Gaze behavior on the human faces (Experiment 1) and the virtual human face (Experiment 2) of the narrator was similar, with the narrator's eyes attracting most fixations seemingly serving as an anchor for communication, particularly at the start and the end of a conversation. The mouth, in turn, served as a communicative cue when eye contact has been established. When lip movements were impaired in the virtual human, the eyes immediately took over as the anchor again. These findings can be explained by the theoretical framework of action ladders in multimodal language use. They shed light on cognitive and social psychological aspects of human-human multimodal communication, both in human and embodied conversational agents.

The other-ethnicity effect in facial recognition of Tibetan and Han individuals: Evidence from behavioural and eye-movement data

Studies have shown that facial recognition among racial groups exhibits not only an other-race effect but also an other-ethnicity effect within the same racial group. To explore differences in facial recognition and visual scanning patterns due to the other-ethnicity effect, behavioural and eye-movement data were used to investigate the other-ethnicity effect in the facial perception of Tibetan and Han Chinese individuals and whether the visual scanning patterns varied between them. Behavioural data revealed an other-ethnicity effect on facial recognition of Tibetan and Han individuals. Eye-movement data indicated that Tibetan and Han individuals fixated more on the eye and mouth regions when recognising Han faces and on the eye and nose regions when recognising Tibetan faces. The other-ethnicity effect appeared to influence facial recognition in Tibetan and Han individuals, who adopted similar visual scanning patterns when scanning the faces of individuals of their own ethnicity and those of other ethnicities.

Racial salience modulated the face race lightness illusion: A comparative study of Caucasians and Asians

Previous research has demonstrated the existence of the face race lightness (FRL) illusion. It indicates that Black faces tend to appear darker than White faces, even when their luminance values are objectively adjusted to be the same. However, the debate over the exclusive influence of face-race categories on the FRL illusion continues, with the impact of racial groups on the illusion remaining relatively unexplored. To address these gaps, we conducted studies to investigate whether the FRL illusion varies in terms of racial salience and racial groups. We manipulated the racial salience by altering the orientation of the faces. A total of 64 Caucasians (Study 1) and 63 Asians (Study 2) were recruited. Participants were shown pairs of faces in rapid succession and were asked to report which face appeared lighter or darker. In each trial, the two faces belonged to the same race category: Black, Black-White ambiguous, or White. The luminance of the first face remained consistent across trials while the luminance of the second face varied and was adjusted across eight levels (- 20, - 12, - 8, - 4, + 4, + 8, + 12, + 20). Our findings reveal that the FRL illusion is largely dependent on the salience of face-race information. When faces were presented upright, the FRL illusion was prominent; however, it disappeared when faces were inverted. Remarkably, the FRL illusion was observed not only in Caucasians but also in Asians. Therefore, our results suggest that the FRL illusion primarily stems from race salience rather than participants' racial groups.

The center of a face catches the eye in face perception

Using the "Don't look" (DL) paradigm, wherein participants are asked not to look at a specific feature (i.e., eye, nose, and mouth), we previously documented that Easterners struggled to completely avoid fixating on the eyes and nose. Their underlying mechanisms for attractiveness may differ because the fixations on the eyes were triggered only reflexively, whereas fixations on the nose were consistently elicited. In this study, we predominantly focused on the nose, where the center-of-gravity (CoG) effect, which refers to a person's tendency to look near an object's CoG, could be confounded. Full-frontal and mid-profile faces were used because the latter's CoG did not correspond to the nose location. Although we hypothesized that these two effects are independent, the results indicated that, in addition to the successful tracing of previous studies, the CoG effect explains the nose-attracting effect. This study not only reveals this explanation but also raises a question regarding the CoG effect on Eastern participants.

Age Weakens the Other-Race Effect among Han Subjects in Recognizing Own- and Other-Ethnicity Faces

The development and change in the other-race effect (ORE) in different age groups have always been a focus of researchers. Previous studies have mainly focused on the influence of maturity of life (from infancy to early adulthood) on the ORE, while few researchers have explored the ORE in older people. Therefore, this study used behavioral and eye movement techniques to explore the influence of age on the ORE and the visual scanning pattern of Han subjects recognizing own- and other-ethnicity faces. All participants were asked to complete a study-recognition task for faces, and the behavioral results showed that the ORE of elderly Han subjects was significantly lower than that of young Han subjects. The results of eye movement showed that there were significant differences in the visual scanning pattern of young subjects in recognizing the faces of individuals of their own ethnicity and other ethnicities, which were mainly reflected in the differences in looking at the nose and mouth, while the differences were reduced in the elderly subjects. The elderly subjects used similar scanning patterns to recognize the own- and other-ethnicity faces. This indicates that as age increases, the ORE of older people in recognizing faces of those from different ethnic groups becomes weaker, and elderly subjects have more similar visual scanning patterns in recognizing faces of their own and other ethnicities.

Disrupted visual input unveils the computational details of artificial neural networks for face perception

Background

Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN), with its great performance, has attracted attention of researchers from many disciplines. The studies of the DCNN and that of biological neural systems have inspired each other reciprocally. The brain-inspired neural networks not only achieve great performance but also serve as a computational model of biological neural systems.

Methods

Here in this study, we trained and tested several typical DCNNs (AlexNet, VGG11, VGG13, VGG16, DenseNet, MobileNet, and EfficientNet) with a face ethnicity categorization task for experiment 1, and an emotion categorization task for experiment 2. We measured the performance of DCNNs by testing them with original and lossy visual inputs (various kinds of image occlusion) and compared their performance with human participants. Moreover, the class activation map (CAM) method allowed us to visualize the foci of the "attention" of these DCNNs.

Results

The results suggested that the VGG13 performed the best: Its performance closely resembled human participants in terms of psychophysics measurements, it utilized similar areas of visual inputs as humans, and it had the most consistent performance with inputs having various kinds of impairments.

Discussion

In general, we examined the processing mechanism of DCNNs using a new paradigm and found that VGG13 might be the most human-like DCNN in this task. This study also highlighted a possible paradigm to study and develop DCNNs using human perception as a benchmark.

The Attractiveness of Masked Faces Is Influenced by Race and Mask Attitudes

This study tests the influence of wearing a protective face mask on the perceived attractiveness of the wearer. Participants who identified as White, and who varied in their ideological stance toward mask wearing, rated the attractiveness of facial photographs. The photos varied in baseline attractiveness (low, medium, and high), race (White and Asian), and whether or not the face was wearing a protective mask. Attitudes regarding protective masks were measured after the rating task using a survey to identify participants as either pro- or anti-mask. The results showed that masked individuals of the same race were generally rated as more attractive than unmasked individuals, but that masked individuals of another race were rated as less attractive than unmasked individuals. Moreover, pro-mask participants rated masked individuals as generally more attractive than unmasked individuals, whereas anti-maskers rated masked individuals as less attractive. A control experiment, replicating the procedure but replacing the protective masks with a partially occluding notebook, showed that these effects were mask-specific. These results demonstrate that perceived attractiveness is affected by characteristics of the viewer (attitudes toward protective masks), their relationship to the target (same or different race), and by circumstances external to both (pandemic).

Perceiving ingroup and outgroup faces within and across nations

The human face is arguably the most important of all social stimuli because it provides so much valuable information about others. Therefore, one critical factor for successful social communication is the ability to process faces. In general, a wide body of social cognitive research has demonstrated that perceivers are better at extracting information from their own-race compared to other-race faces and that these differences can be a barrier to positive cross-race relationships. The primary objective of the present paper was to provide an overview of how people process faces in diverse contexts, focusing on racial ingroup and outgroup members within one nation and across nations. To achieve this goal, we first broadly describe social cognitive research on categorization processes related to ingroups vs. outgroups. Next, we briefly examine two prominent mechanisms (experience and motivation) that have been used to explain differences in recognizing facial identities and identifying emotions when processing ingroup and outgroup racial faces within nations. Then, we explore research in this domain across nations and cultural explanations, such as norms and practices, that supplement the two proposed mechanisms. Finally, we propose future cross-cultural research that has the potential to help us better understand the role of these key mechanisms in processing ingroup and outgroup faces.

Facial visual attention to menton deviation: An objective evaluation by laypeople

PURPOSE

This study aimed to quantitatively evaluate whether the severity of menton deviation (MD) influenced facial perceptions of laypeople. We also aimed to determine the effectiveness of surgery in normalizing the distribution of the facial visual attention of laypeople.

METHODS

The scanning paths of 177 laypeople were recorded using an eye tracking device while observing images of individuals without MD and pre- and post-treatment subjects with different degrees of MD. The fixation durations on the areas of interest (AOIs) in each group were compared and analysed.

RESULTS

When observing the images of non-MD subjects, the eyes were the focus of the most significant fixation (higher than the fixations on the nose and lower face). When the MD increased to 3°, attention on the lower face increased (p = 0.001) with decreased attention to the eyes (p = 0.0126). At an MD of 9°, attention to the lower face sharply increased, even more so than that to the eyes, with decreased attention to the nose (p = 0.0104). Compared with the findings for the post-treatment images, the laypeople who observed the pretreatment images focused longer on the lower face and less on the eyes and nose (p = 0.001, p = 0.0322 and p = 0.0023, respectively). The distribution of the fixation duration when observing the post-treatment images was similar to that when observing the images of the non-MD subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Laypeople can perceive an MD of 3°, which causes changes in the distribution of visual attention, with attention focusing on the MD. When the deviation reaches 9°, it is very noticeable. Surgery can normalize the distribution of the facial visual attention of laypeople, as shown by the responses to the post-treatment images.

Automatic gaze to the nose region cannot be inhibited during observation of facial expression in Eastern observers

Humans can extract a great deal of information about others very quickly. This is partly because the face automatically captures observers' attention. Specifically, the eyes can attract overt attention. Although it has been reported that not only the eyes but also the nose can capture initial oculomotor movement in Eastern observers, its generalizability remains unknown. In this study, we applied the "don't look" paradigm wherein participants are asked not to fixate on a specific facial region (i.e., eyes, nose, and mouth) during an emotion recognition task with upright (Experiment 1) and inverted (Experiment 2) faces. In both experiments, we found that participants were less able to inhibit the initial part of their fixations to the nose, which can be interpreted as the nose automatically capturing attention. Along with previous studies, our overt attention tends to be attracted by a part of the face, which is the nose region in Easterner observers.

Average faces: How does the averaging process change faces physically and perceptually?

Average faces have been used frequently in face recognition studies, either as a theoretical concept (e.g., face norm) or as a tool to manipulate facial attributes (e.g., modifying identity strength). Nonetheless, how the face averaging process- the creation of average faces using an increasing number of faces -changes the resulting averaged faces and our ability to differentiate between them remains to be elucidated. Here we addressed these questions by combining 3D-face averaging, eye-movement tracking, and the computation of image-based face similarity. Participants judged whether two average faces showed the same person while we systematically increased their average level (i.e., number of faces being averaged). Our results showed, with increasing averaging, both a nonlinear increase of the computational similarity between the resulting average faces and a nonlinear decrease of face discrimination performance. Participants' performance dropped from near-ceiling level when two different faces had been averaged together to chance level when 80 faces were mixed. We also found a nonlinear relationship between face similarity and face discrimination performance, which was fitted nicely with an exponential function. Furthermore, when the comparison task became more challenging, participants performed more fixations onto the faces. Nonetheless, the distribution of fixations across facial features (eyes, nose, mouth, and the center area of a face) remained unchanged. These results not only set new constraints on the theoretical characterization of the average face and its role in establishing face norms but also offer practical guidance for creating approximated face norms to manipulate face identity.

(Eye-) Tracking the Other-Race Effect: Comparison of Eye Movements During Encoding and Recognition of Ingroup Faces With Proximal and Distant Outgroup Faces

People experience difficulties recognizing faces of ethnic outgroups, known as the other-race effect. The present eye-tracking study investigates if this effect is related to differences in visual attention to ingroup and outgroup faces. We measured gaze fixations to specific facial features and overall eye-movement activity level during an old/new recognition task comparing ingroup faces with proximal and distal ethnic outgroup faces. Recognition was best for ingroup faces and decreased gradually for proximal and distal outgroup faces. Participants attended more to the eyes of ingroup faces than outgroup faces, but this effect was unrelated to recognition performance. Ingroup-outgroup differences in eye-movement activity level did not emerge during the study phase, but during the recognition phase, with ingroup-outgroup differences varying as a function of recognition accuracy and old/new effects. Overall, ingroup-outgroup effects on recognition performance and eye movements were more pronounced for recognition of new items, emphasizing the role of retrieval processes.

Eye movement strategies in face ethnicity categorization vs. face identification tasks

A quick look at a face allows us to identify the person, their gender, and emotion. Humans direct their first eye movement towards points on the face that vary moderately across these common tasks and maximize performance. However, not known is the extent to which humans alter their oculomotor strategies to maximize accuracy in more specialized face categorization tasks. We studied the eye movements of Indian observers during a North vs. South Indian face categorization task and compared them to those in a person-identification task. We found that observers did not alter their first eye movement strategy for the ethnic categorization task, i.e., they directed their first fixations to a similar preferred point as in the person-identification task. To assess whether using a similar preferred point of fixation for both tasks resulted in a performance cost for the categorization task, we measured performance as a function of fixation position along the face. Fixating away from the preferred point of fixation reduced observer performance in the person identification task, but not in the ethnicity categorization task. We used computational modeling to assess whether the results could be explained by an interaction between the distribution of task information across the face and the foveated properties of the visual system. A foveated ideal observer analysis revealed a spatially more distributed task information and lower dependence of performance on the point of fixation for the ethnicity categorization task relative to the person identification. We conclude that, unlike the person identification task, humans can access the information for the ethnicity categorization task from various points of fixation. Thus, the observer strategy to utilize the typical person identification first eye movement for the ethnicity categorization task is a simple solution that incurs little or no performance cost.

Infant Eye Gaze While Viewing Dynamic Faces

Research using eye tracking methods has revealed that when viewing faces, between 6 to 10 months of age, infants begin to shift visual attention from the eye region to the mouth region. Moreover, this shift varies with stimulus characteristics and infants’ experience with faces and languages. The current study examined the eye movements of a racially diverse sample of 98 infants between 7.5 and 10.5 months of age as they viewed movies of White and Asian American women reciting a nursery rhyme (the auditory component of the movies was replaced with music to eliminate the influence of the speech on infants’ looking behavior). Using an analytic approach inspired by the multiverse analysis approach, several measures from infants’ eye gaze were examined to identify patterns that were robust across different analyses. Although in general infants preferred the lower regions of the faces, i.e., the region containing the mouth, this preference depended on the stimulus characteristics and was stronger for infants whose typical experience included faces of more races and for infants who were exposed to multiple languages. These results show how we can leverage the richness of eye tracking data with infants to add to our understanding of the factors that influence infants’ visual exploration of faces.

Predominance of eyes and surface information for face race categorization

Faces can be categorized in various ways, for example as male or female or as belonging to a specific biogeographic ancestry (race). Here we tested the importance of the main facial features for race perception. We exchanged inner facial features (eyes, mouth or nose), face contour (everything but those) or texture (surface information) between Asian and Caucasian faces. Features were exchanged one at a time, creating for each Asian/Caucasian face pair ten facial variations of the original face pair. German and Korean participants performed a race classification task on all faces presented in random order. The results show that eyes and texture are major determinants of perceived biogeographic ancestry for both groups of participants and for both face types. Inserting these features in a face of another race changed its perceived biogeographic ancestry. Contour, nose and mouth, in that order, had decreasing and much weaker influence on race perception for both participant groups. Exchanging those features did not induce a change of perceived biogeographic ancestry. In our study, all manipulated features were imbedded in natural looking faces, which were shown in an off-frontal view. Our findings confirm and extend previous studies investigating the importance of various facial features for race perception.

The effect of perceptual load on the processing of multiple social categories in face

The aim of this study is to explore the processing features of the multi-social categories and their mechanisms of interaction. Adopting the Inhibition Paradigm in experiment 1, this study investigated whether the race and gender information obtained from images of face would influence the judgment of name category under the different perceptual load levels. The results of two sub-experiments showed that facial features contained strong, intuitive clues for race category. When the perceptual load level was low, it was automatically processed whether it was related to the task or not; when the perceptual load level was high, the automated process did not occur. The gender category utilized top-down flexible processing, which could be affected easily by the intent of the task. It was not processed when it was irrelevant to the task. Experiment 2 further proved that the different levels of difficulty would not have impact on the results of experiment 1. In summary, this study suggests that the race category is an automatic process from the bottom to up, which affects the processing of irrelevant primitive social categories; and that gender processing is regulated by the task intention, exhibiting top-down processing characteristics without affecting the processing of irrelevant primary social categories. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is an asymmetry in the interaction of the primary social categories.

The Other-Race and Other-Species Effect during a Sex Categorization Task: An Eye Tracker Study

Sex categorization from faces is a crucial ability for humans and non-human primates for various social and cognitive processes. In the current study, we performed two eye tracking experiments to examine the gaze behavior of participants during a sex categorization task in which participants categorize face pictures from their own-race (Caucasian), other-race (Asian) and other-species (chimpanzee). In experiment 1, we presented the faces in an upright position to 16 participants, and found a strong other-race and other-species effect. In experiment 2, the same faces were shown to 24 naïve participants in an upside-down (inverted) position, which showed that, although the other-species effect was intact, other-race effect disappeared. Moreover, eye-tracking analysis revealed that in the upright position, the eye region was the first and most widely viewed area for all face categories. However, during upside-down viewing, participants' attention directed more towards the eye region of the own-race and own-species faces, whereas the nose received more attention in other-race and other-species faces. Overall results suggest that other-race faces were processed less holistically compared to own-race faces and this could affect both participants' behavioral performance and gaze behavior during sex categorization. Finally, gaze data suggests that the gaze of participants shifts from the eye to the nose region with decreased racial and species-based familiarity.

Contribution of the mandible position to the facial profile perception of a female facial profile: An eye-tracking study

INTRODUCTION

Studies concerning the visual attention of laypersons viewing the soft tissue facial profile of men and women with malocclusion are lacking. This study aimed to determine the visual attention to the facial profile of patients with different levels of mandibular protrusion and facial background attractiveness using an eye-tracking device.

METHODS

The scanning paths of 54 Chinese laypersons (50% female, 50% male, aged 18-23 years) were recorded by an eye-tracking device when they observed composite female facial profile images (n = 24), which were combinations of different degrees of mandibular protrusion (normal, slight, moderate, and severe) and different levels of facial background attractiveness (attractive, average, and unattractive). Dependent variables (fixation duration and first fixation time) were analyzed using repeated-measures factorial analysis of variance.

RESULTS

For normal mandibular profiles, the fixation duration of the eyes was significantly higher than that of other facial features (P <0.001). The lower face and nose received the least attention. As the degree of protrusion increased from slight to moderate, more attention was drawn to the lower face accompanied by less attention to eyes in the unattractive group (P <0.05). When protrusion degree increased from moderate to severe, attention shifted from nose to lower face significantly in the attractive group (P <0.05). Attention shift from eyes to lower face was also found in the average group when protrusion degree rose to moderate protrusion from normal profile (P <0.05). A significant interaction between facial attractiveness and mandibular protrusion was found in the lower face duration (P = 0.020). The threshold point (the point of mandibular protrusion degree that evoked attention to the lower face) of the attractive facial background was higher than that of the unattractive background. Once evoked, the effect of mandibular protrusion of the attractive group tended to be stronger than that of the unattractive group, though without statistical difference.

CONCLUSIONS

Eyes are the most salient area. The increasing degree of mandibular protrusion tends to draw attention to the lower face from other facial features. Background attractiveness can modify this behavior.

Visual cues to fertility are in the eye (movements) of the beholder

Past work demonstrates that humans behave differently towards women across their menstrual cycles, even after exclusively visual exposure to women's faces. People may look at women's faces differently as a function of women's menstrual cycles. Analyses of participants' scanpaths (eye movement patterns) while they looked at women at different phases of their menstrual cycles revealed that observers exhibit more consistent scanpaths when examining women's faces when women are in a menstrual cycle phase that typically corresponds with peak fertility, whereas they exhibit more variable patterns when looking at women's faces when they are in phases that do not correspond with fertility. A multivariate classifier on participants' scanpaths predicted whether they were looking at the face of a woman in a more typically fertile- versus non-fertile-phase of her menstrual cycle with above-chance accuracy. These findings demonstrate that people look at women's faces differently as a function of women's menstrual cycles, and suggest that people are sensitive to fluctuating visual cues associated with women's menstrual cycle phase.

Assessment of the Influence of "Other-Race Effect" on Visual Attention and Perception of Attractiveness Before and After Rhinoplasty

IMPORTANCE

The "other-race effect" describes the phenomenon in which individuals demonstrate greatest recognition ability among faces of their own race. Thus, in our multicultural world, it follows that race influences social interactions. However, the association of race with perception of plastic surgery outcomes has not been studied.

OBJECTIVE

To objectively measure how the other-race effect influences perception of white and Latin American patients undergoing rhinoplasty by using eye-tracking technology and survey methodology.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In the first part of the study, 134 participants viewed 32 paired facial images of white and Latin American patients, either prerhinoplasty or postrhinoplasty, on an eye-tracking system that recorded observer scan paths. In the second part of this study, the same patient images were individually graded by a separate group of 134 participants for degree of racial identification and perceived attractiveness.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was to measure the influence of patient and observer race on perception of rhinoplasty outcomes. For the eye-tracking part, planned hypothesis testing was conducted using an analysis of variance to compare patient race, rhinoplasty status, and attractiveness with respect to visual fixation time.

RESULTS

Of the 134 eye-tracking participants, 68 (51%) were women and the mean (SD) age was 26.4 (7.7) years; of the 134 graders, 64 (48%) were women and the mean (SD) age was 25.0 (6.9) years. Rhinoplasty did not affect racial identity scores among either same-race or other-race evaluators. Visual fixation times for white faces were significantly increased compared with Latin American faces among all casual observer groups (white observers mean change, -20.14 milliseconds; 95% CI, -29.65 to -10.62 milliseconds; P < .001; Asian observers mean change, -39.04 milliseconds; 95% CI, -48.95 to -29.15 milliseconds; P < .001; and African American observers mean change, -20.73 milliseconds; 95% CI, -37.78 to -3.69 milliseconds; P < .02), with the exception of Latin American observers (mean change, -7.8 milliseconds; 95% CI, -29.15 to 14.39 milliseconds; P < .51). With respect to attractiveness, white graders reported a significant postrhinoplasty increase across both races (white patients mean change, 8.07 points; 95% CI, 5.01-11.12 points; P < .001; and Latin American patients mean change, 3.69 points; 95% CI, 0.87-6.49 points; P = .01), whereas Latin American graders only observed a significant attractiveness increase in their own race (Latin American patients mean change, 10.50 points; 95% CI, 1.70-19.32 points; P = .02). Neither perceived attractiveness nor rhinoplasty status influenced fixation times.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Both patient and observer race influence visual attention and perception of attractiveness before and after rhinoplasty. These findings underscore the importance of counseling patients that the influence of rhinoplasty, as perceived by the casual observer, may vary by race or ethnicity of the observer group.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

NA.

Attention to the face is characterised by a difficult to inhibit first fixation to the eyes

The eyes are preferentially attended over other facial features and recent evidence suggests this bias is difficult to suppress. To further examine the automatic and volitional nature of this bias for eye information, we used a novel prompting face recognition paradigm in 41 adults and measured the location of their first fixations, overall dwell time and behavioural responses. First, patterns of eye gaze were measured during a free-viewing forced choice face recognition paradigm. Second, the task was repeated but with prompts to look to either the eyes or the mouth. Participants showed significantly more first fixations to the eyes than mouth, both when prompted to look at the eyes and when prompted to look at the mouth. The pattern of looking to the eyes when prompted was indistinguishable from the unprompted condition in which participants were free to look where they chose. Notably, the dwell time data demonstrated that the eye bias did not persist over the entire presentation period. Our results suggest a difficult-to-inhibit bias to initially orient to the eyes, which is superseded by volitional, top-down control of eye gaze. Further, the amount of looking to the eyes is at a maximum level spontaneously and cannot be enhanced by explicit instructions.

Expression-dependent susceptibility to face distortions in processing of facial expressions of emotion

Our capability of recognizing facial expressions of emotion under different viewing conditions implies the existence of an invariant expression representation. As natural visual signals are often distorted and our perceptual strategy changes with external noise level, it is essential to understand how expression perception is susceptible to face distortion and whether the same facial cues are used to process high- and low-quality face images. We systematically manipulated face image resolution (experiment 1) and blur (experiment 2), and measured participants' expression categorization accuracy, perceived expression intensity and associated gaze patterns. Our analysis revealed a reasonable tolerance to face distortion in expression perception. Reducing image resolution up to 48 × 64 pixels or increasing image blur up to 15 cycles/image had little impact on expression assessment and associated gaze behaviour. Further distortion led to decreased expression categorization accuracy and intensity rating, increased reaction time and fixation duration, and stronger central fixation bias which was not driven by distortion-induced changes in local image saliency. Interestingly, the observed distortion effects were expression-dependent with less deterioration impact on happy and surprise expressions, suggesting this distortion-invariant facial expression perception might be achieved through the categorical model involving a non-linear configural combination of local facial features.

Scanning of own- versus other-race faces in infants from racially diverse or homogenous communities

We examined the role of community face experience on 6- and 8-month-old Caucasian infants' scanning of own- and other-race face scanning. We measured infants' proportional fixation time and scan path amplitudes as indices of face processing. Proportional fixation time to informationally rich face regions varied as a function of age and face race for infants living in a racially homogeneous community, whereas scan path amplitudes varied as a function of age and face race for infants living in a racially diverse community. In both communities 6-month-old infants did not show different responding to own- and other-race faces, whereas 8-month-old infants responded differently to own- and other-race faces. However, 8-month-old infants from the two communities showed different patterns of cross-race face scanning. Therefore, experience in the community beyond the home appears to contribute to the development of differential scanning of own- versus other-race faces between 6 and 8 months of age.

Plasticity may change inputs as well as processes, structures, and responses

Significant work has documented neuroplasticity in development, demonstrating that developmental pathways are shaped by experience. Plasticity is often discussed in terms of the results of differences in input; differences in brain structures, processes, or responses reflect differences in experience. In this paper, I discuss how developmental plasticity also effectively changes input into the system. That is, structures and processes change in response to input, and those changed structures and processes influence future inputs. For example, plasticity may change the pattern of eye movements to a stimulus, thereby changing which part of the scene becomes the input. Thus, plasticity is not only seen in the structures and processes that result from differences in experience, but also is seen in the changes in the input as those structures and processes adapt. The systematic study of the nature of experience, and how differences in experience shape learning, can contribute to our understanding of neuroplasticity in general.

Attending to Race (or Gender) Does Not Increase Race (or Gender) Aftereffects

Recent research has shown that attention can influence the strength of face aftereffects. For example, attending to changes in facial features increases the strength of identity and figural aftereffects relative to passive viewing (Rhodes et al., 2011). Here, we ask whether attending to a specific social dimension of a face (such as race or gender) influences the strength of face aftereffects along that dimension. Across three experiments, participants completed many single-shot face adaptation trials. In each trial, participants observed a computer-generated adapting face for 5 s while instructed to focus on either the race or gender of that adapting face. Adapting faces were either Asian and female or Caucasian and male. In Experiment 1, all trials included an intermediate question (IQ) following each adaptation period, soliciting a rating of the adapting face on the attended dimension (e.g., race). In Experiment 2, only half of the trials included this IQ, and in Experiment 3 only a quarter of the trials did. In all three experiments, participants were subsequently presented with a race- and gender-neutral face and asked to rate it on either the attended dimension (e.g., race, attention-congruent trials) or the unattended dimension (e.g., gender, attention-incongruent trials) using a seven-point scale. Overall, participants showed significant aftereffects in all conditions, manifesting as (i) higher Asian ratings of the neutral faces following Caucasian vs. Asian adapting faces and (ii) higher female ratings of neutral faces following male vs. female adapting faces. Intriguingly, although reaction times were shorter during attention-congruent vs. attention-incongruent trials, aftereffects were not stronger along attention-congruent than attention-incongruent dimensions. Our results suggest that attending to a facial dimension such as race or gender does not result in increased adaptation to that dimension.

Converging Evidence of Ubiquitous Male Bias in Human Sex Perception

Visually judging the sex of another can be achieved easily in most social encounters. When the signals that inform such judgements are weak (e.g. outdoors at night), observers tend to expect the presence of males-an expectation that may facilitate survival-critical decisions under uncertainty. The present aim was to examine whether this male bias depends on expertise. To that end, Caucasian and Asian observers targeted female and male hand images that were either the same or different to the observers' race (i.e. long term experience was varied) while concurrently, the proportion of targets changed across presentation blocks (i.e. short term experience change). It was thus found that: (i) observers of own-race stimuli were more likely to report the presence of males and absence of females, however (ii) observers of other-race stimuli--while still tending to accept stimuli as male--were not prone to rejecting female cues. Finally, (iii) male-biased measures did not track the relative frequency of targets or lures, disputing the notion that male bias derives from prior expectation about the number of male exemplars in a set. Findings are discussed in concert with the pan-stimulus model of human sex perception.

Differences in Looking at Own- and Other-Race Faces Are Subtle and Analysis-Dependent: An Account of Discrepant Reports

The Other-Race Effect (ORE) is the robust and well-established finding that people are generally poorer at facial recognition of individuals of another race than of their own race. Over the past four decades, much research has focused on the ORE because understanding this phenomenon is expected to elucidate fundamental face processing mechanisms and the influence of experience on such mechanisms. Several recent studies of the ORE in which the eye-movements of participants viewing own- and other-race faces were tracked have, however, reported highly conflicting results regarding the presence or absence of differential patterns of eye-movements to own- versus other-race faces. This discrepancy, of course, leads to conflicting theoretical interpretations of the perceptual basis for the ORE. Here we investigate fixation patterns to own- versus other-race (African and Chinese) faces for Caucasian participants using different analysis methods. While we detect statistically significant, though subtle, differences in fixation pattern using an Area of Interest (AOI) approach, we fail to detect significant differences when applying a spatial density map approach. Though there were no significant differences in the spatial density maps, the qualitative patterns matched the results from the AOI analyses reflecting how, in certain contexts, Area of Interest (AOI) analyses can be more sensitive in detecting the differential fixation patterns than spatial density analyses, due to spatial pooling of data with AOIs. AOI analyses, however, also come with the limitation of requiring a priori specification. These findings provide evidence that the conflicting reports in the prior literature may be at least partially accounted for by the differences in the statistical sensitivity associated with the different analysis methods employed across studies. Overall, our results suggest that detection of differences in eye-movement patterns can be analysis-dependent and rests on the assumptions inherent in the given analysis.

Face in profile view reduces perceived facial expression intensity: an eye-tracking study

Recent studies measuring the facial expressions of emotion have focused primarily on the perception of frontal face images. As we frequently encounter expressive faces from different viewing angles, having a mechanism which allows invariant expression perception would be advantageous to our social interactions. Although a couple of studies have indicated comparable expression categorization accuracy across viewpoints, it is unknown how perceived expression intensity and associated gaze behaviour change across viewing angles. Differences could arise because diagnostic cues from local facial features for decoding expressions could vary with viewpoints. Here we manipulated orientation of faces (frontal, mid-profile, and profile view) displaying six common facial expressions of emotion, and measured participants' expression categorization accuracy, perceived expression intensity and associated gaze patterns. In comparison with frontal faces, profile faces slightly reduced identification rates for disgust and sad expressions, but significantly decreased perceived intensity for all tested expressions. Although quantitatively viewpoint had expression-specific influence on the proportion of fixations directed at local facial features, the qualitative gaze distribution within facial features (e.g., the eyes tended to attract the highest proportion of fixations, followed by the nose and then the mouth region) was independent of viewpoint and expression type. Our results suggest that the viewpoint-invariant facial expression processing is categorical perception, which could be linked to a viewpoint-invariant holistic gaze strategy for extracting expressive facial cues.

Visual scanning and recognition of Chinese, Caucasian, and racially ambiguous faces: contributions from bottom-up facial physiognomic information and top-down knowledge of racial categories

Recent studies have shown that participants use different eye movement strategies when scanning own- and other-race faces. However, it is unclear (1) whether this effect is related to face recognition performance, and (2) to what extent this effect is influenced by top-down or bottom-up facial information. In the present study, Chinese participants performed a face recognition task with Chinese, Caucasian, and racially ambiguous faces. For the racially ambiguous faces, we led participants to believe that they were viewing either own-race Chinese faces or other-race Caucasian faces. Results showed that (1) Chinese participants scanned the nose of the true Chinese faces more than that of the true Caucasian faces, whereas they scanned the eyes of the Caucasian faces more than those of the Chinese faces; (2) they scanned the eyes, nose, and mouth equally for the ambiguous faces in the Chinese condition compared with those in the Caucasian condition; (3) when recognizing the true Chinese target faces, but not the true target Caucasian faces, the greater the fixation proportion on the nose, the faster the participants correctly recognized these faces. The same was true when racially ambiguous face stimuli were thought to be Chinese faces. These results provide the first evidence to show that (1) visual scanning patterns of faces are related to own-race face recognition response time, and (2) it is bottom-up facial physiognomic information that mainly contributes to face scanning. However, top-down knowledge of racial categories can influence the relationship between face scanning patterns and recognition response time.