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Mhaddolkar N, Tischberger-Aldrian A, Astrup TF, Vollprecht D. Consumers confused 'Where to dispose biodegradable plastics?': A study of three waste streams. WASTE MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH : THE JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOLID WASTES AND PUBLIC CLEANSING ASSOCIATION, ISWA 2024:734242X241231408. [PMID: 38449106 DOI: 10.1177/0734242x241231408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Biodegradable plastics, either fossil- or biobased, are often promoted due to their biodegradability and acclaimed environmental friendliness. However, as demonstrated by previous literature, considerable confusion exists about the appropriate source separation and waste management of these plastics. Present study investigated this confusion based on manual sorting analyses of waste sampled from packaging waste (P), biowaste (B) and residual waste (R) in an urban area of Austria. The results were evaluated relative to near-infrared sensor-based sorting trials conducted in a German urban area. Although existing literature has focused on waste composition analyses (mostly in stand-alone studies) of the three waste streams, the present study focused on identifying the specific types of biodegradable plastic items found in each of these streams. Supermarket carrier bags (P = 90, B = 14, R = 33) and dustbin bags (P = 2, B = 46, R = 6) were found in all three waste streams in the Austrian urban area. Similarly, in the German urban area dustbin bags (P = 1, B = 106, R = 3) were the common items. The results indicate that certain bioplastic items were present in more than one bin; thus, hinting that consumers are not necessarily aware of how-to source-separate the biodegradable plastics. This suggests that neither consumers nor current waste management systems are fully 'adapted' to bioplastics, and the management of these plastics' waste is currently not optimal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namrata Mhaddolkar
- Chair of Waste Processing Technology and Waste Management (AVAW), Montanuniversität Leoben, Leoben, Austria
- DTU SUSTAIN, Department of Environmental Engineering, Danish Technical University, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alexia Tischberger-Aldrian
- Chair of Waste Processing Technology and Waste Management (AVAW), Montanuniversität Leoben, Leoben, Austria
| | - Thomas Fruergaard Astrup
- DTU SUSTAIN, Department of Environmental Engineering, Danish Technical University, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Daniel Vollprecht
- Resource and Chemical Engineering, Augsburg University, Augsburg, Germany
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2
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Mankhair RV, Singh A, Chandel MK. Characterization of excavated plastic waste from an Indian dumpsite: Investigating extent of degradation and resource recovery potential. WASTE MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH : THE JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOLID WASTES AND PUBLIC CLEANSING ASSOCIATION, ISWA 2024:734242X231219654. [PMID: 38233370 DOI: 10.1177/0734242x231219654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the concept of landfill mining has gained a lot of traction in India, and tonnes of plastic waste is being excavated. The present shift towards a circular economy necessitates to explore the use of excavated plastic waste as a source of valuable materials and energy. However, the physicochemical characteristics of plastic waste change due to the degradation and weathering process in landfills, making its valorization difficult. The current study investigates the change in physicochemical characteristics of plastic waste with age from an Indian dumpsite to identify the potential valorization options. In addition, a material and energy flow analysis was performed considering incineration treatment of plastic waste. The plastic waste ranged between 3.6 and 21% in the dumpsite and has almost doubled in recent decades, owing to the increase in plastic waste generation in India. Polyethylene (high- and low-density) accounted for approximately 66% of the excavated plastic waste and had a lot of adhered surface impurities. Mechanical pre-treatment using a shredder was effective in the removal of the adhered impurities with a recovery rate of 50-70% for polyethylene and a higher recovery of 70-90% for other types of plastic. Changes in the surface morphology of plastic waste with aging were observed through Scanning Electron Microscopy. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy results confirmed low degradation levels for aged plastic waste, which is also confirmed through the high level of oxygen detected. The material and energy flow analysis revealed that incinerating one tonne of excavated plastic waste could produce approximately 1410 kWh of electricity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan Vilasrao Mankhair
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Ayush Singh
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Munish K Chandel
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
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3
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Gadaleta G, Ferrara C, De Gisi S, Notarnicola M, De Feo G. Life cycle assessment of end-of-life options for cellulose-based bioplastics when introduced into a municipal solid waste management system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 871:161958. [PMID: 36737011 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The partial degradation of cellulose-based bioplastics in industrial treatment of organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) opened to the investigation of further disposal routes for bioplastics in the waste management system. For this purpose, the environmental footprint of three MSW management scenarios differing only for the bioplastics final destination (organic, plastic or mixed waste streams) was assessed through a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. Results revealed how the treatment of bioplastics with organic waste achieved the worst environmental performance (5.8 kg CO2 eq/FU) for most impact categories. On the other hand, treatment with plastics and mixed waste achieved negative impact values (that mean avoided GHG emissions) of -9.8 and -7.7 kg CO2 eq/FU respectively, showing comparable benefits from these scenarios. The key reason was the lower quality of compost obtained from the organic treatment route, which reduced the environmental credits achieved by the energy recovery during anaerobic digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Gadaleta
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Politecnico di Bari, Via E. Orabona n.4, I-70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Carmen Ferrara
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II n. 132, I-84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - Sabino De Gisi
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Politecnico di Bari, Via E. Orabona n.4, I-70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Michele Notarnicola
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Politecnico di Bari, Via E. Orabona n.4, I-70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Giovanni De Feo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II n. 132, I-84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
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4
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Lee S, Kim YT, Lin KYA, Lee J. Plastic-Waste-Derived Char as an Additive for Epoxy Composite. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2602. [PMID: 37048896 PMCID: PMC10095672 DOI: 10.3390/ma16072602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Tremendous amounts of plastic waste are generated daily. The indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste can cause serious global environmental issues, such as leakages of microplastics into the ecosystem. Thus, it is necessary to find a more sustainable way to reduce the volume of plastic waste by converting it into usable materials. Pyrolysis provides a sustainable solution for the production of carbonaceous materials (e.g., char). Plastic-waste-derived char can be used as an additive in epoxy composites to improve the properties and performance of neat epoxy resins. This review compiles relevant knowledge on the potential of additives for epoxy composites originating from plastic waste. It also highlights the potential of plastic-waste-derived char materials for use in materials in various industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seonho Lee
- Department of Global Smart City, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Tae Kim
- Chemical and Process Technology Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Kun-Yi Andrew Lin
- Innovation and Development Center of Sustainable Agriculture, Department of Environmental Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, 250 Kuo-Kuang Road, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Jechan Lee
- Department of Global Smart City, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
- School of Civil, Architectural Engineering and Landscape Architecture, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Seobu-ro, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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5
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Shi Y, Chai J, Xu T, Ding L, Huang M, Gan F, Pi K, Gerson AR, Yang J. Microplastics contamination associated with low-value domestic source organic solid waste: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159679. [PMID: 36283521 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Waste activated sludge and food waste are two typical important domestic low-value organic solid wastes (LOSW). LOSW contains significant organic matter and water content resulting in the transboundary transfer of liquid-solid-gas and other multi-mediums, such that the complexity of microplastics (MPs) migration should be of greater concern. This article provides a review of the literature focusing on the separation and extraction methods of MPs from LOSW. The occurrence and source of MPs are discussed, and the output and impact of MPs on LOSW heat and biological treatments are summarized. The fate and co-effects of MPs and other pollutants in landfills and soils are reviewed. This review highlights the migration and transformation of MPs in domestic source LOSW, and future perspectives focused on the development of a unified extraction and analysis protocol. The objective of this review is to promote the technological development of decontamination of MPs in LOSW by sufficient understanding of the fate of MPs, their interaction with coexisting pollutants and the development of targeted preventive research strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafei Shi
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China.
| | - Jiaqi Chai
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Tao Xu
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Lihu Ding
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Meijie Huang
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Fangmao Gan
- Yangtze Ecology and Environment Co., Ltd., Wuhan, Hubei 430062, China
| | - Kewu Pi
- School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Andrea R Gerson
- Blue Minerals Consultancy, Wattle Grove, Tasmania 7109, Australia
| | - Jiakuan Yang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
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6
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Freudenthaler PJ, Fischer J, Lang RW. Assessment of Commercially Available Polyethylene Recyclates for Blow Molding Applications by a Novel Environmental Stress Cracking Method. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010046. [PMID: 36616396 PMCID: PMC9823600 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The transition to a circular economy has a major impact on waste management and the reuse of materials. New mandatory recycling targets for plastics will lead to a high availability of recyclates. For these recyclates, useful applications need to be found. One potential application for recyclates is blow molding bottles as packaging for non-food contents. This study investigates commercially available post-consumer high-density polyethylene recyclates together with virgin blow molding grades in terms of their short-term mechanical properties and environmental stress cracking resistance. While the short-term mechanical properties showed only slightly lower performance than the tested virgin grades, the overall environmental stress cracking failure times of the recyclates were much lower compared to virgin materials, even though the crack-growth kinetics could be similar. Although neither the tensile nor the notched impact strength results of the two polyethylene recyclates revealed large differences, the stress intensity-factor-dependent crack-growth rates of both materials were significantly different.
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7
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Plastic and Waste Tire Pyrolysis Focused on Hydrogen Production—A Review. HYDROGEN 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/hydrogen3040034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we compare hydrogen production from waste by pyrolysis and bioprocesses. In contrast, the pyrolysis feed was limited to plastic and tire waste unlikely to be utilized by biological decomposition methods. Recent risks of pyrolysis, such as pollutant emissions during the heat decomposition of polymers, and high energy demands were described and compared to thresholds of bioprocesses such as dark fermentation. Many pyrolysis reactors have been adapted for plastic pyrolysis after successful investigation experiences involving waste tires. Pyrolysis can transform these wastes into other petroleum products for reuse or for energy carriers, such as hydrogen. Plastic and tire pyrolysis is part of an alternative synthesis method for smart polymers, including semi-conductive polymers. Pyrolysis is less expensive than gasification and requires a lower energy demand, with lower emissions of hazardous pollutants. Short-time utilization of these wastes, without the emission of metals into the environment, can be solved using pyrolysis. Plastic wastes after pyrolysis produce up to 20 times more hydrogen than dark fermentation from 1 kg of waste. The research summarizes recent achievements in plastic and tire waste pyrolysis development.
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8
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Lomwongsopon P, Varrone C. Critical Review on the Progress of Plastic Bioupcycling Technology as a Potential Solution for Sustainable Plastic Waste Management. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14224996. [PMID: 36433123 PMCID: PMC9692586 DOI: 10.3390/polym14224996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Plastic production worldwide has doubled in the last two decades and is expected to reach a four-fold increase by 2050. The durability of plastic makes them a perfect material for many applications, but it is also a key limitation to their end-of-life management. The current plastic lifecycle is far from circular, with only 13% being collected for recycling and 9% being successfully recycled, indicating the failure of current recycling technology. The remaining plastic waste streams are thus incinerated, landfilled, or worse, mismanaged, leading to them leaking into the environment. To promote plastic circularity, keeping material in the loop is a priority and represents a more sustainable solution. This can be achieved through the reuse of plastic items, or by using plastic waste as a resource for new materials, instead of discarding them as waste. As the discovery of plastic-degrading/utilizing microorganisms and enzymes has been extensively reported recently, the possibility of developing biological plastic upcycling processes is opening up. An increasing amount of studies have investigated the use of plastic as a carbon source for biotechnological processes to produce high-value compounds such as bioplastics, biochemicals, and biosurfactants. In the current review, the advancements in fossil-based plastic bio- and thermochemical upcycling technologies are presented and critically discussed. In particular, we highlight the developed (bio)depolymerization coupled with bioconversion/fermentation processes to obtain industrially valuable products. This review is expected to contribute to the future development and scale-up of effective plastic bioupcycling processes that can act as a drive to increase waste removal from the environment and valorize post-consumer plastic streams, thus accelerating the implementation of a circular (plastic) economy.
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9
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Akhras MH, Fischer J. Sampling Scheme Conception for Pretreated Polyolefin Waste Based on a Review of the Available Standard Procedures. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14173450. [PMID: 36080524 PMCID: PMC9460820 DOI: 10.3390/polym14173450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the rapid development of plastics recycling in recent years, the need for guidelines for sampling and material characterization is steadily emerging. However, there still exists a considerable scarcity of methods that enable proper material data acquisition. This paper consists of two parts. The first part provides a critical review of the available sampling techniques that can be utilized in the field of plastics recycling. Several sampling studies were covered in the review alongside the prominent standardization institutions. It was found that neither the literature nor the standards provide a comprehensive practice that considers the distinctive characteristics of plastic waste and applies it to different situations along the value chain. In the second part, a proposal of a sampling plan for pretreated rigid plastic waste is conceptualized based on selected information from the reviewed methods. Two variants of the proposed plan were evaluated based on the flake size distribution and the apparent density of four different pretreated polyolefin (PO) waste materials. The results of the study showed that combining stratified random sampling with composite sampling yields a good sampling technique for rigid PO waste. Moreover, the analysis of a composite sample adequately conveys the true material properties of a sublot or lot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Hassan Akhras
- Competence Center CHASE GmbH, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Institute of Polymeric Materials and Testing, Johannes Kepler University, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-664-8568500
| | - Joerg Fischer
- Institute of Polymeric Materials and Testing, Johannes Kepler University, Altenberger Straße 69, 4040 Linz, Austria
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10
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Audy R, Enfrin M, Boom YJ, Giustozzi F. Selection of recycled waste plastic for incorporation in sustainable asphalt pavements: A novel multi-criteria screening tool based on 31 sources of plastic. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 829:154604. [PMID: 35307423 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the suitability of 31 recycled waste plastic samples obtained from 15 major recycling companies across Australia and New Zealand to be used as bitumen/asphalt modifiers. The plastics have been selected to be representative of recycled waste plastic around Australia and New Zealand. The recycled waste plastics belonged to either the post-industrial or post-consumer collection scheme. A new classification scheme was developed to rank each recycled waste plastic based on their chemical and physical properties against those of bitumen/asphalt. Specifically, density, polarity, melting point, solubility and melt flow index of the samples as well as the presence of contaminants, fillers and additives were analyzed for each recycled waste plastic material and their virgin counterpart. These 8 properties were used to rank various sources of recycled low-density poly(ethylene), linear low-density poly(ethylene), high density poly(ethylene) and poly(propylene) in addition to commingled plastics based on their suitability for bitumen modification (wet method). The modification of asphalt via replacement of virgin quarry aggregate with plastic aggregate (dry method) by recycled acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and poly(ethylene terephthalate) was also assessed by considering four criteria of purity, polarity, recycling contamination and hazardous additives. This new multi-criterion ranking approach revealed that low-density and linear low-density poly(ethylene) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and poly(ethylene terephthalate) should be preferentially used as bitumen/asphalt modifiers. This tool has been developed for recycling companies and bitumen/asphalt contractors to determine the suitability of recycled waste plastics within asphalt roads by a series of experimental techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Audy
- Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne 3001, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marie Enfrin
- Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne 3001, Victoria, Australia
| | - Yeong Jia Boom
- Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne 3001, Victoria, Australia
| | - Filippo Giustozzi
- Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne 3001, Victoria, Australia.
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11
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Carbon Footprint and Total Cost Evaluation of Different Bio-Plastics Waste Treatment Strategies. CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/cleantechnol4020035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To address the problem of fossil-based pollution, bio-plastics have risen in use in a wide range of applications. The current waste management system still has some weakness for bio-plastics waste (BPW) treatment, and quantitative data is lacking. This study combines environmental and economic assessments in order to indicate the most sustainable and suitable BPW management treatment between organic, plastic and mixed wastes. For the scope, the carbon footprint of each scenario was calculated by life cycle assessment (LCA), while the total cost of the waste management system was used as an economic parameter. The economic evaluation revealed that the organic, plastic and mixed waste treatment routes reached a total cost of 120.35, 112.21 and 109.43 EUR, respectively. The LCA results showed that the incomplete degradation of BPW during anaerobic digestion and composting led to the disposal of the compost produced, creating an environmental burden of 324.64 kgCO2-Eq. for the organic waste treatment route, while the mixed and plastic treatment routes obtained a benefit of −87.16 and −89.17 kgCO2-Eq. respectively. This study showed that, although the current amount of BPW does not affect the treatment process of organic, plastic and mixed wastes, it can strongly affect the quality of the output, compromising its further reuse. Therefore, specific improvement of waste treatment should be pursued, particularly with regard to the anaerobic digestion of organic waste, which remains a promising technology for BPW treatment.
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12
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Recent Advances in the Decontamination and Upgrading of Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Products: An Overview. Processes (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/pr10040733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extensive research on the production of energy and valuable materials from plastic waste using pyrolysis has been widely conducted during recent years. Succeeding in demonstrating the sustainability of this technology economically and technologically at an industrial scale is a great challenge. In most cases, crude pyrolysis products cannot be used directly for several reasons, including the presence of contaminants. This is confirmed by recent studies, using advanced characterization techniques such as two-dimensional gas chromatography. Thus, to overcome these limitations, post-treatment methods, such as dechlorination, distillation, catalytic upgrading and hydroprocessing, are required. Moreover, the integration of pyrolysis units into conventional refineries is only possible if the waste plastic is pre-treated, which involves sorting, washing and dehalogenation. The different studies examined in this review showed that the distillation of plastic pyrolysis oil allows the control of the carbon distribution of different fractions. The hydroprocessing of pyrolytic oil gives promising results in terms of reducing contaminants, such as chlorine, by one order of magnitude. Recent developments in plastic waste and pyrolysis product characterization methods are also reported in this review. The application of pyrolysis for energy generation or added-value material production determines the economic sustainability of the process.
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13
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Lin K, Tian L, Zhao Y, Zhao C, Zhang M, Zhou T. Pyrolytic characteristics of fine materials from municipal solid waste using TG-FTIR, Py-GC/MS, and deep learning approach: Kinetics, thermodynamics, and gaseous products distribution. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 293:133533. [PMID: 34998842 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fine materials (FM) from municipal solid waste (MSW) classification require disposal, and pyrolysis is a feasible method for the treatments. Hence, the behavior, kinetics, and products of FM pyrolysis were investigated in this study. A deep learning algorithm was firstly employed to predict and verify the TG data during the process of FM pyrolysis. The results showed that FM pyrolysis could be divided into drying (<138 °C), de-volatilization (138-570 °C), and decomposition stage (≥570 °C above). The de-volatilization can further be divided into stage 2 and stage 3, with values of activation energy estimated by Flynn-Wall-Ozawa and Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose methods as 123.35 and 172.95 kJ/mol, respectively. The gas products like H2O, CO2, CH4, and CO, as well as functional groups like phenols and carbonyl (CO), were all detected during the process of FM pyrolysis by thermogravimetric-fourier transform infrared spectrometry at a heating rate of 10 °C/min. The main species detected by pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyzer included acid (41.98%) and aliphatic hydrocarbon (22.44%). Finally, the 1D-CNN-LSTM algorithm demonstrated an outstanding generalization capability to predict the relationship between FM composition and temperature, with R2 reaching 93.91%. In sum, this study provided a reference for the treatment of FM from MSW classification as well as the feasibility and practicability of deep learning applied in pyrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunsen Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Lu Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Chinese Res Inst Environm Sci, State Key Lab Environm Criteria & Risk Assessment, Beijing, 100012, PR China
| | - Youcai Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Chunlong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Meilan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Tao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China.
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14
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Zhang L, Yao D, Tsui TH, Loh KC, Wang CH, Dai Y, Tong YW. Plastic-containing food waste conversion to biomethane, syngas, and biochar via anaerobic digestion and gasification: Focusing on reactor performance, microbial community analysis, and energy balance assessment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 306:114471. [PMID: 35026716 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
To manage the mixture of food waste and plastic waste, a hybrid biological and thermal system was investigated for converting plastic-containing food waste (PCFW) into renewable energy, focusing on performance evaluation, microbial community analysis, and energy balance assessment. The results showed that anaerobic digestion (AD) of food waste, polyethylene (PE)-containing food waste, polystyrene (PS)-containing food waste, and polypropylene (PP)-containing food waste generated a methane yield of 520.8, 395.6, 504.2, and 479.8 mL CH4/gVS, respectively. CO2 gasification of all the plastic-containing digestate produced more syngas than pure digestate gasification. Syngas from PS-digestate reached the maximum yield of 20.78 mol/kg. During the digestate-derived-biochar-amended AD of PCFW, the methane yields in the biochars-amended digesters were 6-30% higher than those of the control digesters. Bioinformatic analysis of microbial communities confirmed the significant difference between control and biochar-amended digesters in terms of bacterial and methanogenic compositions. The enhanced methane yields in biochars-amended digesters could be partially ascribed to the selective enrichment of genus Methanosarcina, leading to an improved equilibrium between hydrogenotrophic and acetoclastic methanogenesis pathways. Moreover, energy balance assessment demonstrated that the hybrid biological and thermal conversion system can be a promising technical option for the treatment of PCFW and recovery of renewable biofuels (i.e., biogas and syngas) and bioresource (i.e., biochar) on an industrial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Zhang
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Dingding Yao
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - To-Hung Tsui
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Kai-Chee Loh
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore
| | - Chi-Hwa Wang
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore
| | - Yanjun Dai
- Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yen Wah Tong
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore.
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15
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Mondelli G, Juarez MB, Jacinto C, de Oliveira MA, Coelho LHG, Biancardi CB, de Castro Faria JL. Geo-environmental and geotechnical characterization of municipal solid waste from the selective collection in São Paulo city, Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:19898-19912. [PMID: 35088274 PMCID: PMC8794613 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-18281-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the characterization of municipal solid waste (MSW) randomly collected from two material recovery facilities in São Paulo city, before (input - recyclables) and after (output - rejects) the sorting processes. Geo-environmental and geotechnical tests were performed on shredded samples and a digestion method was applied to detect the metals As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations using an ICP OES. The objective was to assist future activities of integrated solid waste management and soil pollution. Results showed different particle sizes comparing the input (44.6%) and the output MSW (75.1%) passing through the 100-mm sieve. Organic matter and ash contents indicated the influence of inorganic carbon due to the plastics' presence, with values varying between 6 and 13%. The pH values obtained were neutral and the electrical conductivity of the MSW rejects suggested a higher amount of ions, with values above 1000 µS/cm. Metals analyses show that Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn are present in high concentrations, depending on the types of the materials. Standard Proctor compaction curves yielded maximum dry unit weight varying from 6.6 to 10.0 kN/m3 and optimum moisture contents from 20 to 42%. Cohesion ranged from 1.3 to 31.3 kPa and friction angle from 3.2 to 42.9°. The results are comparable with those obtained for other countries using different MSW treatments and contribute to the data basis for MSW from the selective collection, aiming the integrated solid waste management, serving for other countries that adopt MSW sorting and recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulliana Mondelli
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil.
| | - Mariana Barbosa Juarez
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Christiane Jacinto
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Márcio Adilson de Oliveira
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Lúcia Helena Gomes Coelho
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - Cinthia Bergamo Biancardi
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
| | - José Leonardo de Castro Faria
- Engineering, Modelling, and Applied Social Sciences Centre, Federal University of ABC, Av. dos Estados 5001, Santo André, São Paulo, 09210-580, Brazil
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16
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Zhang Y, Wen Z. Mapping the environmental impacts and policy effectiveness of takeaway food industry in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 808:152023. [PMID: 34861304 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The takeaway food industry, involving more than 0.4 billion consumers in China, has brought mass of packaging waste and salient environmental burden. Here we mapped the distribution of takeaway food industry across China including the industry scale, diet structure and order time based on the analysis of more than 35 million takeaway food orders. The real use situation of various packaging materials in the takeaway food industry market has been clarified. The life cycle assessment of "a piece of takeaway food delivery order" has been carried out in different regions. Results show that in addition to plastic waste generation, takeaway food industry causes more types of environmental impacts. In terms of the national resource consumption, greenhouse gases emission, water pollution and health damage risk, the top 5 ranked provinces in each accounted for 44%, 48%, 43% and 49%, respectively. Under the latest Chinese plastic pollution control policy, the industry needs to reduce 1.12 million tons of non-degradable plastic packaging by the end of 2025, and 65% of the pressure is clustered in the metropolis and provincial capitals. However, without targeted and regionally differentiated plastic pollution control policies, the environmental impact control of takeaway food industry is still ineffective. It is urgent to explore the control measures applicable to different regions. Overall, packaging reduction is more effective than material substitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Zhang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Industrial Energy Saving and Green Development Assessment Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zongguo Wen
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (SKLESPC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Industrial Energy Saving and Green Development Assessment Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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17
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Mohammadi S, Moussavi G, Rezaei M. Enhanced peroxidase-mediated biodegradation of polyethylene using the bacterial consortia under H2O2-biostimulation. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2021.124508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Zhang X, Liu C, Chen Y, Zheng G, Chen Y. Source separation, transportation, pretreatment, and valorization of municipal solid waste: a critical review. ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY 2022; 24:11471-11513. [PMID: 34776765 PMCID: PMC8579419 DOI: 10.1007/s10668-021-01932-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Waste sorting is an effective means of enhancing resource or energy recovery from municipal solid waste (MSW). Waste sorting management system is not limited to source separation, but also involves at least three stages, i.e., collection and transportation (C&T), pretreatment, and resource utilization. This review focuses on the whole process of MSW management strategy based on the waste sorting perspective. Firstly, as the sources of MSW play an essential role in the means of subsequent valorization, the factors affecting the generation of MSW and its prediction methods are introduced. Secondly, a detailed comparison of approaches to source separation across countries is presented. Constructing a top-down management system and incentivizing or constraining residents' sorting behavior from the bottom up is believed to be a practical approach to promote source separation. Then, the current state of C&T techniques and its network optimization are reviewed, facilitated by artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things technologies. Furthermore, the advances in pretreatment strategies for enhanced sorting and resource recovery are introduced briefly. Finally, appropriate methods to valorize different MSW are proposed. It is worth noting that new technologies, such as AI, show high application potential in waste management. The sharing of (intermediate) products or energy of varying processing units will inject vitality into the waste management network and achieve sustainable development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuexi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092 People’s Republic of China
| | - Guanghong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yinguang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai, 200092 People’s Republic of China
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19
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Tamoor M, Samak NA, Jia Y, Mushtaq MU, Sher H, Bibi M, Xing J. Potential Use of Microbial Enzymes for the Conversion of Plastic Waste Into Value-Added Products: A Viable Solution. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:777727. [PMID: 34917057 PMCID: PMC8670383 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.777727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The widespread use of commercial polymers composed of a mixture of polylactic acid and polyethene terephthalate (PLA-PET) in bottles and other packaging materials has caused a massive environmental crisis. The valorization of these contaminants via cost-effective technologies is urgently needed to achieve a circular economy. The enzymatic hydrolysis of PLA-PET contaminants plays a vital role in environmentally friendly strategies for plastic waste recycling and degradation. In this review, the potential roles of microbial enzymes for solving this critical problem are highlighted. Various enzymes involved in PLA-PET recycling and bioconversion, such as PETase and MHETase produced by Ideonella sakaiensis; esterases produced by Bacillus and Nocardia; lipases produced by Thermomyces lanuginosus, Candida antarctica, Triticum aestivum, and Burkholderia spp.; and leaf-branch compost cutinases are critically discussed. Strategies for the utilization of PLA-PET's carbon content as C1 building blocks were investigated for the production of new plastic monomers and different value-added products, such as cyclic acetals, 1,3-propanediol, and vanillin. The bioconversion of PET-PLA degradation monomers to polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymers by Pseudomonas and Halomonas strains was addressed in detail. Different solutions to the production of biodegradable plastics from food waste, agricultural residues, and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)-accumulating bacteria were discussed. Fuel oil production via PLA-PET thermal pyrolysis and possible hybrid integration techniques for the incorporation of thermostable plastic degradation enzymes for the conversion into fuel oil is explained in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Tamoor
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nadia A. Samak
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Biofilm Centre, Aquatic Microbiology Department, Faculty of Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Yunpu Jia
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Muhammad Umar Mushtaq
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Wah Engineering College, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan
| | - Hassan Sher
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Maryam Bibi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Wah Engineering College, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan
| | - Jianmin Xing
- CAS Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Shantou, China
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20
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Zhang L, Tsui TH, Loh KC, Dai Y, Tong YW. Effects of plastics on reactor performance and microbial communities during acidogenic fermentation of food waste for production of volatile fatty acids. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 337:125481. [PMID: 34320761 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to study the effects of plastics (high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)) on reactor performance and microbial communities during acidogenic fermentation of food waste for the production of volatile fatty acids (VFA). The addition of HDPE and PS increased total VFA yields by 28% and 47%, respectively, whereas the addition of PP and PET decreased total VFA yields by 6% and 2%, respectively. The highest enhancing performance of PS could be ascribed to its highly porous structure that could provide immobilization effects for microbial growth. Degradation of various plastics was confirmed by FESEM results, but the degrees were limited (i.e., 3.9-8.7%). Bacterial analysis showed that the addition of various plastics altered the community diversity. Phylum Thermotogae and genus Defluviitoga dominated all the reactors. Potential HDPE- and PS-degrading microbes could belong to genus Clostridium_sensu_stricto_8, while Tepidanaerobacter_syntrophicus could be PET-degrading microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Zhang
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - To-Hung Tsui
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Kai-Chee Loh
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| | - Yanjun Dai
- Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore; School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yen Wah Tong
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore.
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21
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Utilisation of Mining Waste from the Steel Industry, Ladle Furnace Slags, as a Filler in Bituminous Mixtures of Continuous Grading. METALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/met11091447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Road construction is an activity that involves a large consumption of raw materials, with the consequent high environmental impact. For this reason, various research projects are being developed in which waste is used as a raw material for bituminous mixtures. This avoids the extraction of raw materials, reduces the environmental impact and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. In this research, the incorporation of ladle furnace slag as a filler for continuous grading bituminous mixtures was evaluated. Firstly, the ladle furnace slag was chemically and physically characterised and its suitability for use as a filler was determined in accordance with the regulations. Subsequently, bituminous mixtures were conformed with the slag and also with commercial fillers, calcareous and hornfels, in order to compare the results. Finally, the physical properties, Marshall stability and the effect of water were determined with the immersion–compression test on all families of samples. The results showed that the mixes conformed with ladle furnace slag had higher Marshall stability, less variation due to the effect of water and acceptable physical properties. Consequently, the suitability of utilisation of these slags in bituminous mixtures could be confirmed.
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22
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Garofalo E, Di Maio L, Scarfato P, Apicella A, Protopapa A, Incarnato L. Nanosilicates in Compatibilized Mixed Recycled Polyolefins: Rheological Behavior and Film Production in a Circular Approach. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11082128. [PMID: 34443957 PMCID: PMC8401472 DOI: 10.3390/nano11082128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Currently, plastic packaging represents a global challenge and has become a key point of attention for governments, media and consumers due to the visibility of the waste it generates. Despite their high resource efficiency, the perceived non-recyclability of polymeric films risks precluding them from being a relevant packaging solution in a circular economy approach. In this regard, the aim of this study was to implement a strategy to try closing the loop, via the mechanical recycling of post-consumer flexible packaging of small size (denoted as Fil-s) to obtain new films. In particular, two lots of Fil-s were used, which are PE/PP blends differing for the PP content and the presence of polar contaminants. The suitability for film blowing extrusion of these recycled materials, as such and after the addition of a compatibilizer and/or a lamellar nanosilicate, was evaluated. It was first evidenced that the difficulty of producing blown films with the pristine recycled materials, due to the frequent bubble breakages, occurring even at low draw ratios. Moreover, the shear and extensional rheological behavior of all Fil-s based systems was usefully correlated with their processability features, evidencing the key roles of the nanofiller to stabilize the bubble and of the compatibilizer to ensure a uniform film deformation, avoiding its premature breakage. Even if the adopted upgrading strategies allowed the production of blown films with both types of Fil-s, the different components of the recycled matrices were proven to significantly affect their processability and final film performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Garofalo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (E.G.); (P.S.); (A.A.); (L.I.)
| | - Luciano Di Maio
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (E.G.); (P.S.); (A.A.); (L.I.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Paola Scarfato
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (E.G.); (P.S.); (A.A.); (L.I.)
| | - Annalisa Apicella
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (E.G.); (P.S.); (A.A.); (L.I.)
| | - Antonio Protopapa
- COREPLA-Italian Consortium for the Collection and Recycling of Plastic Packages, Via del Vecchio Politecnico, 20121 Milano, Italy;
| | - Loredana Incarnato
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (E.G.); (P.S.); (A.A.); (L.I.)
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23
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Antonopoulos I, Faraca G, Tonini D. Recycling of post-consumer plastic packaging waste in the EU: Recovery rates, material flows, and barriers. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 126:694-705. [PMID: 33887695 PMCID: PMC8162419 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Increasing plastic waste recycling is a milestone of European environmental policy to reduce environmental impacts and dependency on foreign resources. This is particularly challenging for plastic packaging waste, consisting of very heterogeneous fractions and typically rather contaminated. In this study, we collected primary data from plants sorting and recycling plastic packaging waste to illustrate process efficiencies, material flows, and barriers. We observed that significant losses of target materials occurred both at sorting and recycling stages. These were higher for polymers such as films, polypropylene and polystyrene, and lower for polyethylene terephthalate and high-density polyethylene. Applying material flow analysis, we estimated an overall end-of-life recycling rate for post-consumer plastic packaging waste in EU27 in 2017 of 14% (not considering waste exported as recycled; 25% otherwise). An improved scenario for 2030 showed that achieving an overall end-of-life recycling rate of about 49% was possible when best available practices and technologies were implemented. To fulfil the ambitious recycling targets set at EU27 level (55% overall recycling rate), substantial improvements are necessary at the plants, product design, collection system, and market level. Our findings further indicate that films and other problematic contaminants in the input-waste considerably hamper the recovery rates, thus the improvement of the efficiency of the collection systems is imperative. In parallel, the development of markets for lower value fractions, e.g. polypropylene, could be a way forward to increase recycling, while improvements in the product design will considerably reduce the presence of impurities and contaminants in the input-waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Antonopoulos
- European Commission Joint Research Centre, Calle Inca Garcilaso 3, 41092 Sevilla, Spain.
| | - Giorgia Faraca
- European Commission Joint Research Centre, Calle Inca Garcilaso 3, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Davide Tonini
- European Commission Joint Research Centre, Calle Inca Garcilaso 3, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
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24
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Characterization and Use of Char Produced from Pyrolysis of Post-Consumer Mixed Plastic Waste. WATER 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/w13091188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the pyrolysis of post-consumer mixed plastic waste (polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene film (PE)) is carried out. The solid product of the pyrolysis is characterized and tested for its use as adsorbent of lead present in aqueous media. The pyrolysis temperature has a great influence on the solid product yield, decreasing when the temperature increases. The highest yield to solid product obtained is from the pyrolysis of film at lower temperature (450 °C), reaching almost 14%. The results of product solid characterization reveal that the carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen content decreases with increasing pyrolysis temperature. Furthermore, both the ash and the volatile content are related to the pyrolysis temperature. The ash content is higher when the pyrolysis temperature is higher, while when the temperature increases, a solid product with lower volatile content is obtained. In respect to specific surface area, a higher pyrolysis temperature improves the properties of the solid product as an adsorbent. The adsorption capacity increases as the pyrolysis temperature increases, with the highest value of 7.91 mg/g for the solid obtained in the pyrolysis at 550 °C. In addition, adsorption capacity increases as the initial concentration of lead rises, reaching a maximum value close to 26 mg/g for an initial concentration of 40 mg/L. The Sips model is the one that best reproduces the experimental results of the adsorption process equilibrium study.
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25
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Development of High Resistance Hot Mix Asphalt with Electric Arc Furnace Slag, Ladle Furnace Slag, and Cellulose Fibers from the Papermaking Industry. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11010399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Roads are currently essential links of communication and economic development. However, these roads are progressively requiring higher quality materials, implying a greater impact on the environment, in order to withstand the high levels of heavy vehicle traffic. Therefore, this research proposes the use of industrial by-products to create bituminous mixtures which are more resistant and durable than traditional ones. The industrial by-products used, are electric arc furnace slag, ladle furnace slag, and cellulose fibers from the papermaking industry. These by-products were physically and chemically characterized to be used to conform with bituminous mixtures. At the same time, bituminous mixtures were conformed with conventional materials, thus being able to compare the physical and mechanical properties of the conformed mixtures through different tests. The results showed how the use of cellulose fibers made it possible to absorb a greater percentage of bitumen, as well as the use of electric arc furnace slag and ladle furnace slag created mixtures, with greater Marshall stability. Therefore, sustainable, durable, resistant, and high waste mixtures were developed in this investigation.
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26
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Garofalo E, Di Maio L, Scarfato P, Pietrosanto A, Protopapa A, Incarnato L. Study on Improving the Processability and Properties of Mixed Polyolefin Post-Consumer Plastics for Piping Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 13:polym13010071. [PMID: 33375393 PMCID: PMC7796359 DOI: 10.3390/polym13010071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study focuses on the upgrading strategies to make Fil-s (acronym for film-small), a polyolefin-based material coming from the mechanical recycling of post-consumer flexible packaging, fit for re-use in the piping sector. The effects of washing treatments (at cold and hot conditions) and the addition of an experimental compatibilizer on the chemical-physical properties of Fil-s were first assessed. The measurements of some key properties (density, melt flow index, flexural modulus, yield strength), for both Fil-s as such and the different developed Fil-s based systems, was also conducted in order to evaluate the suitability of this complex and challenging waste stream to replace virgin PE-based pipe and fitting products, in compliance to ASTM D3350 standard. The outcomes of the present work contributed to define a code, for each Fil-s system investigated, useful for identifying the level of their performance in piping applications. All the recyclates were extruded as pipes by using a pilot scale plant, but the process resulted more stable and continuous with the compatibilized Fil-s, as it was deducible from its flow properties. Moreover, the best mechanical performances were exhibited by the hot-washed Fil-s pipes, with an increase in pipe stiffness equal to 65% respect to the unwashed sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Garofalo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; (L.D.M.); (P.S.); (A.P.); (L.I.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Luciano Di Maio
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; (L.D.M.); (P.S.); (A.P.); (L.I.)
| | - Paola Scarfato
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; (L.D.M.); (P.S.); (A.P.); (L.I.)
| | - Arianna Pietrosanto
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; (L.D.M.); (P.S.); (A.P.); (L.I.)
| | - Antonio Protopapa
- COREPLA-Italian Consortium for the Collection and Recycling of Plastic Packages, Via del Vecchio Politecnico, 20121 Milano (MI), Italy;
| | - Loredana Incarnato
- Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy; (L.D.M.); (P.S.); (A.P.); (L.I.)
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27
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Liu G, Agostinho F, Duan H, Song G, Wang X, Giannetti BF, Santagata R, Casazza M, Lega M. Environmental impacts characterization of packaging waste generated by urban food delivery services. A big-data analysis in Jing-Jin-Ji region (China). WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2020; 117:157-169. [PMID: 32828013 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Controversies on food delivery services environmental impacts have been sparked due to the growth of this economic sector. This study focuses on the environmental impacts generated by packaging waste related to urban food delivery services. In particular, the Python based web-crawling and sample survey methods are used for big data mining, and LCA-based environmental impacts evaluation and Kernel density analysis methods are combined to determine the positioning trend of food delivery service providers and expansion direction of environmental pollution load in Jing-Jin-Ji region (North China). Results indicate that (1) food delivery service packages presently account for a very small proportion (<0.1%) of municipal solid waste (MSW). However, this study also evidences that food packaging accounts for 15.7% of the total MSW generated in this region. Even if this growing market sector might have a relatively low impact, households' lifestyle might affect the results. (2) In terms of consumption quantity, plastic bags are the most used packages, accounting for 35.08%; wooden chopsticks account for 32.21% and plastic boxes account for 27.43%. Among all environmental impact categories resulting from the process of production of packages, greenhouse effect is the most distinct one. Paper boxes generate the most serious environmental pollution. (3) The distribution of environmental pollution loads resulting from food delivery service packages positively correlates with the distribution of food delivery service providers in Jing-Jin-Ji. Shijiazhuang has the highest degree of pollution resulting from food delivery service packages with the interrupt value ratio of 80%, followed by Baoding City and Chengde City, which have the interrupt value ratios of 65.1% and 48.6%, respectively. Finally, as bridges between food delivery service providers and consumers, food delivery service platforms should improve their environmental protection mechanisms. Meanwhile, the government should define a standard concerning food delivery service packages to consolidate the concept of environmental protection in the society to change the ways people consume, in order to achieve a harmonious co-existence between resource utilization and environmental protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gengyuan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center for Watershed Environmental Restoration & Integrated Ecological Regulation, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Feni Agostinho
- Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia de Produção, Laboratório de Produção e Meio Ambiente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Huabo Duan
- School of Civil Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China
| | - Guanghan Song
- School of Civil Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060 Shenzhen, China
| | - Xueqi Wang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Biagio F Giannetti
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Universidade Paulista (UNIP), Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia de Produção, Laboratório de Produção e Meio Ambiente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Remo Santagata
- University of Naples 'Parthenope', Department of Science and Technologies, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Naples, Italy
| | - Marco Casazza
- University of Naples 'Parthenope', Department of Engineering, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Naples, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Lega
- University of Naples 'Parthenope', Department of Engineering, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Naples, Italy
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28
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Roosen M, Mys N, Kusenberg M, Billen P, Dumoulin A, Dewulf J, Van Geem KM, Ragaert K, De Meester S. Detailed Analysis of the Composition of Selected Plastic Packaging Waste Products and Its Implications for Mechanical and Thermochemical Recycling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:13282-13293. [PMID: 32985869 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Plastic packaging typically consists of a mixture of polymers and contains a whole range of components, such as paper, organic residue, halogens, and metals, which pose problems during recycling. Nevertheless, until today, limited detailed data are available on the full polymer composition of plastic packaging waste taking into account the separable packaging parts present in a certain waste stream, nor on their quantitative levels of (elemental) impurities. This paper therefore presents an unprecedented in-depth analysis of the polymer and elemental composition, including C, H, N, S, O, metals, and halogens, of commonly generated plastic packaging waste streams in European sorting facilities. Various analytical techniques are applied, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized optical microscopy, ion chromatography, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), on more than 100 different plastic packaging products, which are all separated into their different packaging subcomponents (e.g., a bottle into the bottle itself, the cap, and the label). Our results show that certain waste streams consist of mixtures of up to nine different polymers and contain various elements of the periodic table, in particular metals such as Ca, Al, Na, Zn, and Fe and halogens like Cl and F, occurring in concentrations between 1 and 3000 ppm. As discussed in the paper, both polymer and elemental impurities impede in many cases closed-loop recycling and require advanced pretreatment steps, increasing the overall recycling cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Roosen
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Mys
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Marvin Kusenberg
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Pieter Billen
- Intelligence in Processes, Advanced Catalysts & Solvents (iPRACS), Faculty of Applied Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ann Dumoulin
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Sustainable Systems Engineering (STEN), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kevin M Van Geem
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 125, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Kim Ragaert
- Center for Polymer and Material Technologies (CPMT), Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 130, Zwijnaarde, B-9052, Belgium
| | - Steven De Meester
- Laboratory for Circular Process Engineering (LCPE), Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 5, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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