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Contribution of Syndecans to the Cellular Entry of SARS-CoV-2. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105336. [PMID: 34069441 PMCID: PMC8159090 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel emerging pathogen causing an unprecedented pandemic in 21st century medicine. Due to the significant health and economic burden of the current SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, there is a huge unmet medical need for novel interventions effectively blocking SARS-CoV-2 infection. Unknown details of SARS-CoV-2 cellular biology hamper the development of potent and highly specific SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) has been reported to be the primary receptor for SARS-CoV-2 cellular entry. However, emerging scientific evidence suggests the involvement of additional membrane proteins, such as heparan sulfate proteoglycans, in SARS-CoV-2 internalization. Here, we report that syndecans, the evolutionarily conserved family of transmembrane proteoglycans, facilitate the cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2. Among syndecans, the lung abundant syndecan-4 was the most efficient in mediating SARS-CoV-2 uptake. The S1 subunit of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein plays a dominant role in the virus's interactions with syndecans. Besides the polyanionic heparan sulfate chains, other parts of the syndecan ectodomain, such as the cell-binding domain, also contribute to the interaction with SARS-CoV-2. During virus internalization, syndecans colocalize with ACE2, suggesting a jointly shared internalization pathway. Both ACE2 and syndecan inhibitors exhibited significant efficacy in reducing the cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2, thus supporting the complex nature of internalization. Data obtained on syndecan specific in vitro assays present syndecans as novel cellular targets of SARS-CoV-2 and offer molecularly precise yet simple strategies to overcome the complex nature of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Endothelial Glycocalyx as a Regulator of Fibrotic Processes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22062996. [PMID: 33804258 PMCID: PMC7999025 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22062996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The endothelial glycocalyx, the gel layer covering the endothelium, is composed of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and adsorbed plasma proteins. This structure modulates vessels’ mechanotransduction, vascular permeability, and leukocyte adhesion. Thus, it regulates several physiological and pathological events. In the present review, we described the mechanisms that disturb glycocalyx stability such as reactive oxygen species, matrix metalloproteinases, and heparanase. We then focused our attention on the role of glycocalyx degradation in the induction of profibrotic events and on the possible pharmacological strategies to preserve this delicate structure.
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Hermano E, Carlotti F, Abecassis A, Meirovitz A, Rubinstein AM, Li JP, Vlodavsky I, Rabelink TJ, Elkin M. Dichotomic role of heparanase in a murine model of metabolic syndrome. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:2771-2780. [PMID: 33051777 PMCID: PMC11072560 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03660-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Heparanase is the predominant enzyme that cleaves heparan sulfate, the main polysaccharide in the extracellular matrix. While the role of heparanase in sustaining the pathology of autoimmune diabetes is well documented, its association with metabolic syndrome/type 2 diabetes attracted less attention. Our research was undertaken to elucidate the significance of heparanase in impaired glucose metabolism in metabolic syndrome and early type 2 diabetes. Here, we report that heparanase exerts opposite effects in insulin-producing (i.e., islets) vs. insulin-target (i.e., skeletal muscle) compartments, sustaining or hampering proper regulation of glucose homeostasis depending on the site of action. We observed that the enzyme promotes macrophage infiltration into islets in a murine model of metabolic syndrome, and fosters β-cell-damaging properties of macrophages activated in vitro by components of diabetogenic/obese milieu (i.e., fatty acids). On the other hand, in skeletal muscle (prototypic insulin-target tissue), heparanase is essential to ensure insulin sensitivity. Thus, despite a deleterious effect of heparanase on macrophage infiltration in islets, the enzyme appears to have beneficial role in glucose homeostasis in metabolic syndrome. The dichotomic action of the enzyme in the maintenance of glycemic control should be taken into account when considering heparanase-targeting strategies for the treatment of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Hermano
- Department of Oncology, Sharett Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Françoise Carlotti
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Alexia Abecassis
- Department of Oncology, Sharett Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Amichay Meirovitz
- Department of Oncology, Sharett Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ariel M Rubinstein
- Department of Oncology, Sharett Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Jin-Ping Li
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ton J Rabelink
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Elkin
- Department of Oncology, Sharett Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel.
- Hebrew University Medical School, 91120, Jerusalem, Israel.
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Heparanase: Cloning, Function and Regulation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1221:189-229. [PMID: 32274711 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-34521-1_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In 2019, we mark the 20th anniversary of the cloning of the human heparanase gene. Heparanase remains the only known enzyme to cleave heparan sulfate, which is an abundant component of the extracellular matrix. Thus, elucidating the mechanisms underlying heparanase expression and activity is critical to understanding its role in healthy and pathological settings. This chapter provides a historical account of the race to clone the human heparanase gene, describes the intracellular and extracellular function of the enzyme, and explores the various mechanisms regulating heparanase expression and activity at the gene, transcript, and protein level.
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Pessentheiner AR, Ducasa GM, Gordts PLSM. Proteoglycans in Obesity-Associated Metabolic Dysfunction and Meta-Inflammation. Front Immunol 2020; 11:769. [PMID: 32508807 PMCID: PMC7248225 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans are a specific subset of glycoproteins found at the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix, where they interact with a plethora of proteins involved in metabolic homeostasis and meta-inflammation. Over the last decade, new insights have emerged on the mechanism and biological significance of these interactions in the context of diet-induced disorders such as obesity and type-2 diabetes. Complications of energy metabolism drive most diet-induced metabolic disorders, which results in low-grade chronic inflammation, thereby affecting proper function of many vital organs involved in energy homeostasis, such as the brain, liver, kidney, heart and adipose tissue. Here, we discuss how heparan, chondroitin and keratan sulfate proteoglycans modulate obesity-induced metabolic dysfunction and low-grade inflammation that impact the initiation and progression of obesity-associated morbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane R. Pessentheiner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - G. Michelle Ducasa
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Philip L. S. M. Gordts
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Goldberg R, Meirovitz A, Abecassis A, Hermano E, Rubinstein AM, Nahmias D, Grinshpun A, Peretz T, Elkin M. Regulation of Heparanase in Diabetes-Associated Pancreatic Carcinoma. Front Oncol 2019; 9:1405. [PMID: 31921662 PMCID: PMC6914686 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While at least six types of cancer have been associated with diabetes, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and diabetes exhibit a unique bidirectional relationship. Recent reports indicate that majority of PDAC patients display hyperglycemia, and ~50% have concurrent diabetes. In turn, hyperglycemic/diabetic state in PDAC patients fosters enhanced growth and dissemination of the tumor. Heparanase enzyme (the sole mammalian endoglycosidase degrading glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate) is tightly implicated in PDAC progression, aggressiveness, and therapy resistance. Overexpression of heparanase is a characteristic feature of PDAC, correlating with poor prognosis. However, given the lack of heparanase expression in normal pancreatic tissue, the regulatory mechanisms responsible for induction of the enzyme in PDAC have remained largely unknown. Previously reported inducibility of heparanase gene by diabetic milieu components in several non-cancerous cell types prompted us to hypothesize that in the setting of diabetes-associated PDAC, hyperglycemic state may induce heparanase overexpression. Here, utilizing a mouse model of diet-induced metabolic syndrome/diabetes, we found accelerated PDAC progression in hyperglycemic mice, occurring along with induction of heparanase in PDAC. In vitro, we demonstrated that advanced glycation end-products (AGE), which are largely thought as oxidative derivatives resulting from chronic hyperglycemia, and the receptor for AGE (RAGE) are responsible for heparanase induction in PDAC cells. These findings underscore the new mechanism underlying preferential expression of heparanase in pancreatic cancer. Moreover, taken together with the well-established causal role of the enzyme in PDAC progression, our findings indicate that heparanase may sustain (at least in part) reciprocal causality between diabetes and pancreatic tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Goldberg
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Amichay Meirovitz
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Alexia Abecassis
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Esther Hermano
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ariel M Rubinstein
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Daniela Nahmias
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Albert Grinshpun
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Tamar Peretz
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Michael Elkin
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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Lin MC, Lin CF, Li CF, Sun DP, Wang LY, Hsing CH. Anesthetic propofol overdose causes vascular hyperpermeability by reducing endothelial glycocalyx and ATP production. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:12092-107. [PMID: 26023717 PMCID: PMC4490431 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160612092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolonged treatment with a large dose of propofol may cause diffuse cellular cytotoxicity; however, the detailed underlying mechanism remains unclear, particularly in vascular endothelial cells. Previous studies showed that a propofol overdose induces endothelial injury and vascular barrier dysfunction. Regarding the important role of endothelial glycocalyx on the maintenance of vascular barrier integrity, we therefore hypothesized that a propofol overdose-induced endothelial barrier dysfunction is caused by impaired endothelial glycocalyx. In vivo, we intraperitoneally injected ICR mice with overdosed propofol, and the results showed that a propofol overdose significantly induced systemic vascular hyperpermeability and reduced the expression of endothelial glycocalyx, syndecan-1, syndecan-4, perlecan mRNA and heparan sulfate (HS) in the vessels of multiple organs. In vitro, a propofol overdose reduced the expression of syndecan-1, syndecan-4, perlecan, glypican-1 mRNA and HS and induced significant decreases in the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)/NADH ratio and ATP concentrations in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1). Oligomycin treatment also induced significant decreases in the NAD+/NADH ratio, in ATP concentrations and in syndecan-4, perlecan and glypican-1 mRNA expression in HMEC-1 cells. These results demonstrate that a propofol overdose induces a partially ATP-dependent reduction of endothelial glycocalyx expression and consequently leads to vascular hyperpermeability due to the loss of endothelial barrier functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chung Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Chi Mei Medical Center, Liouying, 201, Taikang, Taikang Village, Liuying District, Tainan 736, Taiwan.
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology, 89, Wenhwa 1st Street, Rende District, Tainan 717, Taiwan.
| | - Chiou-Feng Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 110, Taiwan.
| | - Chien-Feng Li
- Department of Pathology, Chi Mei Medical Center, 901 Zhonghua Road, Yongkang District, Tainan 710, Taiwan.
| | - Ding-Ping Sun
- Department of Surgery, Chi Mei Medical Center, 901 Zhonghua Road, Yongkang District, Tainan 710, Taiwan.
| | - Li-Yun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Chi Mei Medical Center, 901 Zhonghua Road, Yongkang District, Tainan 710, Taiwan.
| | - Chung-Hsi Hsing
- Department of Anesthesiology, Chi Mei Medical Center, 901 Zhonghua Road, Yongkang District, Tainan 710, Taiwan.
- Department of Anesthesiology, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 110, Taiwan.
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McNair E, Marcoux JA, Bally C, Gamble J, Thomson D. Bivalirudin as an adjunctive anticoagulant to heparin in the treatment of heparin resistance during cardiopulmonary bypass-assisted cardiac surgery. Perfusion 2015; 31:189-99. [PMID: 25934498 DOI: 10.1177/0267659115583525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Heparin resistance (unresponsiveness to heparin) is characterized by the inability to reach acceptable activated clotting time values following a calculated dose of heparin. Up to 20% of the patients undergoing cardiothoracic surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass using unfractionated heparin (UFH) for anticoagulation experience heparin resistance. Although UFH has been the "gold standard" for anticoagulation, it is not without its limitations. It is contraindicated in patients with confirmed heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) and heparin or protamine allergy. The safety and efficacy of the use of the direct thrombin inhibitor bivalirudin for anticoagulation during cardiac surgery has been reported. However, there have been no reports on the treatment of heparin resistance with bivalirudin during CPB. In this review, we report the favorable outcome of our single-center experience with the alternative use of bivalirudin in the management of anticoagulation of heparin unresponsive patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- E McNair
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiac Surgery, Saskatoon Health Region, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - J-A Marcoux
- Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiac Surgery, Saskatoon Health Region, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - C Bally
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - J Gamble
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, College of Medicine and Saskatoon Health Region, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - D Thomson
- Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiac Surgery, Saskatoon Health Region, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Qing Q, Zhang S, Chen Y, Li R, Mao H, Chen Q. High glucose-induced intestinal epithelial barrier damage is aggravated by syndecan-1 destruction and heparanase overexpression. J Cell Mol Med 2015; 19:1366-74. [PMID: 25702768 PMCID: PMC4459850 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Syndecan-1 (Sdc1) and its endo-beta-d-glucuronidase heparanase (HPSE) are implicated in maintenance of intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB), but their alterations and roles in high-glucose/hyperglycaemia (HG) conditions have not been fully investigated. This study aimed to determine the expression pattern, the possible regulation mechanism of Sdc1 and HPSE in HG conditions, and their potential effects on IEB. Therefore, diabetic mice/cell models were developed, and tissue/serum samples, cell lysate and culture supernatants were harvested. The expression of Sdc1 and HPSE in control, HG and designated interventions groups were detected. Phosphorylations of mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway (MAPK), the expressions of Occludin and ZO-1, and the levels of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) were measured and monitored. The results showed that in HG conditions, intestinal tissue and cellular Sdc1 were significantly decreased, but the expression of HPSE, and soluble Sdc1 in serum and culture supernatants were remarkably increased. Such alterations of Sdc1 and HPSE were associated with solely p38 MAPK activation, and were correlated with the reductions of Occludin, ZO-1 and TEER. Heparin (Sdc1 analogue) and SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor), instead of insulin, alleviated Sdc1 destruction and HPSE overexpression, and effectively prevented against the reductions of tight junctions and the abnormality of intestinal permeability in HG conditions. In conclusion, we confirm the unique alterations of Sdc1 and HPSE in HG conditions, and found their interactions with p38 MAPK activation and IEB. These indicate that Sdc1/HPSE modulation can be viewed as an important complementary treatment for relieving HG-induced gastrointestinal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Qing
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shaoheng Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ye Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Runhua Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hua Mao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qikui Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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The protective role of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate, a distinct glycosaminoglycan, in a murine model of streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106929. [PMID: 25192337 PMCID: PMC4156394 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heparanase-1 activation, albuminuria, and a decrease in glomerular heparan sulfate (HS) have been described in diabetic nephropathy (DN). Glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-based drugs have been shown to have renoprotective effects in this setting, although recent trials have questioned their clinical effectiveness. Here, we describe the effects of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate (FCS), a novel GAG extracted from a marine echinoderm, in experimentally induced DN compared to a widely used GAG, enoxaparin (ENX). METHODS Diabetes mellitus (DM) was induced by streptozotocin in male Wistar rats divided into three groups: DM (without treatment), FCS (8 mg/kg), and ENX (4 mg/kg), administered subcutaneously. After 12 weeks, we measured blood glucose, blood pressure, albuminuria, and renal function. The kidneys were evaluated for mesangial expansion and collagen content. Immunohistochemical quantifications of macrophages, TGF-β, nestin and immunofluorescence analysis of heparanase-1 and glomerular basement membrane (GBM) HS content was also performed. Gene expression of proteoglycan core proteins and enzymes involved in GAG assembly/degradation were analyzed by TaqMan real-time PCR. RESULTS Treatment with GAGs prevented albuminuria and did not affect the glucose level or other functional aspects. The DM group exhibited increased mesangial matrix deposition and tubulointerstitial expansion, and prevention was observed in both GAG groups. TGF-β expression and macrophage infiltration were prevented by the GAG treatments, and podocyte damage was halted. The diabetic milieu resulted in the down-regulation of agrin, perlecan and collagen XVIII mRNAs, along with the expression of enzymes involved in GAG biosynthesis. Treatment with FCS and ENX positively modulated such changes. Heparanase-1 expression was significantly reduced after GAG treatment without affecting the GBM HS content, which was uniformly reduced in all of the diabetic animals. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that the administration of FCS prevented several pathological features of ND in rats. This finding should stimulate further research on GAG treatment for this complication of diabetes.
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Reprint of “Potential roles of vessel wall heparan sulfate proteoglycans in atherosclerosis”. Vascul Pharmacol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Potential roles of vessel wall heparan sulfate proteoglycans in atherosclerosis. Vascul Pharmacol 2014; 60:49-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2013.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Revised: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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